Chapter XIV: The Form-World of Economic Life (4)

[142] In the case of the Venetians the money-outlook was already potent during the earlier Crusades. But the fact that their financial exploitation of the great religious adventure was regarded as scandalous indicates sufficiently that the rural world of the West was not yet face to face with the money-idea.--_Tr._

[143] See Ch. XIII below.

[144] Samarra exhibits, like the Imperial Fora of Rome and the ruins of Luxor, truly American proportions. The city stretches for 33 km. [20 miles] along the Tigris. The Balkuwara Palace, which the Caliph Mutawakil built for one of his sons, forms a square of 1250 m. [say, three-quarters of a mile] on each side. One of the giant mosques measures in plan 260 × 180 m. [858 × 594 ft.]. Schwarz, _Die Abbasidenresidenz Samarra_ (1910); Herzfeld, _Ausgrabungen von Samarra_ (1912). [Pataliputra, in the days of Chandragupta and Asoka, measured _intra muros_ 10 miles × 2 miles (equal to Manhattan Island or London along the Thames from Greenwich to Richmond).--_Tr._]

[145] Karlsruhe, with its fan-scheme, and Mannheim, with its rectangles, are earlier than Washington. But both are small places. The one is a sort of extension of the prince’s Rococo park and centred on his _point de vue_; the other, though its block-numbering, unique in Europe, seems to relate it to the American city, was really planned as a self-contained military capital, rectangular only within its oval enceinte, whereas the American rectangles are meant to be added to. The layout of Petersburg by Peter the Great (which has been adhered to to this day and is still incompletely filled in in detail) is a much more forcible example of the arbitrary planning of a megalopolis. Though outside the “European” world, it is of it, for it was the visible symbol of Peter’s will to force Europe upon Russia. It is contemporary with Mannheim and Karlsruhe (early eighteenth century), but its creator conceived of it as a city _of the future_.--_Tr._

[146] In the case of Canada, not merely great regions, but the _whole country_ has been picketed out in equal rectangles for future development.--_Tr._

[147] It has been left to the _Western_ Civilization of present-day Rome to build the garden suburbs that the Classical Civilization could have built.--_Tr._

[148] Friedländer, _Sittengeschichte Roms_, I, p. 5. Compare this with Samarra, which had nothing like this population. The “Late Classical city on Arabian soil was un-Classical in this respect as in others. The garden suburb of Antioch was renowned throughout the East.”

[149] The city which the Egyptian “Julian the Apostate,” Amenophis IV (Akhenaton) built himself in Tell-el-Amarna had streets up to 45 m. [149 ft.] wide.

[150] Pöhlmann, _Aus Altertum und Gegenwart_ (1910), pp. 211, et seq.

[151] Some years ago a French peasant was brought to notice whose family had occupied its glebe since the ninth century.--_Tr._

[152] Shaw, _The Quintessence of Ibsen_.

[153] An ancient Hindu materialism.--_Tr._

[154] For what follows see Eduard Meyer, _Kl. Schriften_ (1910), pp. 145, et seq.

[155] _Hist. Nat._, XVIII, 7.--_Tr._

[156] We know of measures to promote increase of population in China in the third century B.C., precisely the Augustan Age of Chinese evolution. See Rosthorn, _Das soziale Leben der Chinesen_ (1919), p. 6.

[157] The _amphitheatres_ of Nîmes and Arles were filled up by mean townlets that used the outer wall as their fortifications.--_Tr._

[158] Strabo, Pausanias, Dio Chrysostom, Avienus, etc. See E. Meyer, _Kl. Schriften_, pp. 164, et seq.

[159] The Colosseum of Rome itself in due course fell into this decay and we read in the guide-books that “its flora were once famous”--420 wild species lived in its ruins. If this could happen in Rome, we need not be surprised at the quick, almost catastrophic, conquest of the Maya cities by tropical vegetation.--_Tr._

[160] According to the researches of K. Sethe. Cf. Robert Eisler, _Die kenitischen Weihinschriften der Hyksoszeit_, etc. (1919).

[161] Henceforward, and indeed throughout this work, the word “language” is not to be regarded as limited to spoken and written language. As the above definition indicates, it includes all modes of intelligible conscious-expression--“affective language” in the widest sense.--_Tr._

[162] Obviously, Totemistic facts, so far as they come under the observation of the waking-consciousness, obtain a significance of the Taboo kind also; much in man’s sexual life, for example, is performed with a profound sense of fear, because his will-to-understand is baffled by it.

[163] W. von Humboldt (_Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues_) was the first to emphasize the fact that a language is not a thing, but an activity. “If we would be quite precise, we can certainly say _there is no such thing as ‘language,’_ just as there is no such thing as ‘intellect’; but man does speak, and does act intellectually.”

[164] Hans Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841), architect of the Opera House, the Altes Museum, and the Königswache of Berlin. Gottfried Schadow (1764-1850), sculptor (statues of Frederick II, Zieten, etc.; Quadriga of Brandenburger Tor), a classicist _malgré lui_ (not to be confused with two other artists of the same name, quasi-contemporaries).--_Tr._

[165] See p. 29 above.

[166] _Gesch. d. Deutsch. Kunst_ (1919), pp. 14, et seq.

[167] This practice of inscription survives till deep into the Civilization. Even in 1914 the guns of the German Army, true products of the advanced machine-shop though they were, carried a Latin threat to the foe. From the magic rune of the blade it is a step to the motto on the shield, and then to the motto alone as unity-charm of the regiment or the Order.--_Tr._

[168] W. Altmann, _Die ital. Rundbauten_ (1906).

[169] A striking case in point is the Roman military camp. See Vol. I (English edition), p. 185, foot-note.--_Tr._

[170] Bulle, _Orchomenos_, pp. 26, et seq.; Noack, _Ovalhaus und Palast in Kreta_, pp. 53, et seq. The house-plans still traceable in Latin times in the Ægean and Asia Minor may perhaps allow us to order our notions of human conditions in the pre-Classical period; but the linguistic remains, never.

[171] _Medieval Rhodesia_ (London, 1906).

[172] Cf. Ch. X.

[173] Though magic or prestige may of course be involved in their ornamentation, these are supervening and not radical virtues.--_Tr._

[174] In this connexion it ought to be someone’s business to undertake physiognomic studies upon the massy, thoroughly peasantish, Roman busts; the portraits of Early Gothic; those of the Renaissance, already visibly urban; and, most of all, the polite English portraiture from the late-eighteenth century onward. The great galleries of “ancestors” contain an endless wealth of material.

[175] The sudden fear of some animal or object seen, believed to result in her child’s bearing the mark of it. Cf. Jacob and the speckled cattle (Genesis xxx, 37). The attitude of biologists to this question is not negative, but non-committal.--_Tr._

[176] J. Ranke, _Der Mensch_ (1912), II, p. 205.

