Chapter III: Word-Building——rules and Applications

There are a few rules and applications of the principles of word-formation which may be found fully treated in the chapter on “Orthography” at the beginning of the dictionary, but which we present here very briefly, together with a summary of principles already discussed.

Rule 1. _F, l,_ and _s_ at the end of a monosyllable after a single vowel are commonly doubled. The exceptions are the cases in which _s_ forms the plural or possessive case of a noun, or third person singular of the verb, and the following words: _clef, if, of, pal, sol, as, gas, has, was, yes, gris, his, is, thus, us. L_ is not doubled at the end of words of more than one syllable, as _parallel, willful,_ etc.

Rule 2. No other consonants thus situated are doubled. Exceptions: _ebb, add, odd, egg, inn, bunn, err, burr, purr, butt, fizz, fuzz, buzz,_ and a few very uncommon words, for which see the chapter in the dictionary above referred to.

Rule 3. A consonant standing at the end of a word immediately after a diphthong or double vowel is never doubled. The word _guess_ is only an apparent exception, since _u_ does not form a combination with _e_ but merely makes the _g_ hard.

Rule 4. Monosyllables ending in the sound of _ic_ represented by _c_ usually take _k_ after the _c_, as in _back, knock,_ etc. Exceptions: _talc, zinc, roc, arc,_ and a few very uncommon words. Words of more than one syllable ending in _ic_ or _iac_ do not take _k_ after the _c_ (except _derrick_), as for example _elegiac, cubic, music,_ etc. If the _c_ is preceded by any other vowel than _i_ or _ia, k_ is added to the _c_, as in _barrack, hammock, wedlock_. Exceptions: _almanac, havoc,_ and a very few uncommon words.

Rule 5. To preserve the hard sound of _c_ when a syllable is added which begins with _e, i,_ or _y, k_ is placed after final _c_, as in _trafficking, zincky, colicky_.

Rule 6. _X_ and _h_ are never doubled, _v_ and _j_ seldom. _G_ with the soft sound cannot be doubled, because then the first _g_ would be made hard. Example: _mag′ic. Q_ always appears with _u_ following it, and here _u_ has the value of the consonant _w_ and in no way combines or is counted with the vowel which may follow it. For instance _squatting_ is written as if _squat_ contained but one vowel.

Rule 7. In simple derivatives a single final consonant following a single vowel in a syllable that receives an accent is doubled when another syllable beginning with a vowel is added.

Rule 8. When accent comes on a syllable standing next to the last, it has a tendency to lengthen the vowel; but on syllables farther from the end, the tendency is to shorten the vowel without doubling the consonant. For example, _na′tion_ (_a_ long), but _na′tional_ (_a_ short); _gram′mar,_ but _grammat′ical_.

Rule 9. Silent _e_ at the end of a word is usually dropped when a syllable beginning with a vowel is added. The chief exceptions are words in which the silent _e_ is retained to preserve the soft sound of _c_ or _g_.

Rule 10. Plurals are regularly formed by adding _s_; but if the word end in a sibilant sound (_sh, zh, z, s, j, ch, x_), the plural is formed by adding _es,_ which is pronounced as a separate syllable. If the word end{s} in a sibilant sound followed by silent _e,_ that _e_ unites with the _s_ to form a separate syllable. Examples: _seas, cans; boxes, churches, brushes; changes, services_.

Rule 11. Final _y_ is regularly changed to _i_ when a syllable is added. In plurals it is changed to _ies,_ except when preceded by a vowel, when a simple _s_ is added without change of the _y_. Examples: _clumsy, clumsily_; _city, cities_; _chimney, chimneys_. We have _colloquies_ because _u_ after _q_ has the value of the consonant _w_. There are a few exceptions to the above rule. When two _i_'s would come together, the _y_ is not changed, as in _carrying_.

Rule 12. Words ending, in a double consonant commonly retain the double consonant in derivatives. The chief exception is _all,_ which drops one _l,_ as in _almighty, already, although,_ etc. According to English usage other words ending in double _l_ drop one _l_ in derivatives, and we have _skilful_ (for _skillful_), _wilful_ (for _willful_), etc., but Webster does not approve this custom. _Ful_ is an affix, not the word _full_ in a compound.

EXCEPTIONS AND IRREGULARITIES.

