Chapter IX (4)

In 1585, through the recognition of the independence of the Dutch Republic, the long contests in the Netherlands were brought to a close. The authority of the Spanish King was restored in Antwerp but the city was impoverished as to both men and resources. Irrespective of the loss of life in the great city, Antwerp had suffered the loss of some of the best and most enterprising of its citizens who had preferred to make their home in the Protestant communities of Holland. The departing Protestants took with them much of the intellectual life and literary activity in the city, while Amsterdam and Leyden, free from the hampering restrictions of Catholic censorship, presented many advantages for publishing undertakings. In 1585, there was but one book printing-press in activity in the city in which a few years earlier there had been no less than forty. Plantin’s first publication for the new year was an official list of the books at that time under prohibition, the list comprising some six hundred titles.

It is not surprising, in view of the hampering regulations and restrictions above specified, that the book-trade of the Spanish Netherlands should have become demoralised and that the centres of publishing activities should have been transferred from Antwerp and Louvain to Amsterdam, Utrecht, and Leyden.

Among the Protestants who during this war period migrated from Flanders was Louis Elzevir, who removed from Louvain to Leyden and began there the business which developed later into one of the greatest publishing houses of the world. The coöperation of the scholars of the university, together with an absolute freedom from any censorship restrictions, gave to the new publishing concern advantages which were at that time possessed by no printer-publishers outside of Holland. The development of the book-trade of Holland was furthered thirty years later through the influence of the Thirty Years’ War in Germany. During this period, 1618–1648, the territory of the Seven United Provinces was free alike from invaders and from civil strife. Much of the work of the scholars of Europe that had heretofore been brought into print through the presses of Frankfort or of Leipsic was now transferred to Amsterdam and Leyden. The theological discussions which became active in Holland, more particularly after the time of the Synod of Dort in 1618, furthered the work of the printing-presses. The Hollanders were also shrewd enough to realise the opportunity given to them for bringing into print the books which had been prohibited or cancelled in Spain, in France, or in Italy. With a few exceptions, these books had been written in Latin and the editions printed in Leyden or in Amsterdam were, therefore, available for the use of scholarly readers throughout Europe.

Andrea Schurius writes[149] that he has been told that the Amsterdam publisher of the _Bibliotheca Fratrum Polonorum_ took special pains to secure the formal prohibition of his work, considering this to be the most effective means of bringing it into active sale.

During the 17th century, the press of the Dutch Republic continued this work free from restrictions which hampered publishing in all other States of Europe. The censorship measures in Holland were restricted to certain edicts and regulations issued by the States-General prohibiting the printing of libellous material or of works directed against princes or governments which were allied with the Republic. There is also an occasional edict against the circulation of publications classed as “irreligious” or “obscene.” The machinery for the enforcement of these regulations appears, however, to have been very inconsiderable; and there is no record of any general inspection for the purpose of censorship of the productions of the printing-press. Among the earlier noteworthy publications of the Elzevirs were certain books that could not at that time easily have come into print elsewhere, such as _The System of the Universe_ by Galileo and the _Defensio Populi Anglicani_ of Milton. Galileo, writing in 1638, gave testimony to the excellence of the work done for him by his Dutch publishers. The list of scholars under censorship either ecclesiastical or political in their persons or in their books who had been exiled from their own countries and whose names are brought together on the catalogues of the Elzevir house is a long one. We may mention, in addition to Galileo, Scaliger, Hobbes, Pascal, Descartes, More, etc.

The Roman, Spanish, and French Indexes served as guides to the Dutch printers for the selection of books likely to prove of interest and to secure circulation. In not a few instances, the scholarly writers themselves who had been banished from Spain or from France in connection with their so-called heretical teachings, or who, irrespective of banishment, had decided that they could carry on their work to better advantage in a territory which was outside of the control of the Catholic Church, had taken up their residence in Holland. The influx of these scholars made Holland for a century or more the centre of scholarly activity in Europe and gave to the Dutch publishers, in the use of these scholarly pens for original work and for editorial work, an enormous advantage. The ethics of publishing were at this time not recognised or certainly at least not recognised outside of national boundaries. The Dutch publishers were quite ready, therefore, in the case even of books which had not been prohibited in the country of origin, to utilise texts that had been edited or shaped by competitors in Venice, in Paris, or in Frankfort, for the production of competing editions. The printers of Holland secured for themselves a final advantage in developing after 1525 a better standard of typography, both for accuracy and for beauty, than had as yet been known in Europe excepting with certain of the issues of Aldus and of Froben. The preëminence obtained under these several influences by the printers of Holland continued until the middle of the 18th century.