[177] This suggestive sentence should, of course, be read with its reservation. The cranial evidences of Crete are highly illustrative in this connexion; they would not indeed be trusted by a modern historian without weighty collateral evidence, but here this evidence exists. Up to the latter part of Middle Minoan, the “long” head predominated heavily, not only from the outset, but increasingly as the Culture rose, until it included two-thirds of the whole, intermediates forming a quarter and “short” heads a mere handful. But from about the time of the catastrophic fall of Late Minoan II, the long heads fall to a startlingly low figure, while intermediates account for half, and short heads for more than a third. It marks the end of Minoan Civilization and the coming of the Achæans. But just as the Minoan skull held its own throughout the Minoan Age, so now, after its fall, the short head maintained itself, as stated in the text, through all subsequent vicissitudes, from the “Sea-peoples” through Roman, Arab, and Turk, to this day. Thus the Cretan landscape has had two skull-types successively; but the change from one to the other occurred in connexion with an immense cataclysm, nothing less than the collapse of a Civilization. The rough deduction that seems to emerge from this case is that a great Culture holds its skull, no doubt in the course of its striving towards ideal physical type of its own (see p. 127), but that where that major organism does not exist, the skull endures as the land endures and the peasant endures. This applies also to the Alpine region, which has received the deposit of migrations, but has never been the centre of a high Culture.--_Tr._

[178] Cf. D. Randall-MacIver, _The Etruscans_ (1928), Ch. I.--_Tr._

[179] Art is fully developed in the animals. So far as man can get at it by way of analogy, it consists for them in rhythmic movement (“dance”) and sound-formation (“song”). But this is by no means the limit of artistic impression _on_ the animal itself.

[180] Jesus says to the Seventy whom he is sending out on mission: “And salute no man on the way” (Luke x, 4). The ceremonial of greeting on the high-road is so complicated that people in a hurry have to omit it. A. Bertholet, _Kulturgeschichte Israels_ (1919), p. 162.

[181] Exekias--represented in the British Museum by his “Achilles and Penthesilea” (_Ency. Brit._, XI ed., article “Ceramics,” Plate I)--stands at the end of Black Figure as the master of the possibilities of refinement in it--on the verge of the style-change to Red Figure, yet apart from it. Sebastian Bach is his “contemporary.”--_Tr._

[182] “All forms, even those that are most felt, contain an element of untruth” (Goethe). In systematic philosophy the intent of the thinker coincides neither with the written words nor with the understanding of his readers, as it consists in his thinking meanings into words in the course of using the words themselves (_da es ein Denken in Wortbedeutungen ist, im Verlauf der Darstellung mit sich selbst_).

[183] Jespersen deduces language from poesy, dance, and particularly courtship. _Progress in Language_ (1894), p. 357.

[184] See Vol. I, p. 80.--_Tr._

[185] Sentence-like complexes of sound are known also to the dog. When the Australian dingo reverted from domestication to the wild state, he reverted also from the house-dog’s bark to the wolf’s howl--a phenomenon that indicates a transition to very much simpler sound-signs, but has nothing to do with “words.”

[186] The gesture-languages of to-day (Delbrück, _Grundfragen d. Sprachforsch._, pp. 49, et seq., with reference to the work of Jorio on the gestures of the Neapolitans) without exception presuppose word-language and are completely dependent upon its intellectual systematism. Examples: the mimicry of the actor, and the language which the American Indians have formed for themselves for the purpose of mutually understanding one another in spite of extreme differences and fluidity in the verbal languages of the various tribes. Wundt (_Völkerpsychologie_, I, p. 212) quotes the following to show how complicated sentences can be handled in this language: “White soldiers, led by an officer of high rank, but little intelligence, took the Mescalero Indians prisoners.”

[187] See Vol. I, p. 172.--_Tr._

[188] The case of voice-differentiations of the same word in Chinese is not analogous. It arose only out of scholars’ work in the later phases of the Chinese Civilization as understood in this work. And it is a mechanical expedient and not a structural character--i.e., it lacks the _polarity_ mentioned in the text. Voice-management distinguishes, not “great” from “small,” but “pig” from “God,” “bamboo” from “to dwell.” English students will find a clear and understandable account of this and other Chinese differential devices in Karlgren’s little book: _Sound and Symbol in Chinese_ (English translation, 1923).--_Tr._

[189] Possibly connected with this is the _emphatic antithesis_ characterizing many of our proverbs and everyday idioms--e.g., “up hill and down dale” (“_par monts et vaux_,” “_bergauf bergab_”), meaning hardly more than “everywhere.”--_Tr._

[190] _Die Haupttypen des Sprachbaus_, 1910.

[191] See the article “Bantu Languages,” by Sir H. H. Johnston, _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[192] Even calling something “invisible” is a definition of it under the light-aspect.

[193] Only technics are entirely true, for here the words are merely the key to actuality, and the sentences are continually modified until they are, not “truth,” but actuality. A hypothesis claims, not rightness, but usefulness.

[194] See pp. 29, et seq.

[195] The English reader may refer to Karlgren’s _Sound and Symbol in Chinese_, already mentioned, for details.--_Tr._

[196] See the article “Indo-European Languages,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[197] Translation, it must be remembered, is normally from older into younger linguistic conditions.

[198] See p. 140 above.--_Tr._

[199] See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., Vol. XVI, p. 251b.--_Tr._

[200] See the articles “Sanskrit” and “Indo-European Languages,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[201] P. Jensen, _Sitz. Preuss. Akademie_ (1919), pp. 367, et seq.

[202] L. Hahn, _Rom und Romanismus im griech-röm. Osten_ (1906).

[203] See the article “Book-keeping” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[204] Ed. Meyer, _Gesch. des Alt._, I, §§ 455, 465.

[205] See below.

[206] Radio broadcasting does not controvert this. Its characteristic quality is not (as is often supposed) dissemination to vast numbers irrespective of physical distance, but a special intimacy of address to the listening individual.--_Tr._

[207] See the article “Semitic Language,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[208] Similarly the modern Jews of the Dispersion write Yiddish, which is a modified German, in Hebrew characters.--_Tr._

[209] See Lidzbarski, _Sitz. Berl. Akad._ (1916), p. 1218. There is plentiful material in M. Miese, _Die Gesetze der Schriftgeschichte_ (1919).

[210] P. Kretschmer, in Gercke-Norden, _Einl. i. d. Altertumswissenschaft_, I, p. 551.

[211] See the articles “Romance Languages” and “Latin Language,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[212] Cf. p. 122.

[213] For this reason I am one of those who believe that, even quite late, Etruscan still played a very important part in the colleges of the Roman priesthood.

[214] Precisely for this reason it has to be recognized that the Homeric poems, which were first fixed in the colonization period, can only give us an urban literary language and not the courtly conversation-language in which they were originally declaimed.

