Chapter XXVII: Part III: Zoological Geography (7)

_Birds._--The families and genera of birds which give a character to Oriental lands, are so numerous and varied, that we can here only notice the more prominent and more remarkable. The Timaliidæ, represented by the babblers (_Garrulax_, _Pomatorhinus_, _Timalia_, &c.), are almost everywhere to be met with, and no less than 21 genera are peculiar to the region; the elegant fork-tailed _Enicurus_ and rich blue _Myiophonus_, though comparatively scarce, are characteristic of the Malayan and Indo-Chinese faunas; the elegant little "hill-tits" (Liotrichidæ) abound in the same part of the region; the green bulbuls (_Phyllornis_) are found everywhere; as are various forms of Pycnonotidæ, the black and crimson "minivets" (_Pericrocotus_), and the glossy "king-crows" (_Dicrurus_); _Urocissa_, _Platylophus_ and _Dendrocitta_ are some of the interesting and characteristic forms of the crow family; sun-birds (Nectariniidæ) of at least three genera are found throughout the region, as are the beautiful little flower-peckers (Dicæidæ), and some peculiar forms of weaver-birds (_Ploceus_ and _Munia_). Of the starling family, the most conspicuous are the glossy mynahs (_Eulabes_). The swallow-shrikes (_Artamus_) are very peculiar, as are the exquisitely coloured pittas (Pittidæ), and the gaudy broad-bills (Eurylæmidæ). Leaving the true Passeres, we find woodpeckers, barbets, and cuckoos everywhere, often of peculiar and {317}remarkable forms; among the bee-eaters we have the exquisite _Nyctiornis_ with its pendent neck-plumes of blue or scarlet; brilliant kingfishers and strangely formed hornbills abound everywhere; while brown-backed trogons with red and orange breasts, though far less frequent, are equally a feature of the Ornithology. Next we have the frog-mouthed goatsuckers (_Battrachostomus_), and the whiskered swifts (_Dendrochelidon_), both wide-spread, remarkable, and characteristic groups of the Oriental region. Coming to the parrot tribe, we have only the long-tailed _Palæornis_ and the exquisite little _Loriculus_, as characteristic genera. We now come to the pigeons, among which the fruit-eating genera _Treron_ and _Carpophaga_ are the most conspicuous. The gallinaceous birds offer us some grand forms, such as the peacocks (_Pavo_); the argus pheasants (_Argusianus_); the fire-backed pheasants (_Euplocamus_); and the jungle-fowl (_Gallus_), all strikingly characteristic; and with these we may close our sketch, since the birds of prey and the two Orders comprising the waders and swimmers offer nothing sufficiently remarkable to be worthy of enumeration here.

_Reptiles._--Only the more abundant and characteristic groups will here be noticed. In the serpent tribe, the Oligodontidæ, a small family of ground-snakes; the Homalopsidæ, or fresh-water snakes; the Dendrophidæ, or tree-snakes; the Dryiophidæ, or whip-snakes; the Dipsadidæ, or nocturnal tree-snakes; the Lycodontidæ or fanged ground-snakes; the Pythonidæ, or rock-snakes; the Elapidæ, or venomous colubrine snakes (including the "cobras"); and the Crotalidæ, or pit-vipers, are all abundant and characteristic, ranging over nearly the whole region, and presenting a great variety of genera and species. Among lizards, the Varanidæ or water-lizards; the Scincidæ or "scinks;" the Geckotidæ, or geckoes; and the Agamidæ, or eastern iguanas; are the most universal and characteristic groups. Among crocodiles the genus _Crocodilus_ is widely spread, _Gavialis_ being characteristic of the Ganges. Among Chelonia, or shielded reptiles, forms of fresh-water Testudinidæ and Trionychidæ (soft tortoises) are tolerably abundant.

_Amphibia._--The only abundant and characteristic groups of {318}this class are toads of the family Engystomidæ; tree-frogs of the family Polypedatidæ; and several genera of true frogs, Ranidæ.

_Fresh-water Fishes._--The more remarkable and characteristic fishes inhabiting the fresh waters of the Oriental region belong to the following families: Nandidæ, Labyrinthici, Ophiocephalidæ, Siluridæ, and Cyprinidæ; the last being specially abundant.

The sketch here very briefly given, must be supplemented by an examination of the tables of distribution of the genera of all the Mammalia and Birds inhabiting the region. We will now briefly summarize the results.

_Summary of the Oriental Vertebrata._--The Oriental region possesses examples of 163 families of Vertebrata of which 12 are peculiar, a proportion of a little more than one-fourteenth of the whole.

Out of 118 genera of Mammalia 54 seem to be peculiar to the region, equal to a proportion of 9/20 or a little less than half. Of Land-Birds there are 342 genera of which 165 are peculiar, bringing the proportion very close to a half.

In the Ethiopian region the proportion of peculiar forms both of Mammalia and Birds is greater; a fact which is not surprising when we consider the long continued isolation of the latter region--an isolation which is even now very complete, owing to the vast extent of deserts intervening between it and the Palæarctic region; while the Oriental and Palæarctic were, during much of the Tertiary epoch, hardly separable.

_Insects._

_Lepidoptera._--We can only glance hastily at the more prominent features of the wonderfully rich and varied butterfly-fauna of the Oriental region. In the first family Danaidæ, the genera _Danais_ and _Euploea_ are everywhere abundant, and the latter especially forms a conspicuous feature in the entomological aspect of the country; the large "spectre-butterflies" (_Hestia_) are equally characteristic of the Malayan sub-region. Satyridæ, though abundant are not very remarkable, _Debis_, _Melanitis_, _Mycalesis_, and _Ypthima_ being the most characteristic {319}genera. Morphidæ are well represented by the genera _Amathusia_, _Zeuxidia_, _Discophora_, and _Thaumantis_, some of the species of which almost equal the grand South American Morphos. The Nymphalidæ furnish us with a host of characteristic genera, among the most remarkable of which are, _Terinos_, _Adolias_, _Cethosia_, _Cyrestis_, _Limenitis_, and _Nymphalis_, all abounding in beautiful species. Among the Lycænidæ are a number of fine groups, among which we may mention _Ilerda_, _Myrina_, _Deudoryx_, _Aphneus_, _Iolaus_, and _Amblypodia_, as characteristic examples. The Pieridæ furnish many fine forms, such as _Thyca_, _Iphias_, _Thestias_, _Eronia_, _Prioneris_, and _Dercas_, the last two being peculiar. The Papilionidæ are unsurpassed in the world, presenting such grand genera as _Teinopalpus_ and _Bhutanitis_; the yellow-marked _Ornithopteræ_; the superb "Brookiana;" the elegant _Leptocercus_; and _Papilios_ of the "Coon," "Philoxenus," "Memnon," "Protenor," and especially the 'green-and-gold-dusted' "Paris" groups.

The Moths call for no special observations, except to notice the existence in Northern India of a number of forms which resemble in a striking manner some of the most remarkable of the above mentioned groups of the genus _Papilio_, especially the "Protenor" group, which there is reason to believe protected by a peculiar smell or taste like the _Heliconias_ and Danaidæ.

_Coleoptera._--The most characteristic Oriental form of the Cicindelidæ or tiger beetles, is undoubtedly the elegant genus _Collyris_, which is found over the whole region and is almost confined to it. Less abundant, but equally characteristic, is the wingless ant-like _Tricondyla_. Two small genera _Apteroessa_ and _Dromicidia_ are confined to the Indian Peninsula, while _Therates_ only occurs in the Malayan sub-region.