1. Though in the case of simple words ending in a double consonant the derivatives usually retain the double consonant, _pontific_ and _pontifical_ (from _pontiff_) are exceptions, and when three letters of the same kind would come together, one is usually dropped, as in _agreed_ (_agree_ plus _ed_), _illy_ (_ill_ plus _ly_), _belless,_ etc. We may write _bell-less,_ etc., however, in the case of words in which three _l_'s come together, separating the syllables by a hyphen.

2. To prevent two _i_'s coming together, we change _i_ to _y_ in _dying, tying, vying,_ etc., from _die, tie,_ and _vie_.

3. Derivatives from _adjectives_ ending in _y_ do not change _y_ to _i_, and we have _shyly, shyness, slyly,_ etc., though _drier_ and _driest_ from _dry_ are used. The _y_ is not changed before _ship,_ as in _secretaryship, ladyship,_ etc., nor in _babyhood_ and _ladykin_.

4. We have already seen that _y_ is not changed in derivatives when it is preceded by another vowel, as in the case of _joyful,_ etc.; but we find exceptions to this principle in _daily, laid, paid, said, saith, slain,_ and _staid_; and many write _gaily_ and _gaiety,_ though Webster prefers _gayly_ and _gayety_.

5. Nouns of one syllable ending in _o_ usually take a silent _e_ also, as _toe, doe, shoe,_ etc, but other parts of speech do not take the _e,_ as _do, to, so, no,_ and the like, and nouns of more than one syllable, as _potato, tomato,_ etc., omit the _e_. Monosyllables ending in _oe_ usually retain the silent _e_ in derivatives, and we have _shoeing, toeing,_ etc. The commoner English nouns ending in _o_ also have the peculiarity of forming the plural by adding _es_ instead of _s,_ and we have _potatoes, tomatoes, heroes, echoes, cargoes, embargoes, mottoes_; but nouns a trifle more foreign form their plurals regularly, as _solos, zeros, pianos,_ etc. When a vowel precedes the _o,_ the plural is always formed regularly. The third person singular of the verb _woo_ is _wooes,_ of _do does,_ of _go goes,_ etc., in analogy with the plurals of the nouns ending in _o_.

6. The following are exceptions to the rule that silent _e_ is retained in derivatives when the added syllable begins with a consonant: _judgment, acknowledgment, lodgment, wholly, abridgment, wisdom,_ etc.

7. Some nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ change those terminations to _ve_ in the plural, as _beef——beeves, leaf——leaves, knife——knives, loaf——loaves, life——lives, wife——wives, thief——thieves, wolf——wolves, self——selves, shelf——shelves, calf——calves, half——halves, elf——elves, sheaf——sheaves_. We have _chief——chiefs_ and _handkerchief——handkerchiefs,_ however, and the same is true of all nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ except those given above.

8. A few nouns form their plurals by changing a single vowel, as _man——men, woman——women, goose——geese, foot——feet, tooth——teeth,_ etc. Compounds follow the rule of the simple form, but the plural of _talisman_ is _talismans,_ of _German_ is _Germans,_ of _musselman_ is _musselmans,_ because these are not compounds of _men_.

9. A few plurals are formed by adding _en,_ as _brother——brethren, child——children, ox——oxen_.

10. _Brother, pea, die,_ and _penny_ have each two plurals, which differ in meaning. _Brothers_ refers to male children of the same parents, _brethren_ to members of a religious body or the like; _peas_ is used when a definite number is mentioned, _pease_ when bulk is referred to; _dies_ are instruments used for stamping, etc., _dice_ cubical blocks used in games of chance; _pennies_ refer to a given number of coins, _pence_ to an amount reckoned by the coins. _Acquaintance_ is sometimes used in the plural for _acquaintances_ with no difference of meaning.

11. A few words are the same in the plural as in the singular, as _sheep, deer, trout,_ etc.

12. Some words derived from foreign languages retain the plurals of those languages. For example: datum——data criterion——criteria genus——genera larva——larvæ crisis——crises matrix——matrices focus——foci monsieur——messieurs

13. A few allow either a regular plural or the plural retained from the foreign language: formula——formulæ or formulas beau——beaux or beaus index——indices or indexes stratum——strata or stratums bandit——banditti or bandits cherub——cherubim or cherubs seraph——seraphim or seraphs

14. In very loose compounds in which a noun is followed by an adjective or the like, the noun commonly takes the plural ending, as in _courts-martial, sons-in-law, cousins-german_. When the adjective is more closely joined, the plural ending must be placed at the end of the entire word. Thus we have _cupfuls, handfuls,_ etc.