[215] So much so that the workers of the great cities call themselves _the_ People, thereby excluding the bourgeoisie, with which no community feeling conjoins them. The bourgeoisie of 1789 did exactly the same.

[216] The dominant nucleus within the Spartan ensemble.--_Tr._

[217] Ed. Meyer, _Ursprung und Geschichte der Mormonen_ (1912), pp. 128, et seq. [An extended summary of Mormon history will be found in the article “Mormons,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._]

[218] Ex-mercenaries of Agathocles, tyrant of Syracuse, who seized and settled in Messina. The questions arising out of this act precipitated the First Punic War.--_Tr._

[219] A still more celebrated case is the “ambulatory Polis” formed by Xenophon’s Ten Thousand.--_Tr._

[220] And in numerous Classical instances.--_Tr._

[221] See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., Vol. IX, p. 860.--_Tr._

[222] In Macedonia, in the nineteenth century, Serbs, Bulgars, and Greeks all founded schools for the anti-Turkish population. If it happens that a village has been taught Serb, even the next generation consists of fanatical Serbs. The present strength of the “nations” is thus merely a consequence of previous school-policy.

[223] For Beloch’s scepticism concerning the reputed Dorian migration see his _Griechische Geschichte_, I, 2, Section VIII. [A brief account of the question, by J. L. Myres, is in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., article “Dorians.”--_Tr._]

[224] C. Mehlis, _Die Berberfrage_ (_Archiv für Anthropologie_ 39, pp. 249, et seq.) where relations between North German and Mauretanian ceramics, and even resemblances of toponymy (rivers, mountains) are dealt with. The old pyramid buildings of West Africa are closely related, on the one hand, to the Nordic dolmens (_Hünengräber_) of Holstein and, on the other, to the graves of the Old Kingdom (some illustrations in L. Frobenius, _Der kleinafrikanische Grabbau_, 1916).

[225] _Die Bevölkerung der griechisch-römischen Welt_ (1886).

[226] _Geschichte der Kriegskunst_ (from 1900).

[227] Rameses III, who defeated them, portrayed their expedition in the relief of Medinet Habet. W. M. Müller, _Asien und Europa_, p. 366.

[228] Which, therefore, have discovered for themselves the nonsensical designation “aristocracy of intellect” (_Geistesadel_).

[229] Although--or should we say “thus”?--Rome accorded citizenship to freedmen, who in general were of wholly alien blood, and sons of ex-slaves were admitted to the Senate even by Appius Claudius the Censor in 310. One of them, Flavius, had already been curule ædile.

[230] See articles “Persia (history: ancient),” “Behistun,” “Cuneiform,” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., or indeed almost any work upon Babylonian and Persian antiquities.--_Tr._

[231] Sworn by Louis the German and Charles the Bald in both languages. The manuscript of the oath, however, is later--say, 950.--_Tr._

[232] “_Die ältesten datierten Zeugnisse der iranischen Sprache_” (_Zeitschr. f. vgl. Sprachf._ 42, p. 26.)

[233] See above, p. 145.

[234] Ed. Meyer, op. cit., pp. 1, et seq.

[235] Compare the absorption of the Norman conquerors into England and the subsequent development of an English aristocracy.--_Tr._

[236] For what follows, cf. Ch. VII-IX.

[237] _Geschichte des Altertums_, I, § 590, et seq.

[238] Andreas and Wackernagel, _Nachrichten der Göttingischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften_ (1911), p. 1, et seq. [On the subject generally, see articles by K. Geldner, “Zend-Avesta” and “Zoroaster,” and by Ed. Meyer, “Parthia,” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._]

[239] See, further, below.

[240] Dynasty I.--_Tr._

[241] Albertus Magnus; St. Thomas Aquinas; Grosseteste, and Roger Bacon.--_Tr._

[242] Cf. p. 105.

[243] Cf. Ch. X.

[244] See p. 60 above. The slave did not belong to the nation. On this account the enrolment of non-citizens in the army of a city, which on occasions of dire crisis was inevitable, was always felt as a profound blow to the national idea.

[245] Even in the Iliad we can perceive the tendency to the nation-feeling in the small, and even the smallest, aggregates.

[246] And she had rarely to deal with anything more formidable than a loose partial confederacy. Often Etruscan cities were in alliance with Rome against other Etruscan cities.--_Tr._

[247] It is not to be overlooked that both Plato and Aristotle in their political writings were unable to conceive of the ideal people otherwise than in the Polis form. But it was equally natural for the eighteenth-century thinkers to regard “the Ancients” as nations after the fashion of Shaftesbury and Montesquieu--it is _we_ their successors who ought not to have stayed on that note.

[248] Mommsen described the Roman Empire as a “universal Empire founded upon municipal autonomy.” And even Alexander’s empire was originally conceived, and to a great extent actually organized, in this spirit. See P. Jouguet, _L’Impérialisme macédonien_ (1926), Ch. IV.--_Tr._

[249] See p. 67.

[250] F. N. Finck, _Die Sprachstämme des Erdkreises_ (1915), pp. 29, et seq.

[251] About the end of the second century of our era.

[252] See foot-note, p. 197, et seq.--_Tr._

[253] A loose group of Edomite tribes which, with Moabites, Amalekites, Ishmaelites, and others, thus constituted a fairly uniform Hebrew-speaking population.

[254] See p. 167.

[255] Aristotle says that “philosophers are called Calani among the Indians, and Jews among the Syrians.” Exactly the same is stated by Megasthenes, the Seleucid ambassador at Pataliputra, of Brahmins and Jews.--_Tr._

[256] The district south of Lake Van, of which the capital was Arbela, the old home of the goddess Ishtar.

[257] As evidenced by the Falasha, the black Jews of Abyssinia.

[258] _Arch. f. Anthrop._, Vol. XIX.

[259] _Zeitschr. f. Ethnol._ (1919).

[260] _Digesta_, 50, 15.

[261] Geffcken, _Der Ausgang des griech.-röm. Heidentum_ (1920), p. 57 [English readers may refer to the article “Neoplatonism” and shorter articles under the personal names, in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._]

[262] See Vol. I, pp. 63, 71.--_Tr._

[263] Which we translate by “Gentiles,” but which literally means “the nations” or “peoples.”--_Tr._

[264] See the article “Nestorians,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[265] See the articles “Jews” (§ 43), “Exilarch,” and “Gaon,” _Ency. Brit._, XI. ed. In Europe, too, far into the Dispersion, there are rabbis recognized by the State as governors of their communities, such as the famous Rabbi Löw of Prague (1513-1609).--_Tr._

[266] It may not be at all fanciful to connect the Reception of “Roman” law in Germany and the rise of the doctrine of _cujus regio, ejus religio_ which played so great a part in the religious wars and treaties of our sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. At any rate, “practical politics” so-called provides an inadequate motive by itself to account for the latter. Considering it in contrast to the notion of Mortmain, and having regard to the intensity of religious belief in many of the princes who applied it, the idea appears as something much more positive than a mere formula of compromise.--_Tr._

[267] See p. 70. The “capitulations” under which until recently Europeans were exempt from the jurisdiction of Turkish courts are regarded nowadays as a right enforced by more civilized powers to protect their subjects from the laws of a less civilized state, and their abolition is a symbol of the rise of the latter to the rank of a civilized power. But originally it was quite the reverse. The first “capitulation” was sued for by France in an hour of danger when Turkish aid was essential to her. See _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., article “Capitulations.”--_Tr._

[268] See Vol. I., p. 212.