The Carabidæ, or ground carnivorous beetles, are so numerous that we can only notice a few of the more remarkable and characteristic forms. The wonderful _Mormolyce_ of the Indo-Malay sub-region, stands pre-eminent for singularity in the entire family. _Thyreopterus_, _Orthogonius_, _Catascopus_, and _Pericallus_ are very characteristic forms, as well as _Planetes_ and {320}_Distrigus_, the latter having a single species in Madagascar. There are 80 genera of this family peculiar to the region, 10 of which have only been found in Ceylon.

Among the Lucanidæ, or stag-beetles, _Lucanus_, _Odontolabris_, and _Cladognathus_ are the most characteristic forms. Sixteen genera inhabit the region, of which 7 are altogether peculiar, while three others only extend eastward to the Austro-Malayan sub-region.

The beautiful Cetoniidæ, or rose-chafers, are well represented by _Rhomborhina_, _Heterorhina_, _Clinteria_, _Macronota_, _Agestrata_, _Chalcothea_ and many fine species of _Cetonia_. There are 17 peculiar genera, of which _Mycteristes_, _Phædimus_, _Plectrone_, and _Rhagopteryx_, are Malayan; while _Narycius_, _Clerota_, _Bombodes_, and _Chiloloba_ are Indian.

In Buprestidæ--those elongate metallic-coloured beetles whose elytra are used as ornaments in many parts of the world--this region stands pre-eminent, in its gigantic _Catoxantha_, its fine _Chrysochroa_, its Indian _Sternocera_, its Malayan _Chalcophora_ and _Belionota_, as well as many other beautiful forms. It possesses 41 genera, of which 14 are peculiar to it, the rest being generally of wide range or common to the Ethiopian and Australian regions.

In the extensive and elegant group of Longicorns, the Oriental region is only inferior to the Neotropical. It possesses 360 genera, 25 of which are Prionidæ, 117 Cerambicidæ, and 218 Lamiidæ;--about 70 per cent. of the whole being peculiar. The most characteristic genera are _Rhaphidopodus_ and _Ægosoma_ among Prionidæ; _Neocerambyx_, _Euryarthrum_, _Pachyteria_, _Acrocyrta_, _Tetraommatus_, _Chloridolum_, and _Polyzonus_ among Cerambycidæ; and _Coelosterna_, _Rhytidophora_, _Batocera_, _Agelasta_, and _Astathes_ among Lamiidæ.

Of remarkable forms in other families, we may mention the gigantic horned _Chalcosoma_ among Scarabæidæ; the metallic _Campsosternus_ among Elateridæ; the handsome but anomalous _Trictenotoma_ forming a distinct family; the gorgeous _Pachyrhynchi_ of the Philippine Islands among Curculionidæ; _Diurus_ {321}among Brenthidæ; with an immense number and variety of Anthotribidæ, Heteromera, Malacoderma, and Phytophaga.

THE ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS.

The four sub-regions into which we have divided the Oriental region, are very unequal in extent, and perhaps more so in productiveness, but they each have well-marked special features, and serve well to exhibit the main zoological characteristics of the region. As they are all tolerably well defined and their faunas comparatively well-known, their characteristics will be given with rather more than usual detail.

_I. Hindostan, or Indian Sub-region._

This includes the whole peninsula of India from the foot of the Himalayas on the north to somewhere near Seringapatam on the south, the boundary of the Ceylonese sub-region being unsettled. The deltas of the Ganges and Brahmaputra mark its eastern limits, and it probably reaches to about Cashmere in the north-west, and perhaps to the valley of the Indus further south; but the great desert tract to the east of the Indus forms a transition to the south Palæarctic sub-region. Perhaps on the whole the Indus may be taken as a convenient boundary. Many Indian naturalists, especially Mr. Blyth and Mr. Blanford, are impressed with the relations of the greater part of this sub-region to the Ethiopian region, and have proposed to divide it into several zoological districts dependent on differences of climate and vegetation, and characterized by possessing faunas more or less allied either to the Himalayan or the Ethiopian type. But these subdivisions appear far too complex to be useful to the general student, and even were they proved to be natural, would be beyond the scope of this work. I agree, however, with Mr. Elwes in thinking that they really belong to local rather than to geographical distribution, and confound "station" with "habitat." Wherever there is a marked diversity of surface and vegetation the productions of a country will correspondingly differ; the groups peculiar to forests, for example, will be absent from open {322}plains or arid deserts. It happens that the three great Old World regions are separated from each other by a debatable land which is chiefly of a desert character; hence we must expect to find a resemblance between the inhabitants of such districts in each region. We also find a great resemblance between the aquatic birds of the three regions; and as we generally give little weight to these in our estimate of the degree of affinity of the faunas of different countries, so we should not count the desert fauna as of equal weight with the more restricted and peculiar types which are found in the fertile tracts,--in the mountains and valleys, and especially in the primeval forests. The supposed preponderance of exclusively Ethiopian groups of Mammalia and Birds in this, sub-region, deserves however a close examination, in order to ascertain how far the facts really warrant such an opinion.

_Mammalia._--The following list of the more important genera of Mammalia which range over the larger part of this sub-region will enable naturalists to form an independent judgment as to the preponderance of Ethiopian, or of Oriental and Palæarctic types, in this, the most important of all the classes of animals for geographical distribution.

RANGE OF THE GENERA OF MAMMALIA WHICH INHABIT THE SUB-REGION OF HINDOSTAN.

1. Presbytes Oriental only.
2. Macacus Oriental only.
3. Erinaceus Palæarctic genus.
4. Sorex Widely distributed.
5. Felis Almost Cosmopolitan.
6. Cynælurus Ethiopian and S. Palæarctic.
7. Viverra Ethiopian and Oriental to China and Malaya.
8. Viverricula Oriental only.
9. Paradoxurus Oriental only.
10. Herpestes Ethiopian, S. Palæarctic, and Oriental to Malaya.
11. Calogale Ethiopian, Oriental to Cambodja.
12. Tæniogale Oriental.
13. Hyæna Palæarctic and Ethiopian (a Palæarctic species.)
14. Canis Palæarctic and Oriental to Malaya.
15. Cuon Oriental to Malaya.
16. Vulpes Very wide range.
17. Lutra Oriental and Palæarctic.
18. Mellivora Ethiopian.
19. Melursus Oriental only; family not Ethiopian.
20. Sus Palæarctic and Oriental, not Ethiopian.
21. Tragulus Oriental. {323}
22. Cervus Oriental and Palæarctic; family not Ethiopian.
23. Cervulus Oriental; family not Ethiopian.
24. Bibos Palæarctic and Oriental.
25. Portax Oriental.
26. Gazella Palæarctic and Ethiopian.
27. Antilope Oriental.
28. Tetraceros Oriental.
29. Elephas Oriental species.
30. Mus Cosmopolite nearly.
31. Platacanthomys Oriental.
32. Meriones Very wide range.
33. Spalacomys Oriental.
34. Sciurus Almost Cosmopolite.
35. Pteromys Palæarctic and Oriental to China and Malaya,
36. Hystrix Wide range.
37. Lepus Wide range.
38. Manis Ethiopian and Oriental to Malaya,

Out of the above 38 genera, 8 have so wide a distribution as to give no special geographical indications. Of the remaining 30, whose geographical position we have noted, 14 are Oriental only; 5 have as much right to be considered Oriental as Ethiopian, extending as they do over the greater part of the Oriental region; 2 (the hyæna and gazelle) show Palæarctic rather than Ethiopian affinity; 7 are Palæarctic and Oriental but not Ethiopian; and only 2 (_Cynælurus_ and _Mellivora_) can be considered as especially Ethiopian. We must also give due weight to the fact that we have here Ursidæ and Cervidæ, two families entirely absent from the Ethiopian region, and we shall then be forced to conclude that the affinities of the Indian peninsula are not only clearly Oriental, but that the Ethiopian element is really present in a far less degree than the Palæarctic.