Different Spellings for the same Sound.

Perhaps the greatest difficulty in spelling English words arises from the fact that words and syllables pronounced alike are often spelled differently, and there is no rule to guide us in distinguishing. In order to fix their spelling, in mind we should know what classes of words are doubtful, and when we come to them constantly refer to the dictionary. To try to master these except in the connections in which we wish to use them the writer believes to be worse than folly. By studying such words in pairs, confusion is very likely to be fixed forever in the mind. Most spelling-books commit this error, and so are responsible for a considerable amount of bad spelling, which their method has actually introduced and instilled into the child's mind.

Persons who read much are not likely to make these errors, since they remember words by the form as it appeals to the eye, not by the sound in which there is no distinction. The study of such words should therefore be conducted chiefly while writing or reading, not orally.

While we must memorize, one at a time as we come to them in reading or writing, the words or syllables in which the same sound is represented by different spellings, still we should know clearly what classes of words to be on the lookout for. We will now consider some of the classes of words in which a single syllable may be spelled in various ways.

Vowel Substitutions in Simple Words.

ea for ĕ short or e obscure before r.

already bread breakfast breast breadth death earth dead deaf dread early earn earnest earth feather head health heaven heavy heard lead learn leather meadow measure pearl pleasant read search sergeant spread steady thread threaten tread wealth weather

ee for ē long.

agree beef breed cheek cheese creek creep cheer deer deed deep feed feel feet fleece green heel heed indeed keep keel keen kneel meek need needle peel peep queer screen seed seen sheet sheep sleep sleeve sneeze squeeze street speech steeple steet sweep sleet teeth weep weed week

ea for ē long.

appear bead beach bean beast beat beneath breathe cease cheap cheat clean clear congeal cream crease creature dear deal dream defeat each ear eager easy east eaves feast fear feat grease heap hear heat increase knead lead leaf leak lean least leave meat meal mean neat near peas (pease) peal peace peach please preach reach read reap rear reason repeat scream seam seat season seal speak steam streak stream tea team tear tease teach veal weave weak wheat wreath (wreathe) year yeast

ai for ā long.

afraid aid braid brain complain daily dairy daisy drain dainty explain fail fain gain gait gaiter grain hail jail laid maid mail maim nail paid pail paint plain prairie praise quail rail rain raise raisin remain sail saint snail sprain stain straight strain tail train vain waist wait waive

ai for i or e obscure.

bargain captain certain curtain mountain

oa for ō long.

board boat cloak coax coal coast coarse float foam goat gloam groan hoarse load loan loaf oak oar oats roast road roam shoal soap soar throat toad toast

ie for ē long.

believe chief fierce grief niece priest piece thief

ei for ē long.

neither receipt receive

In _sieve, ie_ has the sound of _i_ short.

In _eight, skein, neighbor, rein, reign, sleigh, vein, veil, weigh,_ and _weight, ei_ has the sound of _a_ long.

In _height, sleight,_ and a few other words _ei_ has the sound of _i_ long.

In _great, break,_ and _steak ea_ has the sound of _a_ long; in _heart_ and _hearth_ it has the sound of _a_ Italian, and in _tear_ and _bear_ it has the sound of _a_ as in _care_.

Silent Consonants etc.

although answer bouquet bridge calf calm catch castle caught chalk climb ditch dumb edge folks comb daughter debt depot forehead gnaw hatchet hedge hiccough hitch honest honor hustle island itch judge judgment knack knead kneel knew knife knit knuckle knock knot know knowledge lamb latch laugh limb listen match might muscle naughty night notch numb often palm pitcher pitch pledge ridge right rough scene scratch should sigh sketch snatch soften stitch switch sword talk though through thought thumb tough twitch thigh walk watch whole witch would write written wrapper wring wrong wrung wrote wrestle yacht

Unusual Spellings.