[269] The author’s meaning may perhaps be precised thus: so much of the old Magian nations as was not Arabized became fellah peoples, either outside the Magian sphere (as in Europe and India) or within it, under the Turkish (Mongol) domination, but even the old Arab-element itself was largely ripe for the change into the fellah condition when the Turks came.--_Tr._

[270] I am convinced that the nations of China which sprang up in members in the middle, Hwang-Ho region at the beginning of the Chóu dynasty, as also the regional peoples of the Egyptian Old Kingdom (which had each its own capital and its own religion, and as late as Roman times fought each other in definitely religious wars), were in their inward form more closely akin to the peoples of the West than to those of the Classical and the Arabian worlds. However, research into such fields has hitherto been conspicuous by its absence.

[271] That the dynasts themselves have contributed heavily to the catalogue of perjury and bad faith only reinforces the argument.--_Tr._

[272] His desertion of the emperor Frederick Barbarossa in the Lombard war, 1176. The details of the long struggle between Frederick and Henry will be found in any fairly full history of Europe or in the respective articles devoted to them in the _Ency. Brit._, XI ed. While Frederick stood--and with real hopes as well as ideals--for the inclusive Empire, Henry through all his vicissitudes stood for Germany’s eastern expansion, the colonization of the Slavonic north-east, and the development of the Baltic.--_Tr._

[273] In mediæval hymns the cross is symbolically regarded as a tree bearing Christ as its last and grandest fruit; it is identified, indeed, with the Tree of Knowledge. (See Yrjo Hirn, _The Sacred Shrine_.)--_Tr._

[274] And every English schoolboy knows the meaning of the “Early Plantagenets.”--_Tr._

[275] Against the Swedes, 1675.--_Tr._

[276] Against the French and their German dependent allies, 1757.--_Tr._

[277] See pp. 166, et seq., and 174, et seq.

[278] Less than one per cent of the population.

[279] It is to be noted that the home of the Babylonian Culture, the ancient Sinear, plays no part of any importance in the coming events. For the Arabian Culture only the region north of Babylon, not that to south, comes into question.

[280] The victory of L. Æmilius Paullus over Perseus, 168 B.C.--_Tr._

[281] This has an important bearing also in the histories of the Western literatures. The German is written in part in Latin, and English in French.

[282] See Professor Geldner’s article “Zend-Avesta,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[283] See Wollner, _Untersuchungen über die Volksepik des Grossrussen_ (1879). [A convenient edition of the Kiev Stories is Mary Gill, _Les Légendes slaves_ (Paris, 1912).--_Tr._]

[284] The former is dated about 800, the latter about 930.--_Tr._

[285] These two figures--the one an authorized Mayor of the Palace before he was Tsar, the other a crude usurper--dominate the period of Russian history called the “Period of Troubles”--i.e., that between the death of Ivan the Terrible in 1584 and the election of Michael Romanov in 1613.--_Tr._

[286] Covering, before its later extensions, Persia and Iraq to the Euphrates.--_Tr._

[287] The region south of Damascus and east of the Sea of Galilee.--_Tr._

[288] Saba (Sheba) is, roughly, the modern Yemen, though the centre of gravity of the Sabæan Kingdom may earlier have been in northern Arabia. See Dr. D. H. Müller’s article “Sabaeans” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[289] Schiele, _Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart_, I, 647.

[290] The “Minæan” and the Sabæan kingdoms were the two outstanding hegemonies of early Arabian history. Ma’in, in southern Arabia, should not be confused with the Ma’an which lies north-east of the Gulf of Akaba.--_Tr._

[291] Bent, _The Sacred City of the Ethiopians_ (London 1893), pp. 134, et seq., deals with the remains of Jeha, the inscriptions of which are dated by Glaser between the seventh and fifth centuries before Christ. See D. H. Müller, _Burgen and Schlösser Südarabiens_.

[292] Grimme, _Mohammed_, pp. 26, et seq.

[293] German Axum Expedition record (1913), Vol. II.

[294] An ancient trade-route from Persia crossed the straits of Ormus and of Bab-el-Mandeb, traversing South Arabia and terminating in Abyssinia and the Nile region. It is historically more important than the northern route over the Isthmus of Suez.

[295] So little is known as to these events by British (or any other) students that a brief record may be useful. The original Himaryites or Homerites, a people of the south-west angle of Arabia, had displaced the Sabæans in control of South Arabia in the second century B.C. The Himaryite hegemony was overthrown by invaders from Axum over the water about A.D. 300, and the Axumite rulers were, _inter alia_, kings of Hadramaut--hence the mention in the text of the Persian Gulf. But a Himaryite opposition continued, and, adopting Judaism as a counter-religion, it succeeded for a time in throwing off the Abyssinian rule. Axum, however (aided, as a Christian state, by Rome), reasserted her dominion in 525 and held it for fifty years, till an attack of Sassanid Persians displaced them again. Thereafter southern Arabia fell into the swaying chaos in which the coming of Mohammed found it.--_Tr._

[296] The capital of Saba.--_Tr._

[297] Grimme, p. 43. Illustrations of these immense ruins of Gomdan, ibid., p. 81, and reconstructions in the German Axum report.

[298] The country of Ghassan extends east of the Jordan, parallel to and inland of Palestine and Syria, approximately from Petra to the middle Euphrates.--_Tr._

[299] The Lakhmids were the ruling dynasty, from the third to the sixth century after Christ, of the realm of Hira, which ran in a strip between the Euphrates and the present Nejd coast on the one hand and the desert of Arabia on the other.--_Tr._

[300] Brockelmann, _Geschichte der arabischen Literatur_, p. 34.

[301] The whole structure of Mithraism (so far as we know it) presents strong analogies with that of a military order.--_Tr._

[302] As well as it is said 220,000 at Cyrene. At Alexandria, too, there were _émeutes_ and counter-_émeutes_.--_Tr._

[303] Roth, _Sozial- und Kulturgeschichte des Byzantinischen Reiches_, p. 15.