_Birds._--The naturalists who have adopted the "Ethiopian theory" of the fauna of Hindostan, have always supported their views by an appeal to the class of birds; maintaining, that not only are almost all the characteristic Himalayan and Malayan genera absent, but that their place is to a great extent supplied by others which are characteristic of the Ethiopian region. After a careful examination of the subject, Mr. Elwes, in a paper read before the Zoological Society (June 1873) came to the conclusion, that this view was an erroneous one, founded on the fact that the birds of the plains are the more abundant and more {324}open to observation; and that these are often of wide-spread types, and some few almost exclusively African. The facts he adduced do not, however, seem to have satisfied the objectors; and as the subject is an important one, I will here give lists of all the genera of Passeres, Picariæ, Psittaci, Columbæ, and Gallinæ, which inhabit the sub-region, leaving out those which only just enter within its boundaries from adjacent sub-regions. These are arranged under four heads:--1. Oriental genera; which are either wholly confined to, or strikingly prevalent in, the Oriental region beyond the limits of the Indian peninsula. 2. Genera of Wide Range; which are fully as much entitled to be considered Oriental or Palæarctic as Ethiopian, and cannot be held to prove any Ethiopian affinity. 3. Palæarctic genera; which are altogether or almost absent from the Ethiopian region. 4. Ethiopian genera; which are confined to, or very prevalent in, the Ethiopian region, whence they extend into the Indian peninsula but not over the whole Oriental region. The last are the only ones which can be fairly balanced against those of the first list, in order to determine the character of the fauna.

1. ORIENTAL GENERA IN CENTRAL INDIA.

_Geocichla_, _Orthotomus_, _Prinia_, _Megalurus_, _Abrornis_, _Larvivora_, _Copsychus_, _Kittacincla_, _Pomatorhinus_, _Malacocercus_, _Chatarrhæa_, _Layardia_, _Garrulax_, _Trochalopteron_, _Pellorneum_, _Dumetia_, _Pyctoris_, _Alcippe_, _Myiophonus_, _Sitta_, _Dendrophila_, _Phyllornis_, _Iora_, _Hypsipetes_, _Pericrocotus_, _Graucalus_, _Volvocivora_, _Chibia_, _Chaptia_, _Irena_, _Erythrosterna_, _Hemipus_, _Hemichelidon_, _Niltava_, _Cyornis_, _Eumyias_, _Hypothymis_, _Myialestes_, _Tephrodornis_, _Dendrocitta_, _Arachnechthra_, _Nectarophila_, _Arachnothera_, _Dicæum_, _Piprisoma_, _Munia_, _Eulabes_, _Pastor_, _Acridotheres_, _Sturnia_, _Sturnopastor_, _Artamus_, _Nemoricola_, _Pitta_, _Yungipicus_, _Chrysocolaptes_, _Hemicircus_, _Gecinus_, _Mulleripicus_, _Brachypternus_, _Tiga_, _Micropternus_, _Megalæma_, _Xantholæma_, _Rhopodytes_, _Taccocoua_, _Surniculus_, _Hierococcyx_, _Eudynamnis_, _Nyctiornis_, _Harpactes_, _Pelargopsis_, _Ceyx_, _Hydrocissa_, _Meniceros_, _Batrachostomus_, _Dendrochelidon_, _Collocalia_, _Palæornis_, _Treron_, _Carpophaga_, _Chalcophaps_, _Ortygornis_, _Perdix_, _Pavo_, _Gallus_, _Galloperdix_;--87 genera; and {325}one peculiar genus, _Salpornis_, whose affinities are Palæarctic or Oriental.

2. GENERA OF WIDE RANGE OCCURRING IN CENTRAL INDIA.

_Tardus_, _Monticola_, _Drymoeca_, _Cisticola_, _Acrocephalus_, _Phylloscopus_, _Pratincola_, _Parus_, _Pycnonotus_, _Criniger_, _Oriolus_, _Dicrurus_, _Tchitrea_, _Lanius_, _Corvus_, _Zosterops_, _Hirundo_, _Cotyle_, _Passer_, _Ploceus_, _Estrilda_, _Alauda_, _Calandrella_, _Mirafra_, _Ammomanes_, _Motacilla_, _Anthus_, _Picus_, _Yunx_, _Centropus_, _Cuculus_, _Chrysoccocyx_, _Coccystes_, _Coracias_, _Eurystomus_, _Merops_, _Alcedo_, _Ceryle_, _Halcyon_, _Upupa_, _Caprimulgus_, _Cypselus_, _Chætura_, _Columba_, _Turtur_, _Pterocles_, _Coturnix_, _Turnix_;--48 genera.

3. PALÆARCTIC GENERA OCCURRING IN CENTRAL INDIA.

_Hypolais_, _Sylvia_, _Curruca_, _Cyanecula_, _Calliope_, _Chelidon_, _Euspiza_, _Emberiza_, _Galerita_, _Calobates_, _Corydalla_;--11 genera.

4. ETHIOPIAN GENERA OCCURRING IN CENTRAL INDIA.

_Thamnobia_, _Pyrrhulauda_, _Pterocles_, _Francolinus_;--4 genera.

A consideration of the above lists shows us, that the Hindostan sub-region is by no means so poor in forms of bird-life as is generally supposed (and as I had myself anticipated, it would prove to be), possessing, as it does, 151 genera of land-birds, without counting the Accipitres. It must also set at rest the question of the zoological affinities of the district, since a preponderance of 88 genera, against 4, cannot be held to be insufficient, and cannot be materially altered by any corrections in details that may be proposed or substantiated. Even of these four, only the first two are exclusively Ethiopian, _Pterocles_ and _Francolinus_ both being Palæarctic also. It is a question, indeed, whether anywhere in the world an outlying sub-region can be found, exhibiting less zoological affinity for the adjacent regions; and we have here a striking illustration of the necessity of deciding all such cases, not by _examples_, which may be so chosen as to support any view, but by carefully weighing and contrasting the whole of the facts on which the solution of the {326}problem admittedly depends. It will, perhaps, be said that a great many of the 88 genera above given are very scarce and very local; but this is certainly not the case with the majority of them; and even where it is so, that does not in any degree affect their value as indicating zoo-geographical affinities. It is the _presence_ of a type in a region, not its abundance or scarcity, that is the important fact; and when we have to do, as we have here, with many groups whose habits and mode of life necessarily seclude them from observation, their supposed scarcity may not even be a fact.

_Reptiles and Amphibia._--Reptiles entirely agree with Mammalia and Birds in the main features of their distribution. Out of 17 families of snakes inhabiting Hindostan, 16 range over the greater part of the entire region, and only two can be supposed to show any Ethiopian affinity. These are the Psammophidæ and Erycidæ, both desert-haunting groups, and almost as much South Palæarctic as African. The genus _Tropidococcyx_ is peculiar to the sub-region, and _Aspidura_, _Passerita_ and _Cynophis_ to the peninsula and Ceylon; while a large number of the most characteristic genera, as _Dipsas_, _Simotes_, _Bungarus_, _Naja_, _Trimeresurus_, _Lycodon_ and _Python_, are characteristically Oriental.