The following words have irregularities peculiar to themselves.

ache any air apron among again aunt against biscuit build busy business bureau because carriage coffee collar color country couple cousin cover does dose done double diamond every especially February flourish flown fourteen forty fruit gauge glue gluey guide goes handkerchief honey heifer impatient iron juice liar lion liquor marriage mayor many melon minute money necessary ninety ninth nothing nuisance obey ocean once onion only other owe owner patient people pigeon prayer pray prepare rogue scheme scholar screw shoe shoulder soldier stomach sugar succeed precede proceed procedure suspicion they tongue touch trouble wagon were where wholly

C with the sound of s.

In the following words the sound of _s_ is represented by _c_ followed by a vowel that makes this letter soft:

city face ice juice lace necessary nuisance once pencil police policy pace race rice space trace twice trice thrice nice price slice lice spice circus citron circumstance centre cent cellar certain circle concert concern cell dunce decide December dance disgrace exercise excellent except force fleece fierce furnace fence grocer grace icicle instance innocent indecent decent introduce juice justice lettuce medicine mercy niece ounce officer patience peace piece place principal principle parcel produce prejudice trace voice receipt recite cite sauce saucer sentence scarcely since silence service crevice novice

Words ending in cal and cle.

Words in _cal_ are nearly all derived from other words ending in _ic,_ as _classical, cubical, clerical,_ etc. Words ending in _cle_ are (as far as English is concerned) original words, as _cuticle, miracle, manacle,_ etc. When in doubt, ask the question if, on dropping the _al_ or _le,_ a complete word ending in _ic_ would be left. If such a word is left, the ending is _al,_ if not, it is probably _le_.

Er and re.

Webster spells _theater, center, meter,_ etc., with the termination _er,_ but most English writers prefer _re. Meter_ is more used to denote a device for measuring (as a “gas meter”), _meter_ as the French unit of length (in the “Metric system”). In words like _acre_ even Webster retains _re_ because _er_ would make the _c_ (or _g_) soft.

Words ending in er, ar, or.

First, let it be said that in most words these three syllables (_er, ar, or_), are pronounced very nearly if not exactly alike (except a few legal terms in or, like _mort′gageor_), and we should not try to give an essentially different sound to _ar_ or _or_* from that we give to _er_. The ending _er_ is the regular one, and those words ending in _ar_ or _or_ are very few in number. They constitute the exceptions.

*While making no especial difference in the vocalization of these syllables, careful speakers dwell on them a trifle longer than they do on _er_.

Common words ending in _ar_ with the sound of _er_:

liar collar beggar burglar solar cedar jugular scholar calendar secular dollar grammar tabular poplar pillar sugar jocular globular mortar lunar vulgar popular insular Templar ocular muscular nectar similar tubular altar (for worship) singular

In some words we have the same syllable with the same sound in the next to the last syllable, as in _solitary, preliminary, ordinary, temporary_ etc. The syllable _ard_ with the sound of _erd_ is also found, as in _standard, wizard, mustard, mallard,_ etc.

Common words ending in _or_ with the sound of _er_:

honor valor mayor sculptor prior ardor clamor labor tutor warrior razor flavor auditor juror favor tumor editor vigor actor author conductor savior visitor elevator parlor ancestor captor creditor victor error proprietor arbor chancellor debtor doctor instructor successor rigor senator suitor traitor donor inventor odor conqueror senior tenor tremor bachelor junior oppressor possessor liquor surveyor vapor governor languor professor spectator competitor candor harbor meteor orator rumor splendor elector executor factor generator impostor innovator investor legislator narrator navigator numerator operator originator perpetrator personator predecessor protector prosecutor projector reflector regulator sailor senator separator solicitor supervisor survivor tormentor testator transgressor translator divisor director dictator denominator creator counsellor councillor administrator aggressor agitator arbitrator assessor benefactor collector compositor conspirator constructor contributor tailor

The _o_ and _a_ in such words as the above are retained in the English spelling because they were found in the Latin roots from which the words were derived. Some, though not all, of the above words in or are usually spelled in England with our, as _splendour, saviour,_ etc., and many books printed in this country for circulation in England retain this spelling. See {the end of the a}p{pendix}ִ.

Words ending in able and ible.