[304] Delbrück, _Geschichte der Kriegskunst_, II, p. 222. [For British students C. W. C. Oman’s _Art of War: Middle Ages_ will be more readily available, although Oman treats the subject more as a matter of formal military organization than does Delbrück. Neither writer deals with any special features of the change as it worked itself out in the East, both being concerned almost entirely with its Western aspects and phases. The origin of the late-Byzantine army system, as military historians are aware, is an obscure and difficult subject. By what stages, after the decadence of the legion, was the “_Landsknecht_” army of Justinian reached? Like other elements of middle-East history in the epoch of the Arabian Culture, it still awaits the full investigation that the West has already had.--_Tr._]

[305] _Gesammelte Schriften_, IV, 532.

[306] _Gefolgstreuen_ in German. The choice of an equivalent mediæval term in English is difficult, since any one that may be selected carries with it certain implications for students of feudal origins.--_Tr._

[307] Domaszewski, _Die Religion der römischen Heeres_, p. 49.

[308] The typical form, for instance, of the Swiss in their independence-battles, and of Western infantry generally in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, during the transition from hand-arm to fire-arm warfare.--_Tr._

[309] _Buccellarii_; see Delbrück, op. cit., II, 354.

[310] Georg von Frundsberg (1473-1528). Short article in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[311] _Gothic War_, IV, 26. [The same holds good for Belisarius’s armies.--_Tr._]

[312] Nisibis and Edessa in the up-country between Euphrates and Tigris are represented to-day by Nasibin (Nezib) and Urfa respectively; just to the west of them, east of the Euphrates above Sura, were the three Jewish academies, in which Talmudic Judaism took shape after the Dispersion. Kinnesrin lay just south of Aleppo. Ctesiphon is, of course, the classical city on the Tigris, still dominant under the Sassanids, and Resaina lies in the up-country south-west of Nisibis. Gundisapora is Gunder-Shapur (Jundaisapur), near the site of the old Elamite capital Susa in Arabistan.--_Tr._

[313] Not “non-existent.” It would be a misconception of the Magian world-feeling to attach a Faustian-dynamic meaning to the phrase “true God.” In combating the worship of godlings, the reality of godlings and dæmons is presupposed. The Israelite prophets never dreamed of denying the Baals, and similarly Isis and Mithras for the Early Christians, Jehovah for the Christian Marcion, Jesus for the Manichæans, are devilish, but perfectly real, powers. _Disbelieving in them_ would have had no meaning for the Magian soul--what was required was that one should not _turn to them_. To use an expression now long current, it is “Henotheism” and not Monotheism.

[314] Schürer, _Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi_, III, 499; Wendland, _Die hellenistisch-römische Kultur_, p. 192.

[315] Contrast with this the exactly opposite process in Jewry before the Pseudomorphosis had begun to affect it,--to wit, the battle against the local “high places” and the concentration of sanctity in Jerusalem.--_Tr._

[316] With the result that Syncretism is presented as a mere hotchpotch of every conceivable religion. Nothing is further from the truth. The process of taking shape moved first from East to West and then from West to East.

[317] The Haoma plant symbolized the Tree of Life (Gaokerena) like the Soma plant of Brahmanism.--_Tr._

[318] Hence the expression “profaning” the mysteries, which meant, not revealing them, but bringing them outside their fane.--_Tr._

[319] J. Geffcken, _Der Ausgang des griechisch-römischen Heidentums_ (1920), pp. 197, et seq.

[320] Geffcken, op. cit., pp. 131, et seq.

[321] Geffcken, op. cit., p. 292, note 149.

[322] “_Res ipsa, quæ nunc religio Christiana nuncupatur, erat apud antiquos nec defecit ab initio generis humani, quousque Christus veniret in carnem. Unde vera religio, quæ jam erat coepit appellari Christiana_” (_Retractationes_, I, 13).

[323] The name Chaldean signifies, before the Persian epoch, a tribe; later, a religious society. See p. 175 above.

[324] A. Bertholet, _Kulturgeschichte Israels_ (1919), pp. 253, et seq. [Clear and useful English manuals are G. Moore, _Literature of the Old Testament_; R. H. Charles, _Between the Old and the New Testaments_. See also the article “Hebrew Religion” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._]

[325] According to Williams Jackson’s _Zoroaster_ (1901).

[326] Research has treated the Chaldean, like the Talmudic, as a stepchild. The investigator’s whole attention has been concentrated on the religion of the Babylonian Culture, and the Chaldean has been regarded as its dying echo. Such a view inevitably excludes any real understanding of it. The material is not even separated out, but is dispersed in all the books on Assyrian-Babylonian religion. (H. Zimmern, _Die Keilinschriften und das alte Testament_ II; Gunkel, _Schöpfung and Chaos_; M. Jastrow, C. Bezold, etc.) On the other hand the subject is assumed by some (e.g., Bousset, _Hauptprobleme der Gnosis_, 1907) to have been exhausted.

[327] See Vol. I, p. 184.--_Tr._

[328] The fact that Chaldean science was, in comparison with Babylonian empiricism, a new thing has been clearly recognized by Bezold (_Astronomie, Himmelsschau und Astrallehre bei den Babyloniern_, 1911, pp. 17, et seq.). Its data were taken and developed by different Classical savants according to their own way of reasoning--that is, as a matter of applied mathematics, and to the exclusion of all feeling for distance.

[329] See Jastrow’s articles “Babylonian and Assyrian Religion” and “Marduk” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[330] J. Hehn, _Hymnen und Gebete an Marduk_ (1905).

[331] For Chaldeans and Persians there was no need to trouble here about proof--they had by their God conquered the world. But the Jews had only their literature to cling to, and this accordingly turned to theoretical proof in the absence of positive. In the last analysis, this unique national treasure owes its origin to the constant need of reacting against self-depreciation. [For example, the repeated restatement of the _date_ of the Messiah’s advent in the successive works of the age of the prophets.--_Tr._]

[332] Glaser, _Die Abessinier in Arabien und in Afrika_ (1895), p. 124. Glaser is convinced that Abyssinian, Pehlevi, and Persian cuneiform inscriptions of the highest importance await discovery there.

[333] The inscription and sculptures of Behistun (on an almost inaccessible cliff in the Zagros range on the Baghdad-Hamadan road) were reinvestigated by a British Museum expedition in 1904; see _The Inscription of Darius the Great at Behistun_ (London, 1907). “Thus saith Darius the King. That what I have done I have done altogether by the grace of Ahuramazda. Ahuramazda and the other gods that be, brought aid to me. For this reason did Ahuramazda and the other gods that be bring aid to me because I was not hostile nor a liar nor a wrongdoer, neither I nor my family, but according to Rectitude have I ruled” (A. V. Williams Jackson, _Persia Past and Present_).--_Tr._

[334] Isaiah xl-lxvi. For the critical questions arising on Deutero-Isaiah see Dr. T. K. Cheyne’s article “Isaiah” in the _Encyclopedia Biblica_, the same scholar’s summary in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., article “Isaiah,” or G. Moore’s summary, _Literature of the Old Testament_, Ch. XVI.--_Tr._

[335] This “King of the Banishment” (Exilarch) was long a conspicuous and politically important figure in the Persian Empire. He was only removed by Islam.