=8. England.=--The work of printing in England began with Caxton, in 1476. His catalogue speaks of his books as being “printed in the Abbey of Westminster.” His presses were as a fact placed in the almonry, a space within the Abbey precincts. Sir Thomas More has shown why Caxton could not venture to print a Bible in the vernacular, although the people would have greedily bought the Wyclif translation. Wyclif’s translation was interdicted and More says: “On account of the penalties ordered by Archbishop Arundel’s constitution, though the old translations that were before Wyclif’s days remained lawful and were in some folks’ hands, yet he thought no printer would likely be so hot to put any Bible in print at his own charge, and then hang upon a doubtful trial whether the first copy of his translation was made before Wyclif’s days or since. For if it were made since Wyclif, it must be approved before the printing.” This was a dilemma that Caxton was too prudent to encounter.[150]

In England, during the first half of the century, the printers, while having various other difficulties to contend with, such as lack of communication with a public, the small extent of the public that was ready to be interested in the printed book, and the serious interference that was caused to all trade by the events of the Civil War, were practically free from any burdens of censorship. Even if the ecclesiastics in England had been in a position to make their censorship troublesome, they would have had small occasion for interference with the first literary undertakings of the English printers. The lists included hardly any works having to do with theology, religion, or controversial subjects of any kind. Caxton and his immediate successors realised that at this period the interest of English readers could be depended upon much more safely for books of romance and for chronicles. It was nearly a century after the introduction of printing into England before any attempt was made to produce English editions of the Scriptures. It was in Germany that during this period the attention of the printers was given largely to the production of Bibles, theological treatises, and controversial tracts. The lists of the printers of France were devoted mainly to classics, with some titles under the headings of romance and poetry, while in Italy the earlier lists were made up chiefly of classics and science.

The Stationers’ Company received its charter by royal decree in 1566, two years after the marriage of Queen Mary (to Philip of Spain). It constituted an organisation of the publishing and printing trade of London which assumed to represent the publishing interests of the country. The basis of the authority of the Stationers’ Company was the theory that all printing was the prerogative of the king. The Stationers’ Company had, under its charter, summary rights of search, seizure, and imprisonment, and these powers were confirmed or renewed by the licensing acts. It seems probable that the purpose of the institution of the Company was not so much the furthering of the business of book-production, as the organisation of this business in such shape that it could be reached effectively and promptly by the censorship authorities of the Crown. No question appears to have arisen in England in regard to any conflicting authority on the part of the Church to control such censorship. The Crown utilised the services of bishops and of other ecclesiastics for the examination of works in the division of theology which came under the suspicion of heresy. The selection of the examiners and the decision concerning the disposition of the books so examined was reserved, however, for the direct action of the Crown or of the representatives of the Crown. Such censorship as came into action in England proved to be more important in connection with political literature than with works on religion or theology. In 1644, the Long Parliament enacted certain regulations for the control of printing which provided that “No book, pamphlet, or paper shall be henceforth printed unless the same be first approved and licensed by censors that shall be thereto appointed.” Milton had been a persistent opponent of the policy of censorship and of licensing, and one result of the enactment was the publication of the famous _Areopagitica_, an oration in the form of a pamphlet, which presented with fierce eloquence a protest against the whole theory of the exercise by Government licensers of a supervision and control of literature, or of the delegation of such control to a commercial company (the Stationers’ Company) which was the creation of Government.

=9. Oxford. Index Generalis. James. 1627.=--In 1627, Thomas James, the librarian of the Bodleian Library in Oxford, brought into print, under the title of an _Index Generalis_, a summary or catalogue which had been made up from the Church Indexes that had thus far come into print and of which James had been able to secure copies. It was his purpose to present in this general catalogue the titles of the more important of the books condemned under the censorship of the Church, copies of which books it was, as he pointed out, important to secure for the Bodleian collection. The so-called James Index came to be a working guide for book-buyers and its publication had a direct effect upon the circulation in England of the books specified. It has, therefore, seemed in order to make reference to it in this chapter on the influence of censorship on the book-trade of England.