Another class of words in which we are often confused is those which end in _able_ or _ible_. The great majority end in _able,_ but a few derived from Latin words in _ibilis_ retain the _i_. A brief list of common words ending in _ible_ is subjoined:

compatible compressible convertible forcible enforcible gullible horrible sensible terrible possible visible perceptible susceptible audible credible combustible eligible intelligible irascible inexhaustible reversible plausible permissible accessible digestible responsible admissible fallible flexible incorrigible irresistible ostensible tangible contemptible divisible discernible corruptible edible legible indelible indigestible

Of course when a soft _g_ precedes the doubtful letter, as in _legible,_ we are always certain that we should write _i,_ not _a_. All words formed from plain English words add _able_. Those familiar with Latin will have little difficulty in recognizing the _i_ as an essential part of the root.

Words ending in ent and ant, and ence and ance.

Another class of words concerning which we must also feel doubt is that terminating in _ence_ and _ance,_ or _ant_ and _ent_. All these words are from the Latin, and the difference in termination is usually due to whether they come from verbs of the first conjugation or of other conjugations. As there is no means of distinguishing, we must continually refer to the dictionary till we have learned each one. We present a brief list:

ent confident belligerent independent transcendent competent insistent consistent convalescent correspondent corpulent dependent despondent expedient impertinent inclement insolvent intermittent prevalent superintendent recipient proficient efficient eminent excellent fraudulent latent opulent convenient corpulent descendent different ant abundant accountant arrogant assailant assistant attendant clairvoyant combatant recreant consonant conversant defendant descendent discordant elegant exorbitant important incessant irrelevant luxuriant malignant petulant pleasant poignant reluctant stagnant triumphant vagrant warrant attendant repentant

A few of these words may have either termination according to the meaning, as _confident_ (adj.) and _confidant_ (noun). Usually the noun ends in _ant,_ the adjective in _ent_. Some words ending in _ant_ are used both as noun and as adjective, as _attendant_. The abstract nouns in _ence_ or _ance_ correspond to the adjectives. But there are several of which the adjective form does not appear in the above list:

ence abstinence existence innocence diffidence diligence essence indigence negligence obedience occurrence reverence vehemence residence violence reminiscence intelligence presence prominence prudence reference reverence transference turbulence consequence indolence patience beneficence preference ance annoyance cognizance vengeance compliance conveyance ignorance grievance fragrance pittance alliance defiance acquaintance deliverance appearance accordance countenance sustenance remittance connivance resistance nuisance utterance variance vigilance maintenance forbearance temperance repentance

Vowels e and i before ous.

The vowels _e_ and _i_ sometimes have the value of the consonant _y,_ as _e_ in _righteous_. There is also no clear distinction in sound between _eous_ and _ions_. The following lists are composed chiefly of words in which the _e_ or the _i_ has its usual value.* In which words does _e_ or _i_ have the consonant value of _y?_

eons aqueous gaseous hideous courteous instantaneous miscellaneous simultaneous spontaneous righteous gorgeous nauseous outrageous ious. copious dubious impious delirious impervious amphibious ceremonious deleterious supercilious punctilious religious sacrilegious

Notice that all the accented vowels except _i_ in antepenultimate syllables are long before this termination.

Words ending in ize, ise, and yse.

In English we have a few verbs ending in _ise,_ though _ize_ is the regular ending of most verbs of this class, at least according to the American usage. In England _ise_ is often substituted for _ize_. The following words derived through the French must always be written with the termination _ise_:

advertise catechise compromise devise divertise exercise misprise supervise advise chastise criticise disfranchise emprise exorcise premise surmise affranchise circumcise demise disguise enfranchise franchise reprise surprise apprise comprise despise disenfranchise enterprise manumise

A few words end in _yse_ (yze): _analyse, paralyse_. They are all words from the Greek.

Words ending in cious, sion, tion, etc.

The common termination is _tious,_ but there are a few words ending in _cious,_ among them the following:

avaricious pernicious tenacious capricious suspicious precocious judicious vicious sagacious malicious conscious

The endings _tion_ and _sion_ are both common; _sion_ usually being the termination of words originally ending in _d, de, ge, mit, rt, se,_ and _so,_ as _extend——extension_.

_Cion_ and _cian_ are found only in a few words, such as _suspicion, physician_. Also, while _tial_ is most common by far, we have _cial,_ as in _special, official,_ etc.