[336] As Christian and Jewish theology both do--the only difference between these is in their respective interpretations of the later development of Israelite literature (recast in Judea as the literature of Judaism), the one inflecting it towards Evangelism, the others towards Talmudism.

[337] Later it occurred to some Pharisee mind to Judaize it by interpolating chs. xxxii-xxxvii.

[338] See the articles “Tobit,” etc., in _Jewish Encyclopædia_ and _Ency. Biblica_.--_Tr._

[339] If the assumption of a Chaldean prophecy corresponding to Isaiah and Zarathustra be correct, it is to this young, inwardly cognate, and contemporary astral religion (and not to the Babylonian) that Genesis owes its amazingly profound cosmogony, just as it owes to the Persian religion its visions of the end of the world.

[340] S. Funk, _Die Entstehung des Talmuds_ (1919), p. 106.

[341] E. Sachau, _Aramäische Papyros und Ostraka aus Elephantine_ (1911).

[342] Josephus, _Antiq._, 13, 10.

[343] Much as, say, the destruction of the Vatican would be felt by the Catholic Church.

[344] See p. 198.--_Tr._

[345] Cf. p. 69.

[346] Pyrrho himself had studied under Magian priests. See, for Pyrrhonism, _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., articles “Scepticism,” “Megarian School,” “Pyrrho.”--_Tr._

[347] Schiele (_Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart_, III, 812) reverses the two latter names; this, however, does not affect the phenomenon in any way.

[348] The Cosmogony and the Law, in the Zoroastrian Scriptures.--_Tr._

[349] Bousset, _Rel. d. Jud._, p. 532.

[350] Baruch, Ezra IV (2 Esdras), the original text of John’s Revelation.

[351] For instance, the Book of Naasenes (P. Wendland, _Hellenistisch-römische Kultur_, pp. 177, et seq.); the “Mithras Liturgy” (ed. A. Dieterich); the Hermetic Pœmander (ed. Reitzenstein), the Psalms of Solomon, the Gospels of Thomas and Peter, the Pistis-Sophia, etc. [Information as to these will be found in the articles “Ophites,” “Mithras,” “Hermes Trismegistus,” “Apocalyptic Literature,” “Apocryphal Literature,” “Gnosticism,” in the _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._]

[352] Any more than Dostoyevski’s “_Dream of a Ridiculous Person_” is so.

[353] Our definitive ideas of this early Magian vision-world we owe to the manuscripts of Turfan, which have reached Berlin since 1903. It was these which at last freed our knowledge and, above all, our criteria from the deformations due to the preponderance of Western-Hellenistic material--a preponderance that had been augmented by Egyptian papyrus finds--and radically transformed all our existing views. Now at last the pure, almost unknown, East is seen operative in all the apocalypses, hymns, liturgies, and books of edification of the Persians, Mandæans, Manichæans, and countless other sects; and primitive Christianity for the first time really takes its place in the movement to which it owes its spiritual origins (see H. Lüders, _Sitzungen der Berliner Akademie_, 1914, and R. Reitzenstein, _Das iranische Erlösungsmysterium_, 1921).

[354] Lidzbarski, _Das Johannesbuch der Mandäer_, Ch. LXVI. Also W. Bousset, _Hauptprobleme der Gnosis_ (1907) and Reitzenstein, _Das Mandäische Buch der Herrn der Grösse_ (1919), an apocalypse approximately contemporary with the oldest Gospels. On the Messiah texts, the Descent-into-Hell texts, and the Songs of the Dead see Lidzbarski, _Mandäische Liturgien_ (1920); also the Book of the Dead (especially the second and third books of the left Genza) in Reitzenstein’s _Das iranische Erlösungsmysterium_ (especially pp. 43, et seq.). [The Mandæan religion survives to-day in the region of the Shatt-el-Arab and the Karun valley or Khuzistan.--_Tr._]

[355] See Reitzenstein, pp. 124, et seq., and references there quoted.

[356] In the New Testament, of which the final redaction lies entirely in the sphere of Western-Classical thought, the Mandæan religion and the sects belonging thereto are no longer understood, and indeed everything Oriental seems to have dropped out. Acts xviii-xix, however, discloses a perceptible hostility between the then widespread John-communities and the Primitive Christians (see Dibelius, _Die urchristliche Überlieferung von Johannes dem Täufer_). The Mandæans later rejected Christianity as flatly as they had rejected Judaism. Jesus was for them a false Messiah. In their Apocalypse of the Lord of Greatness the apparition of Enosh was also announced.

[357] According to Reitzenstein (_Das Buch von Herrn der Grösse_) Jesus was condemned at Jerusalem as a John-disciple. According to Lidzbarski (_Mand. Lit._, 1920, XVI) and Zimmern (_Ztschr. d. D. Morg. Gesellschaft_, 1920, p. 429), the expression “Jesus the Nazarene” or “Nasorene,” which was later by the Christian communities referred to Nazareth (Matthew ii, 23, with a doubtful citation), really indicates the membership in a Mandæan Order.

[358] E.g., Mark vi; and then the great change, Mark viii, 27, et seq. There is no religion which has given us more honestly the tale of its birth.

[359] Similarly in Mark i, 38, et seq., when he arose in the night and sought a lonely place in order to fortify himself by prayer.

[360] The method of the present work is historical. It therefore recognizes the anti-historical as well as the historical as _a fact_. The religious method, on the contrary, necessarily looks upon itself as the _true_ and the opposite as _false_. This difference is quite insuperable.

[361] Hence Mark xiii, taken from an older document, is perhaps the purest example of his usual daily discourse. Paul (1 Thess. iv, 15-17) quotes another, which is missing in the Gospels. With these, we have the priceless--but, by commentators dominated by the Gospel tone, misunderstood--contributions of Papias, who about 100 was still in a position to collect much oral tradition. The little that we have of his work suffices amply to show us the apocalyptic character of Jesus’s daily discourses. It is Mark xiii and not the Sermon on the Mount that reproduces the real note of them. But as _his_ teaching became modified into a teaching _of Him_, this material likewise was transformed and the record of his utterances became the narrative of his manifestation. In this one respect the picture given by the Gospels is inevitably false.

[362] Jesus himself was aware of this (Matt. xxiv, 5, 11).