Of the six families of lizards all have a wide range. The genera _Eumeces_, _Pentadactylus_, _Gecko_, _Eublepharis_, and _Draco_, are characteristically or wholly Oriental; _Ophiops_ and _Uromastix_ are Palæarctic; while _Chamæleon_ is the solitary case of decided Ethiopian affinity.

Of the Amphibia not a single family exhibits special Ethiopian affinities.

_II. Sub-region of Ceylon and South-India._

The Island of Ceylon is characterised by such striking peculiarities in its animal productions, as to render necessary its separation from the peninsula of India as a sub-region; but it is found that most of these special features extend to the Neilgherries and the whole southern mountainous portion of India, and that the two must be united in any zoo-geographical {327}province. The main features of this division are,--the appearance of numerous animals allied to forms only found again in the Himalayas or in the Malayan sub-region, the possession of several peculiar generic types, and an unusual number of peculiar species.

_Mammalia._--Among Mammalia the most remarkable form is _Loris_, a genus of Lemurs altogether peculiar to the sub-region; several peculiar monkeys of the genus _Presbytes_; the Malayan genus _Tupaia_; and _Platacanthomys_, a peculiar genus of Muridæ.

_Birds._--Among birds it has _Ochromela_, a peculiar genus of flycatchers; _Phoenicophaës_ (Cuculidæ) and _Drymocataphus_ (Timaliidæ), both Malayan forms; a species of _Myiophonus_ whose nearest ally is in Java; _Trochalopteron_, _Brachypteryx_, _Buceros_ and _Loriculus_, which are only found elsewhere in the Himalayas and Malayana. It also possesses about 80 peculiar species of birds, including a large jungle fowl, one owl and two hornbills.

_Reptiles._--It is however by its Reptiles, even more than by its higher vertebrates, that this sub-region is clearly characterised. Among snakes it possesses an entire family, Uropeltidæ, consisting of 5 genera and 18 species altogether confined to it,--_Rhinophis_ and _Uropeltis_ in Ceylon, _Silybura_, _Plecturus_ and _Melanophidium_ in Southern India. Four other genera of snakes, _Haplocercus_, _Cercaspis_, _Peltopelor_, and _Hypnale_ are also peculiar; _Chersydrus_ is only found elsewhere in Malaya; while _Aspidura_, _Passerita_, and _Cynophis_, only extend to Hindostan; and species of _Eryx_, _Echis_, and _Psammophis_ show an affinity with Ethiopian and Palæarctic forms. Among lizards several genera of _Agamidæ_ are peculiar, such as _Otocryptis_, _Lyricoephalus_, _Ceratophora_, _Cophotis_, _Salea_, _Sitana_ and _Charasia_. In the family Acontiadæ, _Nessia_ is peculiar to Ceylon, while a species of the African genus _Acontias_ shows an affinity for the Ethiopian region.

_Amphibia._--The genera of Amphibians that occur here are generally of wide range, but _Nannophrys_, _Haplobatrachus_, and _Cacopus_ are confined to the sub-region; while _Megalophrys_ is Malayan, and the species found in Ceylon also inhabit Java.

{328}_Insects._--The insects of Ceylon also furnish some curious examples of its distinctness from Hindostan, and its affinity with Malaya. Among its butterflies we find _Papilio jophon_, closely allied to _P. antiphus_ of Malaya. The remarkable genus _Hestia_, so characteristic of the Malay archipelago, only occurs elsewhere on the mountains of Ceylon; while its _Cynthia_ and _Parthenos_ are closely allied to, if not identical with, Malayan species. Among Coleoptera we have yet more striking examples. The highly characteristic Malayan genus _Tricondyla_ is represented in Ceylon by no less than 10 species; and among Longicorns we find the genera _Tetraommatus_, _Thranius_, _Cacia_, _Praonetha_, _Ropica_, and _Serixia_, all exclusively Malayan or only just entering the Indo-Chinese peninsula, yet all represented in Ceylon, while not a single species occurs in any part of India or the Himalayas.

_The Past History of Ceylon and South-India as indicated by its Fauna._--In our account of the Ethiopian region we have already had occasion to refer to an ancient connection between this sub-region and Madagascar, in order to explain the distribution of the Lemurine type, and some other curious affinities between the two countries. This view is supported by the geology of India, which shows us Ceylon and South India consisting mainly of granitic and old metamorphic rocks, while the greater part of the peninsula, forming our first sub-region, is of tertiary formation, with a few isolated patches of secondary rocks. It is evident therefore, that during much of the tertiary period, Ceylon and South India were bounded on the north by a considerable extent of sea, and probably formed part of an extensive southern continent or great island. The very numerous and remarkable cases of affinity with Malaya, require however some closer approximation to these islands, which probably occurred at a later period. When, still later, the great plains and table-lands of Hindostan were formed, and a permanent land communication effected with the rich and highly developed Himalo-Chinese fauna, a rapid immigration of new types took place, and many of the less specialised forms of mammalia and birds (particularly those of ancient Ethiopian type) became extinct. Among reptiles and insects the competition was less severe, or the older forms were too well {329}adapted to local conditions to be expelled; so that it is among these groups alone that we find any considerable number, of what are probably the remains of the ancient fauna of a now submerged southern continent.

_III. Himalayan or Indo-Chinese Sub-region._

This, which is probably the richest of all the sub-regions, and perhaps one of the richest of all tracts of equal extent on the face of the globe, is essentially a forest-covered, mountainous country, mostly within the tropics, but on its northern margin extending some degrees beyond it, and rising in a continuous mountain range till it meets and intercalates with the Manchurian sub-division of the Palæarctic region. The peculiar mammalia, birds and insects of this sub-region begin to appear at the very foot of the Himalayas, but Dr. Gunther has shown that many of the reptiles characteristic of the plains of India are found to a height of from 2,000 to 4,000 feet.

In Sikhim, which may be taken as a typical example of the Himalayan portion of the sub-region, it seems to extend to an altitude of little less than 10,000 feet, that being the limit of the characteristic Timaliidæ or babbling thrushes; while the equally characteristic Pycnonotidæ, or bulbuls, and Treronidæ, or thick-billed fruit-pigeons, do not, according to Mr. Blanford, reach quite so high. We may perhaps take 9,000 feet as a good approximation over a large part of the Himalayan range; but it is evidently not possible to define the line with any great precision. Westward, the sub-region extends in diminishing breadth, till it terminates in or near Cashmere, where the fauna of the plains of India almost meets that of the Palæarctic region, at a moderate elevation. Eastward, it reaches into East Thibet and North-west China, where Père David has found a large number of the peculiar types of the Eastern Himalayas. A fauna, in general features identical, extends over Burmah and Siam to South China; mingling with the Palæarctic fauna in the mountains south of the Yang-tse-kiang river, and with that of Indo-Malaya in Tenasserim, and to a lesser extent in Southern Siam and Cochin China.

{330}_Zoological Characteristics of the Himalayan Sub-region._--Taking this sub-region as a whole, we find it to be characterised by 3 genera of mammalia (without counting bats), and 44 genera of land-birds, which are altogether peculiar to it; and by 13 genera of mammalia and 36 of birds, which it possesses in common with the Malayan sub-region; and besides these it has almost all the genera before enumerated as "Oriental," and several others of wide range, more especially a number of Palæarctic genera which appear in the higher Himalayas. The names of the more characteristic genera are as follows:--

PECULIAR HIMALO-CHINESE GENERA.