Special words with c sounded like s.

We have already given a list of simple words in which _c_ is used for _s,_ but the following may be singled out because they are troublesome:

acquiesce paucity reticence vacillate coincidence publicity license tenacity crescent prejudice scenery condescend effervesce proboscis scintillate oscillate rescind transcend

Words with obscure Vowels.

The following words are troublesome because some vowel, usually in the next to the last syllable unaccented, is so obscured that the pronunciation does not give us a key to it:

a almanac apathy avarice cataract citadel dilatory malady ornament palatable propagate salary separate extravagant e celebrate desecrate supplement liquefy petroleum rarefy skeleton telescope tragedy gayety lineal renegade secretary deprecate execrate implement maleable promenade recreate stupefy tenement vegetate academy remedy revenue serenade i expiate privilege rarity stupidity verify epitaph retinue nutriment vestige medicine impediment prodigy serenity terrify edifice orifice sacrilege specimen

Words ending in cy and sy.

_Cy_ is the common termination, but some words are troublesome because they terminate in _sy. Prophecy_ is the noun, _prophesy_ the verb, distinguished in pronunciation by the fact that the final _y_ in the verb is long, in the noun it is short. The following are a few words in _sy_ which deserve notice:

controversy embassy hypocrisy fantasy ecstasy heresy courtesy

________

The above lists are for reference and for review. No one, in school or out, should attempt to memorize these words offhand. The only rational way to learn them is by reference to the dictionary when one has occasion to write them, and to observe them in reading. These two habits, the use of the dictionary and observing the formation of words in reading, will prove more effective in the mastery of words of this character than three times the work applied in any other way. The usual result of the effort to memorize in lists is confusion so instilled that it can never be eradicated.

By way of review it is often well to look over such lists as those above, and common words which one is likely to use and which one feels one ought to have mastered, may be checked with a pencil, and the attention concentrated upon them for a few minutes. It will be well also to compare such words as _stupefy_ and _stupidity, rarity_ and _rarefy_.

Homonyms.

The infatuation of modern spelling-book makers has introduced the present generation to a serious difficulty in spelling which was not accounted great in olden times. The pupil now has forced upon him a large number of groups of words pronounced alike but spelled differently.

The peculiar trouble with these words is due to the confusion between the two forms, and to increase this the writers of spelling-books have insisted on placing the two forms side by side in black type or italic so that the pupil may forever see those two forms dancing together before his eyes whenever he has occasion to use one of them. The attempt is made to distinguish them by definitions or use in sentences; but as the mind is not governed by logical distinctions so much as by association, the pupil is taught to associate each word with the word which may cause him trouble, not especially with the meaning to which the word ought to be so wedded that there can be no doubt or separation.

These words should no doubt receive careful attention; but the association of one with the other should never be suggested to the pupil: it is time enough to distinguish the two when the pupil has actually confused them. The effort should always be made to fix in the pupil's mind from the beginning an association of each word with that which will be a safe key at all times. Thus _hear_ may be associated (should always be associated) with _ear, their_ (_theyr_) with _they, here_ and _there_ with each other and with _where,_ etc. It will also be found that in most cases one word is more familiar than the other, as for instances _been_ and _bin_. We learn _been_ and never would think of confusing it with _bin_ were we not actually taught to do so. In such cases it is best to see that the common word is quite familiar; then the less common word may be introduced, and nine chances out of ten the pupil will not dream of confusion. In a few cases in which both words are not very often used, and are equally common or uncommon, as for instance _mantle_ and _mantel,_ distinction may prove useful as a method of teaching, but generally it will be found best to drill upon one of the words, finding some helpful association for it, until it is thoroughly mastered; then the pupil will know that the other word is spelled in the other way, and think no more about it.

The following quotations contain words which need special drill. This is best secured by writing ten or twenty sentences containing each word, an effort being made to use the word in as many different ways and connections as possible. Thus we may make sentences containing _there,_ as follows:

There, where his kind and gentle face looks down upon me, I used to stand and gaze upon the marble form of Lincoln.

Here and there we found a good picture.

There was an awful crowd.

I stopped there a few moments.

Etc., etc.

Quotations.

Heaven's _gate_ is shut to him who comes alone. ——_Whittier_.

Many a _tale_ of former day Shall wing the laughing hours away. ——_Byron_.