This catalogue of James was utilised during the succeeding years by English scholars generally, as a convenient guide to the literature condemned by the Church and which on the very ground of its condemnation might be assumed to possess interest and value for scholars who were not troubled by the dread of ecclesiastical penalties. The recommendation of James that copies of these works should be secured for the Bodleian has been carried out quite effectively. The copy of the James Index which has been preserved for the reference library of the Bodleian has been checked by successive librarians as copies of the books recommended have been secured and the list is now very nearly complete. The copies secured for the Bodleian represent in large part editions printed in Holland; as before pointed out, the publishers of Amsterdam, Leyden, and Utrecht had, from the date of publication in 1546 of the Index of Louvain, interested themselves in bringing promptly into print works condemned by Roman authorities and in furthering the distribution of these books throughout Europe.

The full title of James’s Index reads as follows: _Index Generalis Librorum Prohibitorum a Pontificiis; una cum editionibus expurgatis vel expurgandis juxta serium literarum et triplicem classem. In usum Bibliothecæ Bodleianæ et Curatoribus ejusdem specialiter designatus. Per Tho. James, S. Theol. D. Coll. B. Mariæ. Winton. In Oxon. Vulgo. Novi dicti quondam Socium Oxonæ Excudebat Gulielmus Turner. An. D. 1627._

I add a rendering of his preface (the original of which, according to the custom of the time, is in Latin) which is interesting as indicating the attitude of the Protestant scholar of the day towards the censorship of Rome. James includes in the volume of his Index an announcement (addressed to students of theology) of another work that he had in preparation which he entitles _A Universal Index of the Sacred Fathers of the Church_. He speaks of having published a sample of this and goes on to say,

[Sidenote: Bull appended to the oath at the Council of Trent.--“I will never accept or interpret Holy Scripture except according to the unanimous opinion of the Fathers.”]

“If my friends tell me that this sample which I have published
is not displeasing to them, there will shortly after follow
the other books of Scripture, if not in their own order, at
least in a series which has the support of other authorities.
My method of procedure will be as follows: The text before us
will be the Vulgate, and no one who has read any of the works
of Cyprian or Tertullian or of the other ancient Fathers of the
Church, has ventured to say that this text is Hieronymian, and
thus the various readings which do not agree with this Vulgate
edition will be added, and the passages which have been disputed
by Bellarmin and his school (of which there are more in this
fifth chapter than in any other) carefully noted in the margin.
By these means, the younger students to whom God has given the
necessary leisure and inclination, may see whether the Fathers
take the side of the Pontifical writers with their shrill
unseemly clamour, or are ranged under our banners: for a careful
inspection of the Company here drawn up will support opinions
of the Eastern as well as the Western Churches one after
another,--a support which is claimed falsely by the Papists,
in direct opposition to the rules laid down by the Council of
Trent, as they would see if they would but face the facts.

“If the opinion of those who have declared that these Books
ought not to be published, or ought to be suppressed, wins
the day, I shall not fall claiming to have championed in the
struggle the fortunes of the Church or any great issue. No! but
relying on conscience and on the conviction that I must promote
the cause of God to the best of my poor ability, I shall
preserve my writings of whatsoever sort in my own house under my
own roof; with the hope that if I can but present a willing and
ready spirit I shall be not unworthy to serve the world, even
though opportunities and resources fail; for has not the Poet
said,

‘In magnis est voluisse satis.’

“In everything I have tried to follow the counsel of S.
Paul,--neglecting my own conscience, taking no care for my
bodily health, not seeking your money, but yourselves, not
trying to profit myself but to benefit the world.

“Finally, that there be no mistake as to the editions which I
have used in the compilation, I have appended the following
Index. Lest you experience difficulty in perusing it or strike
upon the rock which has proved fatal to others, I would have
you remember (being desirous of removing the obstacle which has
long troubled many readers) that I have devised a way by which
all future Editions may be referred to my pages, thus saving
readers the expense and trouble of buying Edition after Edition.
With these words of instruction, learned Reader, I would bid you
farewell. May God direct and preserve us and our studies to the
glory of His name and to the advancement of His Church.

“For the State and the Catholic Church of God these labours.

TH. JAMES, D.D.

“OXFORD, 1627.”

The preface to the Index itself reads as follows:

TO BE NOTED IN THIS CATALOGUE

“First, as regards the numerals 1, 2, 3, occurring throughout
the book.