[363] Made more uncertain perhaps by the failure of previous prophecies that had been so confidently dated--e.g., Jeremiah xxv, 11; xxiv, 5-6; reinterpreted in Daniel vii, ix; 1 Enoch lxxxiii-xc; and again to be reinterpreted in 2 Baruch xxxvi-xl and 4 Ezra x-xii.--_Tr._

[364] The designation “Messiah (Christ)” was old-Jewish, those of “Lord” (κύριος, _divus_) and “Saviour” (σωτήρ, _Asklepios_) were east-Aramæan in origin. In the course of the pseudomorphosis “Christ” became the _name_ of Jesus, and “Saviour” the _title_; but already “Lord” and “Saviour” were titles current in the Hellenistic Emperor-worship; and in this was implicit the whole destiny of westward-looking Christianity (compare here Reitzenstein, _Das iranische Erlösungsmysterium_, p. 132, note).

[365] Acts xv; Gal. ii.

[366] Acts i, 14; cf. Mark vi.

[367] As against Luke, Matthew is the representative of this conception. His is the only Gospel in which the word “_Ecclesia_” is used, and it denotes the true Jews, in contradistinction to the masses that refuse to listen to Jesus. This is not the missionary idea, any more than Isaiah was a missionary. Community, in this connexion, means an Order within Judaism. The prescriptions of Matt. xviii, 15-20 are wholly incompatible with any general dissemination.

[368] It fell apart later into sects, amongst which were the Ebionites and the Elkazites (the latter having a strange sacred book, the Elxai; see Bousset, _Hauptprobleme der Gnosis_, p. 154). [See the articles “Ebionites” and “Sabians” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._]

[369] Such sects were attacked in the Acts of the Apostles and in all Paul’s Epistles, and indeed there was hardly a Late Classical or Aramæan religion or philosophy which did not give rise to some sort of Jesus-sect. The danger was indeed real of the Passion story becoming, not the nucleus of a new religion, but an integrating element of all existing ones.

[370] Of this he was fully aware. Many of his deepest intuitions are unimaginable without Persian and Mandæan influences (e.g., Romans vii, 22-24; 1 Corinthians xv, 26; Ephesians v, 6, et seq., with a quotation of Persian origin. See Reitzenstein, _Das iran. Erlös.-Myst._, pp. 6, 133, et seq.). But this does not prove familiarity with Persian-Mandæan literature. The stories were spread in these days as sagas and folk-tales were amongst us. One heard about them in childhood as things of daily hearsay, but without being in the least aware of how deeply one was under their spell.

[371] The early missionary effort in the East has scarcely been investigated and is still very difficult to establish in detail. Sachau, _Chronik von Arbela_ (1915) and “_Die Ausbreitung der Christentums in Asien_” in _Abb. Pr. Akad. d. Wiss._ (1919); Harnack, _Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums_, II, 117, et seq.

[372] The researchers who argue with such over-learnedness about a proto-Mark, Source Q, the “Twelve”-source, and so on, overlook the essential novelty of Mark, which is _the first “Book” of Christendom_, plan-uniform and entire. Work of this sort is never the natural product of an evolution, but the merit of an individual man, and it marks, here if anywhere, a historical turning-point.

[373] Mark is generally _the_ Gospel; after him the partisan writings (Matthew, Luke) begin; the tone of narrative passes into that of legend and ends, beyond the Hebrew and John gospels, in Jesus-romances like the gospels of Peter and James.

[374] If the word “catholic” be used in its oldest sense (_Ignatius ad Smyrn._, 8)--namely, to signify the _sum_ of the cult-communities, _both_ the Churches were Catholic. In the East the word had no meaning. The Nestorian Church was no more a sum than was the Persian: it was a Magian unit.

[375] A brief survey of the Mary doctrine is given in article “Mary,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed. The symbolism involved in the details of the story of Mary, as told in writing and in art, is very fully gone into in Yrjo Hirn, _The Sacred Shrine_.--_Tr._

[376] Ed. Meyer, _Ursprung und Anfänge des Christentums_ (1921), pp. 77, et seq.

[377] _C._ 85-155. See the recent work of Harnack, _Marcion: Das Evangelium vom fremden Gott_ (1921). [Harnack’s article “Marcion” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed., is dated 1910.--_Tr._]

[378] Harnack, op. cit., pp. 136, et seq.; N. Bonwetsch, _Grundr. d. Dogmengesch._ (1919), p. 45, et seq.

[379] This is one of the profoundest ideas in all religious history, and one that must for ever remain inaccessible to the pious average man. Marcion’s identification of the “Just” with the Evil enables him in this sense to oppose the Law of the Old Testament to the Evangel of the New.

[380] About A.D. 150. See Harnack, op. cit., pp. 32, et seq.

[381] For the notions of Koran and Logos, see below. Again as in the case of Mark, the really important question is, not what the material before him was, but how this entirely novel idea for such a book, which anticipated and indeed made possible Marcion’s plan for a Christian Bible, could arise. The book presupposes a great spiritual movement (in eastern Asia Minor?) that knew scarcely anything of Jewish Christianity and was yet remote from the Pauline, westerly thought-world. But of the region and type of this movement we know nothing whatever.

[382] Vohu Mano, the Spirit of Truth, in the shape of the Saoshyant.

[383] See the article by Harnack and Conybeare “Manichæism,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._

[384] Bardesanes, too, and the system of the “Acts of Thomas” are very near to him and to “John.” [See the articles “Bardaisan,” “Thomas,” and “Gnosticism,” _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._]

[385] Harnack, p. 24. The break with the established Church occurred at Rome, in 144.

[386] Harnack, pp. 181, et seq.

[387] It had, like each of the other Magian religions, a script of its own, and this script steadily came to resemble the Manichæan more and more closely.

[388] Matthew xi, 25, et seq., on which see Eduard Meyer, _Urspr. u. Anf. d. Christ._, pp. 286, et seq.; here it is the old and Eastern (i.e., the genuine) form of gnosis that is described.

[389] See further, below, p. 321.

[390] As a drastic instance, Galatians iv, 24-26.

[391] Loofs, _Nestoriana_ (1905), pp. 176, et seq.

[392] The best exposition of the mass of thought common to both Churches is Windelband’s _Geschichte der Philosophie_ (1900), pp. 177, et seq.; for the dogmatic history of the Christian Church see Harnack, _Dogmengeschichte_ (1914), while--unconsciously--Geffcken (_Der Ausgang des griechisch-römischen Heidentums_, 1920) gives the corresponding “dogmatic history of the Pagan Church.”

[393] Geffcken, op. cit., p. 69 [article “Neoplatonism” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._].

[394] See the following chapter.

[395] Harnack, _Dogmengeschichte_, p. 165.

[396] See Vol. I, p. 209.