Fair hands the broken grain shall sift, And _knead_ its meal of gold. ——_Whittier_.

They are slaves who fear to speak For the fallen and the _weak. ——Lowell_.

If any man hath ears to _hear,_ let him hear. And he saith unto them, Take heed what ye _hear. ——Bible_.

Hark! I _hear_ music on the zephyr's wing. ——_Shelley_.

_Row,_ brothers, _row,_ the stream runs fast, The rapids are near, and the daylight's past! ——_Moore_.

Each boatman bending to his _oar,_ With measured sweep the burden bore. ——_Scott_.

The visions of my youth are past, _Too_ bright, _too_ beautiful to last. ——_Bryant_.

(We seldom err in the use of _to_ and _two_; but in how many different ways may _too_ properly be used?)

With kind words and kinder looks he _bade_ me go my way. ——_Whittier_. (The _a_ in _bade_ is short.)

Then, as to greet the sunbeam's birth, Rises the choral _hymn_ of earth. ——_Mrs. Hemans_.

Come thou with me to the vineyards nigh, And we'll pluck the grapes of the richest _dye. ——Mrs. Hemans_.

If any one attempts to _haul_ down the American flag, shoot him on the spot. ——_John A. Dix_.

In all the trade of war, no _feat_ Is nobler than a brave retreat. ——_Samuel Butler_.

His form was bent, and his _gait_ was slow, His long thin hair was white as snow. ——_George Arnold_.

Green pastures she views in the midst of the dale, Down which she so often has tripped with her _pail. ——Wordsworth_.

Like Aesop's fox when he had lost his _tail_, would have all his fellow-foxes cut off theirs. ——_Robert Burton_.

He that is thy friend indeed, He will help thee in thy _need. ——Shakspere_.

Flowery May, who from her green lap throws The yellow cowslip, and the _pale_ primrose. ——_Milton_.

What, keep a _week_ away? Seven days and seven nights? Eight score and eight hours? ——_Shakspere_.

Spring and Autumn _here_ Danc'd hand in hand. ——_Milton_.

Chasing the wild _deer,_ and following the _roe,_ My heart's in the Highlands wherever I go. ——_Burns_.

Th' allotted hour of daily sport is _o'er,_ And Learning beckons from her temple's door? ——_Byron_.

_To_ know, to esteem, to love, and then to part, Makes up life's tale to many a feeling heart. ——_Coleridge_.

Bad men excuse their faults, good men will leave them. ——_Ben Jonson_. He was a man, take _him_ for all in all, I shall not look upon his like again. ——_Shakspere_.

There will little learning _die_ then, that day thou art hanged. ——_Shakspere_.

Be merry all, be merry all, With holly dress the festive _hall. ——W. R. Spencer_.

When youth and pleasure meet, To chase the glowing hours with flying _feet. ——Byron_.

Quotations containing words in the following list may be found in “Wheeler's Graded Studies in Great Authors: A Complete Speller,” from which the preceding quotations were taken. Use these words in sentences, and if you are not sure of them, look them up in the dictionary, giving especial attention to quotations containing them.

ale dear rode ore blew awl thyme new ate lief cell dew sell won praise high prays hie be inn ail road rowed by great aught foul mean seam moan knot rap bee wrap not loan told cite hair seed night knit made peace in waist bread climb rice male none plane pore fete poll sweet throe borne root been load feign forte vein kill rime shown wrung hew ode ere wrote isle throne vane seize sore slight freeze knave fane reek Rome rye style flea faint peak throw bourn route soar sleight frieze nave reck our stair capitol alter pearl might kiln rhyme shone rung hue pier strait wreck sear Hugh lyre whorl surge purl altar cannon ascent principle

blue tier so all two time knew ate leaf one due sew tear buy lone hare night clime sight tolled site knights maid cede beech waste bred piece sum plum e'er cent son weight tier rein weigh heart wood paws heard sent sun some air tares rain way wait threw fir hart pause would pear fair mane lead meat rest scent bough reign scene sail bier pray right toe yew sale prey rite rough tow steal done bare their creek wares urn plait arc bury peal doe grown flue know sea lie mete lynx bow stare belle read grate ark ought slay thrown vain bin lode fain fort fowl mien write mown sole drafts fore bass beat seem steel dun sere wreak roam wry flee feint pique mite seer idle pistol flower holy serf borough capital canvas indict martial kernel carat bridle lesson council collar levy accept affect deference emigrant prophesy sculptor plaintive populous ingenious lineament desert extent pillow stile mantle weather barren current miner cellar mettle pendent advice illusion assay felicity genius profit statute poplar precede lightning patience devise disease insight dissent decease extant dessert ingenuous liniment stature sculpture fissure facility essay allusion advise pendant metal seller minor complement