Mammalia.--_Urva_, _Arctonyx_, _Ælurus_.

Birds.--_Suya_, _Horites_, _Chæmarrhornis_, _Tarsiger_, _Oreicola_, _Acanthoptila_, _Grammatoptila_, _Trochalopteron_, _Actinodura_, _Sibia_, _Suthora_, _Paradoxornis_, _Chlenasicus_, _Tesia_, _Rimator_, _Ægithaliscus_, _Cephalopyrus_, _Liothrix_, _Siva_, _Minla_, _Proparus_, _Cutia_, _Yuhina_, _Ixulus_, _Myzornis_, _Erpornis_, _Hemixus_, _Chibia_, _Niltava_, _Anthipes_, _Chelidorhynx_, _Urocissa_, _Pachyglossa_, _Heterura_, _Hæmatospiza_, _Ampeliceps_, _Saroglossa_, _Psarisomus_, _Serilophus_, _Vivia_, _Hyopicus_, _Gecinulus_, _Aceros_, _Ceriornis_.

GENERA COMMON TO THE HIMALO-CHINESE AND MALAYAN SUB-REGIONS.

Mammalia.--_Hylobates_, _Nycticebus_, _Viverricula_, _Prionodon_, _Arctitis_, _Paguma_, _Arctogale_, _Cuon_, _Gymnopus_, _Aonyx_, _Helictis_, _Rhinoceros_, _Nemorhedus_, _Rhizomys_.

Birds.--_Oreocincla_, _Notodela_, _Janthocincla_, _Timalia_, _Stachyris_, _Mixornis_, _Trichastoma_, _Enicurus_, _Pnoepyga_, _Melanochlora_, _Allotrius_, _Microscelis_, _Iole_, _Analcipus_, _Cochoa_, _Bhringa_, _Xanthopygia_, _Hylocharis_, _Cissa_, _Temnurus_, _Crypsirhina_, _Chalcostetha_, _Anthreptes_, _Chalcoparia_, _Cymbirhynchus_, _Hydrornis_, _Sasia_, _Venilia_, _Indicator_, _Carcineutes_, _Lyncornis_, _Macropygia_, _Argusianus_, _Polyplectron_, _Euplocamus_, _Phodilus_.

Plate VII.

SCENE IN NEPAUL, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS.

{331}_Plate VII. Scene in Nepal, with Characteristic Himalayan Animals._--Our illustration contains figures of two mammals and two birds, characteristic of the higher woody region of the Himalayas. The lower figure on the left is the _Helictis nepalensis_, confined to the Eastern Himalayas, and belonging to a genus of the weasel family which is exclusively Oriental. It is marked with white on a grey-brown ground. Above it is the remarkable Panda (_Ælurus fulgens_), a beautiful animal with a glossy fur of a reddish colour, darker feet, and a white somewhat cat-like face. It is distantly allied to the bears, and more nearly to the American racoons, yet with sufficient differences to constitute it a distinct family. The large bird on the tree, is the horned Tragopan (_Ceriornis satyra_), one of the fine Himalayan pheasants, magnificently spotted with red and white, and ornamented with fleshy erectile wattles and horns, of vivid blue and red colours. The bird in the foreground is the _Ibidorhynchus struthersii_, a rare and curious wader, allied to the curlews and sandpipers but having the bill and feet red. It frequents the river-beds in the higher Himalayas, but has also been found in Thibet.

_Reptiles._--Very few genera of reptiles are peculiar to this sub-region, all the more important ranging into the Malay islands. Of snakes the following are the more characteristic genera:--_Typhline_, _Cylindrophis_, _Xenopeltis_, _Calamaria_, _Xenelaphis_, _Hypsirhina_, _Fordonia_, several small genera of Homalopsidæ (_Herpeton_ and _Hipistes_ being characteristic of Burmah and Siam), _Psammodynastes_, _Gonyosoma_, _Chrysopelea_, _Tragops_, _Dipsas_, _Pareas_, _Python_, _Bungarus_, _Naja_, _Callophis_, and _Trimeresurus_. _Naja_ reaches 8,000 feet elevation in the Himalayas, _Tropidonotus_ 9,000 feet, _Ablabes_ 10,000 feet, and _Simotes_ 15,000 feet.

Of lizards, _Pseudopus_ has one species in the Khasya hills while the other inhabits South-east Europe; and there are two small genera of Agamidæ peculiar to the Himalayas, while _Draco_ and _Calotes_ have a wide range and _Acanthosaura_, _Dilophyrus_, _Physignathus_, and _Liolepis_ are found chiefly in the Indo-Chinese peninsula. There are several genera of Scincidæ; and the extensive genus of wall-lizards, _Gecko_, ranges over the whole region.

Of Amphibia, the peculiar forms are not numerous. _Ichthyophis_ {332}a genus of Ceciliadæ, is peculiar to the Khasya Hills; _Tylotritron_ (Salamandridæ) to Yunan in Western China, and perhaps belongs to the Palæarctic region.

Of the tail-less Batrachians, _Glyphoglossus_ is found in Pegu; _Xenophys_ in the Eastern Himalayas; while _Callula_, _Ixalus_, _Rhacophorus_, _Hylurana_, _Oxyglossus_, and _Phrynoglossus_, are common to the Himalo-Chinese and Malayan sub-regions.

Of the lizards, _Colotes_, _Barycephalus_, and _Hinulia_,--and of the Batrachia, _Bufo_,--are found at above 11,000 feet elevation in the Himalayas.

_Insects._--So little has been done in working out the insect faunas of the separate sub-regions, that they cannot be treated in detail, and the reader is referred to the chapter on the distribution of insects in the part of this work devoted to Geographical Zoology. A few particulars may, however, be given as to the butterflies, which have been more systematically collected in tropical countries than any other order of insects. The Himalayan butterflies, especially in the eastern portions of the range--in Assam and the Khasya Hills--are remarkably fine and very abundant; yet all the larger groups extend into the Malayan sub-region, many to Ceylon, and a considerable proportion even to Africa and Austro-Malaya. There are a large number of peculiar types, but most of them consist of few or single species. Such are _Neope_, _Orenoma_, and _Rhaphicera_, genera of Satyridæ; _Enispe_ (Morphidæ); _Hestina_, _Penthema_, and _Abrota_ (Nymphalidæ); _Dodona_ (Erycinidæ); _Ilerda_ (Lycænidæ); _Calinaga_, _Teinopalpus_, and _Bhutanitis_ (Papilionidæ). Its more prominent features are, however, derived from what may be termed Malayan, or even Old World types, such as _Euplæa_, among Danaidæ; _Amathusia_, _Clerome_, and _Thaumantis_, among Morphidæ; _Euripus_, _Diadema_, _Athyma_, _Limenitis_, and _Adolias_, among Nymphalidæ; _Zemeros_ and _Taxila_ among Erycinidæ; _Amblypodia_, _Miletus_, _Ilerda_, and _Myrina_, among Lycænidæ; _Thyca_, _Prioneris_, _Dercas_, _Iphias_, and _Thestias_ among Pieridæ; and Papilios of the "_Amphrisius_," "_Coon_", "_Philoxenus_," "_Protenor_," "_Paris_," and "_Sarpedon_" groups. In the Himalayas there is an unusual abundance of large and gorgeous species of the genus _Papilio_, {333}and of large and showy Nymphalidæ, Morphidæ, and Danaidæ, which render it, in favoured localities, only second to South America for a display of this form of beauty and variety in insect life.