[397] The expression is Leo Frobenius’s (Paideuma, 1920, p. 91). [See Vol. I, p. 184.--_Tr._]

[398] The soul-stones on Jewish, Sabæan, and Islamic tombs are also called _nephesh_. They are unmistakable symbols of the “upward.” With them belong the huge storeyed stelæ of Axum which belong to the first to third centuries of our era--i.e., the great period of the early Magian religions. The giant stele, long overthrown, is the largest monolith known to art-history, larger than any Egyptian obelisk (German Axum Expedition report, Vol. II, pp. 28, et seq.).

[399] On this rests the whole theory and practice of Magian law (see p. 72 above).

[400] Isaiah xxxii, 15; 4 Ezra xiv, 39; Acts ii.

[401] Reitzenstein, _Das iran. Erlösungsmysterium_, pp. 108, et seq.

[402] Bousset, _Kyrios Christos_, p. 142.

[403] Windelband, _Gesch. d. Phil._ (1900), pp. 189, et seq.; Windelband-Bonhöffer, _Gesch. d. antiken Phil._ (1912), pp. 328, et seq.; Geffcken, _Der Ausgang des griech.-röm. Heidentums_ (1920), pp. 51, et seq.

[404] Jodl, _Geschichte der Ethik_, I, p. 58.

[405] M. Horten, _Die religiöse Gedankenwelt der Volkes im heutigen Islam_ (1917), pp. 381, et seq. By the Shiites the Logos-idea was transferred to Ali.

[406] Wolff, _Muhammedanische Eschatologie_, 3, 2, et seq.

[407] Mandæan Book of John, Ch. LXXV.

[408] Usener, _Vortr. u. Aufs._, p. 217.

[409] The “devil-worshippers” in Armenia; M. Horten in _Der neue Orient_ (March 1918). The name arose from the fact that they did not recognize Satan as a being, and accordingly derived the Evil, by a very complicated set of ideas, from the Logos itself. Under old Persian influences the Jews also busied themselves with the same problem--observe the difference between 2 Samuel xxiv, 1, and 1 Chron. xxi, 1.

[410] M. Horten, op. cit., p. xxi. This book is the best introduction to the actually existing popular religion of Islam, which deviates considerably from the official doctrines.

[411] Baumstark, _Die christl. Literaturen des Orients_, I, p. 64.

[412] Cf. p. 205. The Babylonian view of the heavens had not definitely distinguished between astronomical and atmospheric elements; e.g., the covering of the moon by clouds was regarded as a kind of eclipse. For this soothsaying the momentary _figure_ of the heavens served only the same purpose as the inspection of the victim’s liver. But the Chaldeans’ intention was to forecast the _actual_ course of the stars; here, therefore, astrology presupposed a genuine astronomy.

[413] B. Cohn, “_Die Anfangsepoche der jüd. Kalenders_” (_Sitz. Pr. Akad._, 1914). The date of the first day of Creation was on this occasion fixed by calculation from a total eclipse of the sun--of course with the aid of Chaldean astronomy. [See, in general, the articles “Chronology,” “Calendar,” in _Ency. Brit._, XI ed.--_Tr._]

[414] The Persian notion of total time is 12,000 years. The Parsees of to-day consider A.D. 1920 as the 11,550th.

[415] M. Horten, _Die religiöse Gedankenwelt des Volkes im heutigen Islam_, p. xxvi.

[416] It shows a great gap in our research that although we possess a whole library of works on Classical religion and particularly its gods and cults, we have not one about Classical religiousness and its history.

[417] “He is in truth the conclusion and completion of the Christian Classical, its last and greatest thinker, its intellectual practitioner and tribune. This is the starting-point from which he must be understood. What later ages have made of him is another affair. His own real mind, the synthesizer of Classical Culture, ecclesiastical and episcopal authority, and intimate mysticism, could not possibly have been handed on by those who, environed by different conditions, have to deal with different tasks” (E. Troeltsch, _Augustin, die christliche Antike und das Mittelalter_, 1915, p. 7). His power, like Tertullian’s, rested also on the fact that his writings were not translated into Latin, but _thought_ in this language, the _sacred_ language of the Western Church; it was precisely this that excluded both from the field of Aramæan thought. Cf. p. 224 above.

[418] “_Inspiratio bonæ voluntatis_” (_De corr. et grat._, 3). His “good will” and “ill will” are, quite dualistically, a pair of opposite substances. For Pelagius, on the contrary, will is an _activity_ without moral quality as such; only that which is willed has the _property_ of being good or evil, and the Grace of God consists in the “_possibilitas utriusque partis_,” the freedom to will this or that. Gregory I transmuted Augustinian doctrines into Faustian when he taught that God rejected individuals because he foreknew their evil will.

[419] All the elements of the Magian metaphysic are to be found in Spinoza, hard as he tried to replace the Arabian-Jewish conceptual world of his Spanish masters (and above all Moses Maimonides) by the Western of early Baroque. The individual human mind is for him not an ego, but only a mode of the one divine attribute, the “_cogitatio_”--which is just the Pneuma. He protests against notions like “God’s Will.” His God is _pure substance_ and in lieu of the dynamic causality of the Faustian universe he discovers simply the logic of the divine _cogitatio_. All this is already in Porphyry, in the Talmud, in Islam; and to Faustian thinkers like Leibniz and Goethe it is as alien as anything can possibly be. (_Allgem. Gesch. d. Philos._ in _Kultur der Gegenwart_, I, v, p. 484, Windelband.)

[420] Here, therefore, “good” is an evaluation and not a substance.

[421] The period at which it was written corresponds to our Carolingian. Whether the latter really brought forth any poetry of like rank we do not know, but that it may possibly have done so is shown by creations like the Voluspa, Muspilli, the Heliand, and the universe conceived by John Scotus Erigena.

[422] See, for example, Bertholet, _Kulturgesch. Israels_, p. 242.

[423] Horten, op. cit., p. xii.

[424] See p. 67 above.

[425] It is almost unnecessary to say that in all religions of the Germanic West the Bible stands in a quite other relationship to the faith--namely, in that of a _source_ in the strictly historical sense, irrespective of whether it is taken as inspired and immune from textual criticism or not. The relation of Chinese thought to the canonical books is similar.

[426] The Holy Spirit, different from Ahuramazda and yet one with him, opposed to the Evil (Angra Mainyu).

[427] Identified by Mani with the Johannine Logos. Compare also Yasht 13, 31. Ahuramazda’s shining soul is the Word.

[428] _Aletheia_ (Truth) is generally employed in this way in the John Gospel, and _drug_ (= lie) is used for Ahriman in Persian cosmology. Ahriman is often shown as though a servant of the _drug_.

[429] Sura 96; cf. 80, 11 and 85, 21, where in connexion with another vision it is said: “This is a noble Koran on a treasured tablet.” The best commentary on all this is Eduard Meyer’s (_Geschichte der Mormonen_, pp. 70, et seq.).