through fur fare main pare beech meet wrest led bow seen earn plate wear rote peel you berry flew know dough groan links see lye bell soul draught four base beet heel but steaks coarse choir cord chaste boar butt stake waive choose stayed cast maze ween hour birth horde aisle core bear there creak bore ball wave chews staid caste maize heel bawl course quire chord chased tide sword mail nun plain pour fate wean hoard berth descent incite pillar device patients lightening proceed plaintiff prophet immigrant fisher difference presents effect except levee choler counsel lessen bridal carrot colonel marshal indite assent sleigh currant baron wether mantel principal burrow canon surf wholly serge whirl liar idyl flour pistil idol rise rude team corps peer straight teem reed beau compliment

The preceding list contains several pairs of words often confused with each other though they are not pronounced exactly alike.

Of course when confusion actually exists in a person's mind, a drill on distinctions is valuable. But in very many cases no confusion exists, and in such cases it is worse than unfortunate to introduce it to the mind. In any case it is by far the better way to drill upon each word separately, using it in sentences in as many different ways as possible; and the more familiar of two words pronounced alike or nearly alike should be taken up first. When that is fixed, passing attention may be given to the less familiar; but it is a great error to give as much attention to the word that will be little used as to the word which will be used often. In the case of a few words such as _principle_ and _principal, counsel_ and _council,_ confusion is inevitable, and the method of distinction and contrast must be used; but even in cases like this, the method of studying each word exhaustively by itself will undoubtedly yield good results.

Division of Words into Syllables.

In writing it is often necessary to break words at the ends of lines. This can properly be done only between syllables, and this is the usage in the United States for the most part, though in Great Britain words are usually divided so as to show their etymological derivation.

The following rules will show the general usage in this country:

1. All common English prefixes and suffixes are kept undivided, even if the pronunciation would seem to require division. Thus, _tion,_ and similar endings, _ble, cions,_ etc., are never divided. The termination _ed_ may be carried over to the next line even when it is not pronounced, as in _scorn-ed,_ but this is objectionable and should be avoided when possible. When a Latin or other foreign prefix appears in English as an essential part of the root of the word, and the pronunciation requires a different division from that which would separate the original parts, the word is divided as pronounced, as _pref′ace_ (because we pronounce the _e_ short), _prog′-ress,_ etc. (The English divide thus: _pre-face, pro-gress_.)

2. Otherwise, words are divided as pronounced, and the exact division may be found in the dictionary. When a vowel is followed by a single consonant and is short, the consonant stands with the syllable which precedes it, especially if accented. Examples: _gram-mat′-ic-al, math-e-mat′-ics_. (The people of Great Britain write these words _gram-ma-ti-cal, ma-the-ma-ti¬c{s}ªł,_ etc.)

3. Combinations of consonants forming digraphs are never divided. Examples: ng, th, ph.

4. Double consonants are divided. Examples: _Run-ning, drop-ped_ (if absolutely necessary to divide this word), _sum-mer_.

5. Two or more consonants, unless they are so united as to form digraphs or fixed groups, are usually divided according to pronunciation. Examples: _pen-sive, sin-gle_ (here the _n_ has the _ng_ nasal sound, and the _g_ is connected with the _l_), _doc-tor, con-ster-nation, ex-am-ple, sub-stan-tive_.

6. A vowel sounded long should as a rule close the syllable, except at the end of a word. Examples: _na′-tion_ (we must also write _na′-tion-al,_ because _tion_ cannot be divided), _di-men′-sion, deter′min-ate, con-no-ta′-tion_.

Miscellaneous examples: _ex-haust′-ive, pre-par′a-tive, sen-si-bil′-i-ty, joc′-u-lar-y, pol-y-phon′-ic, op-po′-nent_.