“1. Denotes condemned authors, that is, authors whose religious
opinions are orthodox and pious, but whose books are prohibited.

“2. Denotes pontifical authors, in whose case caution or
expurgation is prescribed.

“3. Denotes works of doubtful authorship which are prohibited.

“But it must be understood that the inquisitors (if one may say so) made a rather imperfect classification under these heads. For the authors Aventinus, Erasmus, Palingenius, Bruciolus, etc., were placed in the first class, whereas they belong rightly in the second; and on the other hand, Adolphus Metkerchus, Lavinus Lemnius, and others, who ought to be in the first class, are placed in the second. And the third class, which should consist of doubtful works, contains a good many known authors whose names and surnames are clear as day to any one looking at the title-pages with one eye. This appears plainly, for example, in the case of two books, _Bello Papali_, and another of which the title is, _Beliae, sive consolatio peccatorum_.

“Secondly, it ought to be clear to everybody that books prohibited by the _pontificii_ (_i. e._ the Congregation of the Index, acting as the representatives of the Pope) ought to be sought with the more zeal and read with the greater avidity. For what the papists prohibit, God grants for our use and benefit, and the memory of those condemned by our adversaries is and should be blessed, since their names are doubtless inscribed in the Book of Life.

“Thirdly, a star(*) indicates editions or authors hitherto contained in the _Bibliotheca Oxoniensis_, which is to be set down as our gain since we need take no further trouble to make them known.

“Fourthly, the Greek letter denotes authors of the second class (almost all _pontificii_) who (unless they are emended and expurgated as the Indexes direct) set forth more clearly than the noonday sun the very doctrine of the Protestants, so that the _pontificii_ do not venture even to mutter against it. This is doubtless the work of God’s finger and of the inspiration of the Holy Ghost, who armed Midianite against Midianite, to their mutual slaughter.

“Fifthly, we have arranged all authors of whatever class in strict alphabetical order. Their names cannot be found so easily in the _Sandovillian_ or _Roman Index_, in comparison with which other Indexes are rubbish.

“Sixthly, in this alphabetical revision are included books, written whether in Latin or in French, Italian or Spanish, chiefly on religious subjects, by men who were in their own day not subject to condemnation at the hands of either God or men, but who, if they were now alive, could hardly, or not at all, escape the Inquisition and damnation to the shades of deeper hell. Moreover (to speak more plainly and to make the thing clear by examples taken from this book) the _pontificii_ are so far from being consistent that books hitherto praised and approved by worthy men are now transformed into prohibited books of the second or third class. In this way was treated even the _Evangelium Romanum prout a Clementis octavi manu Jacobs Davis Episcopo traditum est_; for after the book had (if the stories may be believed) worked miracles on the return of Perron to France, it was not only left neglected, but the possession of a copy was prohibited under penalty of excommunication.[151] Capucinus, inquisitor in the diocese of Naples, has his doubts about the Index of Quirogus (Madrid, 4VO, 1584), and for this reason he incurs censure in the Sandovillian Index, p. 365 (consult our catalogue) and the _Enchiridion Ecclesiasticum_, Ven., 1588 (see our catalogue) is by no means to be read unless _corrigatur_. In the same way, Gabriel Pentherbeus’ book on The Destruction of Evil Books is not always free from the censure of others. What need of more examples? The Defence against the Reformers, according to the principles of S. Francis, S.D.N., by Manfred (and, good God, what a man) is altogether prohibited, unless I have overlooked something. If so many and such men do not escape the hands, or rather the claws of their own party, who can guarantee safety to a book composed by any author whatever? Not Aesculapius himself, their God, their lord Pope, ventured to promise this, since Clement VIII changed the books of his predecessor, Sixtus V, with no consideration for the industry involved, on the ground of typographical errors, a most glorious lie. There are many more cases of this sort worthy of notice, but it has seemed best to mention but these few facts at present. Let the rest be left in the hands of the intelligent reader, or postponed to another time.

“Finally, it must be carefully noted that the censures sometimes recoil upon the censors themselves, for no law is juster than that the very inquisitors should be revised, corrected, and altered, under the rod. The complete works of Beatus Arias Montanus for one were most severely castigated by the first inquisitors and expurgators. This is done (strange but true) on page 55 of the Index Sandovilliano and on page 39 of the Roman Index, to say nothing of the Indexes named above. Are more instances wanted?”