Among the other orders of insects in which the Himalayas are remarkably rich, we may mention large and brilliant Cetoniidæ, chiefly of the genus _Rhomborhima_; a magnificent Lamellicorn, _Euchirus macleayii_, allied to the gigantic long-armed beetle (_E. longimanus_) of Amboyna; superb moths of the families Agaristidæ and Sesiidæ; elegant and remarkable Fulgoridæ, and strange forms of the gigantic Phasmidæ; most of which appear to be of larger size or of more brilliant colours than their Malayan allies.

_Islands of the Indo-Chinese Sub-region._--A few important islands belong to this sub-region, the Andamans, Formosa, and Hainan being the most interesting.

_Andamans._--The only mammalia are a few rats and mice, a _Paradoxurus_, and a pig supposed to be a hybrid race,--all of which may have been introduced by man's agency. The birds of the Andaman Islands have been largely collected, no less than 155 species having been obtained; and of these 17, (all land-birds) are peculiar. The genera are all found on the continent, and are mostly characteristic of the Indo-Chinese fauna, to which most of the species belong. Reptiles are also tolerably abundant; about 20 species are known, the majority being found also on the continent, while a few are peculiar. There are also a few Batrachia, and some fresh-water fishes, closely resembling those of Burmah. The absence of such mammalia as monkeys and squirrels, which abound on the mainland, and which are easily carried over straits or narrow seas by floating trees, is sufficient proof that these islands have not recently formed part of the continent. The birds are mostly such as may have reached the islands while in their present geographical position; and the occurrence of reptiles and fresh-water fishes, said to be identical in species with those of Burmah, must be due to the facilities, which some of these animals undoubtedly {334}possess, for passing over a considerable width of sea. We must conclude, therefore, that these islands do not owe their existing fauna to an actual union with the mainland; but it is probable that they may have been formerly more extensive, and have then been less distant from the continent than at the present time.

The Nicobar Islands, usually associated with the Andamans, are less known, but present somewhat similar phenomena. They are, however, more Malayan in their fauna, and seem properly to belong to the Indo-Malay sub-region.

_Formosa._--This island has been carefully examined by Mr. Swinhoe, who found 144 species of birds, of which 34 are peculiar. There is one peculiar genus, but the rest are all Indo-Chinese, though some of the species are more allied to Malayan than to Chinese or Himalayan forms. About 30 species of mammalia were found in Formosa, of which 11 are peculiar species, the rest being either Chinese or Himalayan. The peculiar species belong to the genera _Talpa_, _Helictis_, _Sciuropterus_, _Pteromys_, _Mus_, _Sus_, _Cervus_, and _Capricornis_. A few lizards and snakes of continental species have also been found. These facts clearly indicate the former connection of Formosa with China and Malaya, a connection which is rendered the more probable by the shallow sea which still connects all these countries.

_Hainan._--The island of Hainan, on the south coast of China, is not so well known in proportion, though Mr. Swinhoe collected 172 species of birds, of which 130 were land-birds. Of these about 20 were peculiar species; the remainder being either Chinese, Himalayan, or Indo-Malayan. Mr. Swinhoe also obtained 24 species of mammalia, all being Chinese, Himalayan, or Indo-Malayan species except a hare, which is peculiar. This assemblage of animals would imply that Hainan, as might be anticipated from its position, has been more recently separated from the continent than the more distant island of Formosa.

_IV. Indo-Malaya, or the Malayan Sub-region._

This sub-region, which is almost wholly insular (including only the Malayan peninsula on the continent of Asia), is equal, if {335}not superior, in the variety and beauty of its productions, to that which we have just been considering. Like Indo-China, it is a region of forests, but it is more exclusively tropical; and it is therefore deficient in many of those curious forms of the temperate zone of the Himalayas, which seem to have been developed from Palæarctic rather than from Oriental types. Here alone, in the Oriental region, are found the most typical equatorial forms of life--organisms adapted to a climate characterised by uniform but not excessive heat, abundant moisture, and no marked departure from the average meteorological state, throughout the year. These favourable conditions of life only occur in three widely separated districts of the globe--the Malay archipelago, Western Africa, and equatorial South America. Hence perhaps it is, that the tapir and the trogons of Malacca should so closely resemble those of South America; and that the great anthropoid apes and crested hornbills of Western Africa, should find their nearest allies in Borneo and Sumatra.

Although the islands which go to form this sub-region are often separated from each other by a considerable expanse of sea, yet their productions in general offer no greater differences than those of portions of the Indo-Chinese sub-region separated by an equal extent of dry land. The explanation is easy, however, when we find that the sea which separates them is a very shallow one, so shallow that an elevation of only 300 feet would unite Sumatra, Java, and Borneo into one great South-eastern prolongation of the Asiatic continent. As we know that our own country has been elevated and depressed to a greater amount than this, at least twice in recent geological times, we can have no difficulty in admitting similar changes of level in the Malay archipelago, where the subterranean forces which bring about such changes are still at work, as manifested by the great chain of active volcanoes in Sumatra and Java. Proofs of somewhat earlier changes of level are to be seen in the Tertiary coal formations of Borneo, which demonstrate a succession of elevations and subsidences, with as much certainty as if we had historical record of them.

It is not necessary to suppose, nor is it probable, that all these {336}great islands were recently united to the continent, and that their separation took place by one general subsidence of the whole. It is more consonant with what we know of such matters, that the elevations and depressions were partial, varying in their points of action and often recurring; sometimes extending one part of an island, sometimes another; now joining an island to the main land, now bringing two islands into closer proximity. There is reason to believe that sometimes an intervening island has sunk or receded and allowed others which it before separated to effect a partial union independently of it. If we recognise the probability that such varied and often-renewed changes of level have occurred, we shall be better able to understand how certain anomalies of distribution in these islands may have been brought about. We will now endeavour to sketch the general features of the zoology of this interesting district, and then proceed to discuss some of the relations of the islands to each other.

_Mammalia._--We have seen that the Indo-Chinese sub-region possesses 13 species of mammalia in common with the Indo-Malay sub-region, and 4 others peculiar to itself, besides one Ethiopian and several Oriental and Palæarctic forms of wide range. Of this latter class the Malay islands have comparatively few, but they possess no less than 14 peculiar genera, viz. _Simia_, _Siamanga_, _Tarsius_, _Galeopithecus_, _Hylomys_, _Ptilocerus_, _Gymnura_, _Cynogale_, _Hemigalea_, _Arctogale_, _Barangia_, _Mydaus_, _Helarctos_, and _Tapirus_. The islands also possess tigers, deer, wild pigs, wild cattle, elephants, the scaly ant-eater, and most of the usual Oriental genera; so that they are on the whole fully as rich as, if not richer than, any part of Asia; a fact very unusual in island faunas, and very suggestive of their really continental nature.

Plate VIII.

A FOREST IN BORNEO, WITH CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA.

{337}_Plate VIII. Scene in Borneo with Characteristic Malayan Quadrupeds._--The Malayan fauna is so rich and peculiar that we devote two plates to illustrate it. We have here a group of mammalia, such as might be seen together in the vast forests of Borneo. In the foreground we have the beautiful deer-like Chevrotain (_Tragulus javanicus_). These are delicate little animals whose body is not larger than a rabbit's, thence often called "mouse-deer." They were formerly classed with the "musk-deer," owing to their similar tusk-like upper canines; but their anatomy shows them to form quite a distinct family, having more resemblance to the camels. On the branch above is the curious feather-tailed Tree-Shrew (_Ptilocerus lowii_), a small insectivorous animal altogether peculiar to Borneo. Above this is the strange little Tarsier (_Tarsius spectrum_), one of the lemurs confined to the Malay islands, but so distinct from all others as to constitute a separate family. The other small animals are the Flying Lemurs (_Galæopithecus volans_) formerly classed with the lemurs, but now considered to belong to the Insectivora. They have a very large expansion of the skin connecting the fore and hind limbs and tail, and are able to take long flights from one tree to another, and even to rise over obstacles in their course by the elevatory power of the tail-membrane. They feed chiefly on leaves, and have a very soft and beautifully marbled fur.

In the distance is the Malayan tapir (_Tapirus indicus_), a representative of a group of animals now confined to the larger Malay islands and tropical America, but which once ranged over the greater part of temperate Europe.

_Birds._--Owing to several of the families consisting of very obscure and closely allied species, which have never been critically examined and compared by a competent ornithologist, the number of birds inhabiting this sub-region is uncertain. From the best available materials there appear to be somewhat less than 650 species of land-birds actually known, or excluding the Philippine Islands somewhat less than 600. The larger part of these are peculiar species, but mostly allied to those of Indo-China; 36 of the genera, as already stated, being common to these two sub-regions. There are, however, no less than 46 genera which are peculiarly or wholly Indo Malayan and, in many cases, have no close affinity with other Oriental groups. These peculiar genera are as follows:--_Timalia_, _Malacopteron_, _Macronus_, _Napothera_, _Turdinus_, and _Trichixos_--genera {338}of Timaliidæ; _Eupetes_, a most remarkable form, perhaps allied to _Enicurus_, and _Cinclus_; _Rhabdornis_ (Certhiidæ) found only in the Philippines; _Psaltria_, a diminutive bird of doubtful affinities, provisionally classed among the tits (Paridæ); _Setornis_ (Pycnonotidæ); _Lalage_ (Campephagidæ) extending eastward to the Pacific Islands; _Pycnosphrys_, _Philentoma_ (Muscicapidæ); _Laniellus_, a beautiful bird doubtfully classed with the shrikes (Laniidæ); _Platylophus_ and _Pityriasis_, the latter a most anomalous form--perhaps a distinct family, at present classed with the jays, in Corvidæ; _Prionochilus_, a curious form classed with Dicæidæ; _Erythrura_ (Ploceidæ), extending eastwards to the Fiji Islands; _Gymnops_, _Calornis_, (Sturnidæ); _Eurylæmus_, _Corydon_, and _Calyptomena_ (Eurylæmidæ); _Eucichla_, the longest tailed and most elegantly marked of the Pittidæ; _Reinwardtipicus_ and _Miglyptes_ (Picidæ); _Psilopogon_ and _Calorhamphus_, (Megalæmidæ); _Rhinococcyx_, _Dasylophus_, _Lepidogrammus_, _Carpococcyx_, _Zanclostomus_, _Poliococcyx_, _Rhinortha_, (Cuculidæ); _Berenicornis_, _Caldo_, _Cranorhinus_, _Penelopides_, _Rhinoplax_, (Bucerotidæ); _Psittinus_, (Psittacidæ); _Ptilopus_, _Phapitreron_, (Columbidæ); _Rollulus_, (Treronidæ); _Machærhamphus_, (Falconidæ). Many of these genera are abundant and wide-spread, while some of the most characteristic Himalayan genera, such as _Larvivora_, _Garrulax_, _Hypsipetes_, _Pomatorhinus_, and _Dendrocitta_, are here represented by only a few species.

Among the groups that are characteristic of the Malayan sub-region, the Timaliidæ and Pycnonotidæ stand pre-eminent; the former represented chiefly by the genera _Timalia_, _Malacopteron_, _Macronus_, and _Trichastoma_, the latter by _Criniger_, _Microscelis_, and many forms of _Pycnonotus_. The Muscicapidæ, Dicruridæ, Campephagidæ, Ploceidæ, and Nectariniidæ are also well developed; as well as the Pittidæ, and the Eurylæmidæ, the limited number of species of the latter being compensated by a tolerable abundance of individuals. Among the Picariæ are many conspicuous groups; as, woodpeckers (Picidæ); barbets (Megalæmidæ); trogons (Trogonidæ); kingfishers (Alcedinidæ); and hornbills (Bucerotidæ); five families which are perhaps the most conspicuous in the whole fauna. Lastly come the pigeons {339}(Columbidæ), and the pheasants (Phasianidæ), which are fairly represented by such fine genera as _Treron_, _Ptilopus_, _Euplocamus_, and _Argusianus_. A few forms whose affinities are Australian rather than Oriental, help to give a character to the ornithology, though none of them are numerous. The swallow-shrikes (_Artamus_); the wag-tail fly-catchers (_Rhipidura_); the green fruit-doves (_Ptilopus_); and the mound-makers (_Megapodius_), are the chief of these.

There are a few curious examples of remote geographical alliances that may be noted. First, we have a direct African connection in _Machærhamphus_, a genus of hawks, and _Berenicornis_, a genus of hornbills; the only close allies being, in the former case in South, and in the latter in West Africa. Then we have a curious Neotropical affinity, indicated by _Carpococcyx_, a large Bornean ground-cuckoo, whose nearest ally is the genus _Neomorphus_ of South America; and by the lovely green-coloured _Calyptomena_ which seems unmistakably allied to the orange-coloured _Rupicola_, or "Cock of the rock," in general structure and in the remarkable form of crest, a resemblance which has been noticed by many writers.

In the preceding enumeration of Malayan genera several are included which extend into the Austro-Malay Islands, our object, at present, being to show the differences and relations of the two chief Oriental sub-regions.

_Plate IX. A Malayan Forest with some of its peculiar Birds._--Our second illustration of the Malayan fauna is devoted to its bird-life; and for this purpose we place our scene in the Malay peninsula, where birds are perhaps more abundant and more interesting, than in any other part of the sub-region. Conspicuous in the foreground is the huge Rhinoceros Hornbill (_Buceros rhinoceros_), one of the most characteristic birds of the Malayan forests, the flapping of whose wings, as it violently beats the air to support its heavy body, may be heard a mile off. On the ground behind, is the Argus pheasant (_Argusianus giganteus_) whose beautifully ocellated wings have been the subject of a most interesting description in Mr. Darwin's _Descent of Man_. The wing-feathers are here so enormously {340}developed for display (as shown in our figure) that they become almost, if not quite, useless for their original purpose of flight; yet the colours are so sober, harmonizing completely with the surrounding vegetation, and the bird is so wary, that in the forests where it abounds an old hunter assured me he had never been able to see a specimen till it was caught in his snares. It is interesting to note, that during the display of the plumage the bird's head is concealed by the wings from a spectator in front, and, contrary to what usually obtains among pheasants, the head is entirely unadorned, having neither crest nor a particle of vivid colour,--a remarkable confirmation of Mr. Darwin's views, that gayly coloured plumes are developed in the male bird for the purpose of attractive display in the breeding season. The long-tailed bird on the right is one of the Drongo-shrikes (_Bhringa remifer_), whose long bare tail-feathers, with an oar-like web at the end, and blue-black glossy plumage, render it a very attractive object as it flies after its insect prey. On the left is another singular bird the great Broad-bill (_Corydon sumatranus_), with dull and sombre plumage, but with a beak more like that of a boat-bill than of a fruit-eating passerine bird. Over all, the white-handed Gibbon (_Hylobates lar_) swings and gambols among the topmost branches of the forest.

_Reptiles and Amphibia._--These are not sufficiently known to be of much use for our present purpose. Most of the genera belong to the continental parts of the Oriental region, or have a wide range. Of snakes _Rhabdosoma_, _Typhlocalamus_, _Tetragonosoma_, _Acrochordus_, and _Atropos_, are the most peculiar, and there are several peculiar genera of Homalopsidæ. Of Oriental genera, _Cylindrophis_, _Xenopeltes_, _Calamaria_, _Hypsirhina_, _Psammodynastes_, _Gonyosoma_, _Tragops_, _Dipsas_, _Pareas_, _Python_, _Bungarus_, _Naja_, and _Callophis_ are abundant; as well as _Simotes_, _Ablabes_, _Tropidonotus_, and _Dendrophis_, which are widely distributed. Among lizards _Hydrosaurus_ and _Gecko_ are common; there are many isolated groups of Scincidæ; while _Draco_, _Calotes_, and many forms of Agamidæ, some of which are peculiar, abound.

Plate IX.

A MALAYAN FOREST, WITH ITS CHARACTERISTIC BIRDS.

{341}Among the Amphibia, toads and frogs of the genera _Micrhyla_, _Kalophrynus_, _Ansonia_, and _Pseudobufo_, are peculiar: while the Oriental _Megalophrys_, _Ixalus_, _Rhacophorus_, and _Hylorana_ are abundant and characteristic.

_Fishes._--The fresh-water fishes of the Malay archipelago have been so well collected and examined by the Dutch naturalists, that they offer valuable indications of zoo-geographical affinity; and they particularly well exhibit the sharply defined limits of the region, a large number of Oriental and even Ethiopian genera extending eastward as far as Java and Borneo, but very rarely indeed sending a single species further east, to Celebes or the Moluccas. Thirteen families of fresh-water fishes are found in the Indo-Malay sub-region. Of these the Scienidæ and Symbranchidæ have mostly a wide range in the tropics. Ophiocephalidæ are exclusively Oriental, reaching Borneo and the Philippine islands. The Mastacembelidæ are also Oriental, but one species is found as far as Ceram. Of the Nandidæ, 3 genera range over the whole region. The Labyrinthici extend from Africa through the Oriental region to Amboyna, The single species constituting the family Luciocephalidæ is confined to Borneo and the small islands of Biliton and Banca. Of the extensive family Siluridæ 17 genera are Oriental and Malayan, and 11 are Malayan exclusively; and not one of these appears to pass beyond the limits of the sub-region. The Cyprinidæ offer an equally striking example, 23 genera ranging eastward to Java and Borneo and not one beyond; 14 of these being exclusively Malayan. It must be remembered that this is not from any want of knowledge of the countries farther east, as extensive collections have also been made in Celebes, the Moluccas, and Timor; so that the facts of distribution of fresh-water fishes come, most unexpectedly, to fortify that division of the archipelago into two primary regions, which was founded on a consideration of mammalia and birds only.

_Insects._--Few countries in the world can present a richer and more varied series of insects than the Indo-Malay islands, and we can only here notice a few of their more striking peculiarities and more salient features.

{342}The butterflies of this sub-region, according to the best estimate that can be formed, amount to about 650 described species, a number that will yet, no doubt, be very considerably increased. The genera which appear to be peculiar to it are _Erites_ (Satyridæ); _Zeuxidia_ (Morphidæ); _Amnosia_, _Xanthotænia_, and _Tanæcia_ (Nymphalidæ). The groups which are most characteristic of the region, either from their abundance in individuals or species, or from their size and beauty, are--the rich dark-coloured _Euplæa_; the large semi-transparent _Hestia_; the plain-coloured _Mycalesis_, which replace our meadow-brown butterflies (_Hipparchia_); the curious _Elymnias_, which often closely resemble Euplæas; the large and handsome _Thamantis_ and _Zeuxidia_, which take the place of the giant Morphos of South America; the _Cethosia_, of the brightest red, and marked with a curious zigzag pattern; the velvety and blue-glossed _Terinos_; the pale and delicately-streaked _Cyrestis_; the thick-bodied and boldly coloured _Adolias_; the small wine-coloured _Taxila_; the fine blue _Amblypodia_; the beautiful _Thyca_, elegantly marked underneath with red and yellow, which represent our common white butterflies and are almost equally abundant; the pale blue _Eronia_, and the large red-tipped _Iphias_. The genus _Papilio_ is represented by a variety of fine groups; the large _Ornithoptera_, with satiny yellow under-wings; the superb green-marked "_brookeana_;" the "_paradoxa_" group, often closely resembling the Euplæas that abound in the same district; the "_paris_" group richly dusted with golden-green specks; the "_helenus_" group with wide-spreading black and white wings; the black and crimson "_polydorus_" group; the "_memnon_" group, of the largest size and richly-varied colours; and the "_eurypilus_" group, elegantly banded or spotted with blue or green: all these are so abundant that some of them are met with in every walk, and are a constant delight to the naturalist who has the privilege of observing them in their native haunts.

The Coleoptera are far less prominent and require to be carefully sought after; but they then well repay the collector. As affording some measure of the productiveness of the tropics in insect life it will not be out of place to give a few notes of the {343}number of species collected by myself in some of the best localities. At Singapore 300 species of Coleoptera were collected in 15 days, and in a month the number had increased to 520; of which 100 were Longicorns and 140 Rhyncophora. At Sarawak in Borneo I obtained 400 species in 15 days, and 600 in a month. In two months this number had increased to about 850, and in three months to 1,000 species. This was the most prolific spot I ever collected in, especially for Longicorns which formed about one-fifth of all the species of beetles. In the Aru Islands in one month, I obtained only 235 species of Coleoptera, and about 600 species of insects of all orders; and this may be taken as a fair average, in localities where no specially favourable conditions existed. On the average 40 to 60 species of Coleoptera would be a good day's collecting; 70 exceptionally good; while the largest number ever obtained in one day was 95, and the majority of these would be very minute insects. It must be remembered, however, that many very common species were passed over, yet had every species met with been collected, not much more than 100 species would ever have been obtained in one day's collecting of four or five hours. These details may afford an interesting standard of comparison for collectors in other parts of the world.

Of Cicindelidæ the most peculiarly Malayan form is _Therates_, found always on leaves in the forests in the same localities as the more widely spread _Collyris_. Five genera of this family are Indo-Malayan.

The Carabidæ, though sufficiently plentiful, are mostly of small size, and not conspicuous in any way. But there is one striking exception in the purely Malayan genus _Mormolyce_, the largest and most remarkable of the whole family. It is nocturnal, resting during the days on the under side of large _boleti_ in the virgin forest. _Pericallus_ and _Catascopus_ are among the few genera which are at all brillantly coloured.

Buprestidæ are abundant, and very gay; the genus _Belionota_ being perhaps one of the most conspicuous and characteristic. The giant _Catoxantha_ is, however, the most peculiar, though comparatively scarce. _Chrysochroa_ and _Chalcophora_ are also {344}abundant and characteristic. Out of the 41 Oriental genera 21 are Malayan, and 10 of these are not found in the other sub-regions.