Chapter III: Preface: 11 (3)

In this respect, the quotation from Witsen, which appears on page 47 of his well known work, becomes really important: _De Vriezen komt de lof toe van de herstelde scheepsbouw in Nederland, zoo de meeste schryvers willen_[7]. The question is, indeed, that of a development of its own in the North-Western part of Europe; the special and identical forms, still found to-day, to a great extent, from Denmark to Belgium, are sufficient proof of the fact.

This is why the Baltic may be spoken of broadly as the Northern centre, in opposition to the Mediterranean Sea as the Southern centre. The development of shipbuilding had this Northern centre as its starting point and finally reached its highest mark in the Netherlands. France and England came later.

The art of shipbuilding spread gradually through the Netherlands, which continued to go forward until the time when France dominated all by the continental blockade.

[Sidenote: II 72]

Let us return now to the types of ships. It has been said, that several boats of the Vikings have been found. One, especially, was discovered at Haugen in 1867, and another at Gokstad in 1880. Before that, in 1865, three had already been found in Jutland three specimens which seemed to date from the Vth century. The largest of these was 70 feet long.

[Sidenote: II 74]

A Viking vessel was also discovered at Charbuw, near Pommeren. The last discovery was made in the suburbs of Oxenberg, near Christianiafjord, Norway, in 1904.

All these boats are for oars; still sails could be used, they being attached to the mast put up in the centre of the vessel. Considering their beam, these ships are not so long as the vessels for oars of the Mediterranean; in fact, their breadth is to their length as 1:5. They are full near the middle and become narrower at the bow and stern. The stem and the sternpost, which are both curved, rise very high above the water. An oar attached to the stern was used as a rudder.

Their construction differed also from that of the Mediterranean vessels; here, only ships having smooth sides are met with, whereas the Viking boats are clinker built.

The “Gokstad” is one of the most beautiful specimens of this type. ~Holmes~ has described it in detail, in his fine work _Ancient and Modern Ships_, pp. 55 _et seq._ This vessel is 77 feet and 11 inches long, 16 feet and 7 inches broad and 5 feet and 9 inches deep; it is also clinker built and rivetted.

[Sidenote: II 76]

[Sidenote: II 80]

Turning now toward Norway, let the fishing boats still in use there to-day be considered; the resemblance of these boats to the Viking ship will be found striking both in shape and structure. It is this which makes ~Holmes~ say (p. 60): “Such an instance of persistency in type is without parallel in the history of shipbuilding”.

It has been seen that this fact occurs not only in Norway but among all nations. There is nothing to cause astonishment in again finding the most ancient models in fishing boats. No class is more conservative than are fishermen, who build their barks as their forefathers did and on whom necessity alone can force new forms.

[Sidenote: II 103]

Aside from the specimens discovered in the North, little is left of the oldest types of ships. There is nothing left of them save a few vague descriptions and imperfect reproductions. In this order of ideas, the coat of arms of the city of Amsterdam is the best known document which the Netherlands supplies. ~Witsen~’s work contains, on page 362, several reproductions of these arms dating from different epochs.

[Sidenote: II 112]

[Sidenote: II 105]

[Sidenote: II 110]

~Holmes~ reproduces, besides, the ships which figure on an old Bayeux tapestry (1066), as well as the “Sandwich Seal” of 1238, the “Dover Seal” of 1284 and the “Pool Seal” of 1325 (pp. 67 and 68). These three seals agree with the oldest of the arms of Amsterdam and the ship which they carry is, in every respect, similar to that of the said city. Too much importance cannot be attached, however, to this detail, because, just as the lion of heraldry is very little like a real lion, it is to be supposed that the heraldic ship is not a faithful reproduction of the real type.

The old illustrated Bible of 1200-1220, preserved in the Royal Library of The Hague, and which seems to have come from Northern France, contains also a remarkable reproduction; the type of boat which it gives is also like the preceding ones.

[Sidenote: II 112]

The identity of all these figures allows it to be supposed that a single type of ship ruled in Western Europe; while the clearly pointed out timbers of the planking shows clinker built work.

[Sidenote: II 78]

The reproduction of the Bayeux tapestry shows, besides, that the sail was very early in use; the pilot of one of the ships shown there holds the sheet in his hand. Besides--and this fact is worthy of notice--these vessels all have sensibly vertical stems and sternposts, just as they are still found in our times on a few Norwegian fishing boats.

The “cog”, the vessel in the arms of Amsterdam, is a very well known mediæval type, of which the importance becomes marked in Western and Central Europe from and after the XIIIth century, when the Hanse towns and the Frisians improved it greatly.

This ship, which was very broad for its length, was hard to board, whence its usefulness in time of war.

The “cog” seems to date back further than the institution of the Hanseatic league (1250) judging by the fact that its name was known well before this date. Thus, the inhabitants of the Netherlands had to equip several cogs wherewith to fight the invasions of the Norsemen (810-1010). It was the application of the feudal system to navigation. (See ~La Croix~, p. 88.) It is known that this policy was finally established under Charlemagne who subjugated the Frisians in 785 and the Saxons in 804. (Mr. ~J. C. de Jonge~, _History of the Navy of the Netherlands_, Vol. 1, p. 6.)

It is needless to say that everything was soon put to work to escape it. A charter of the Roman King Otho I (936-973) calls for a tenth of a “cog” (Kogschult) of which the product came to the bishop of Utrecht. It was the commutation for the obligation to serve the prince with cogs. This obligation seems, in principle, to have struck more especially the countries lying along the present Zuyder Zee. (Mr. ~de Jonge~, Vol. I, p. 7.)

The “cog” only appears for the first time in Germany in 1211, when the Emperor Otho IV allowed the inhabitants of Wismar to maintain two “cogs” (Cogken), and as many small vessels as they desired.

There are some who claim that the word cog, “Kuggr” in old Norse, comes from the Italian “cocca”, the Spanish “coca” or the old French “coche” and, consequently, they believe that the word is of Romance origin. This does not seem likely; the “cog” is a type of vessel copied from the old Viking boat and adapted to the special conditions of the navigable highways in the low lands of the North-West of Europe. Hence it was robust and full to facilitate grounding.

In reality, the “cog” was unknown in the Mediterranean; this follows from what the Florentine historian Villani relates in connection with the battle of Zierikzee. If this vessel had been a Mediterranean type, the author would not have directed especial attention to this form of ship. Hence the “cog” really belongs to Northern Europe and owes its perfecting to the Frisians and most of all to the Flemings.

[Sidenote: II 103]

[Sidenote: II 97]

[Sidenote: II 98]

The “cog” was generally in use in the XIIIth century and it may be assumed that the Norsemen already knew it in the time of the Vikings. Unfortunately, very little concerning it has come down to us. The oldest reproductions which we possess are those of the seals of Amsterdam and Harderwijk. But the ship which figures in the arms of the former city has undergone many changes in the course of the ages. Witsen says that it is an ill drawn figure and he imputes this defective work to the ignorance of the engravers. (~Witsen~, p. 363.)

[Sidenote: II 108]

The arms of Harderwijk agree with those of Damme (~Jal~, _Gloss. nautique_, p. 1051); there is no doubt that the two seals show the same ship (the only difference being that the Damme boat carries two towers). If then the Harderwijk ship represents a “cog”, as is claimed by ~Witsen~ (p. 364, 2d column), the same must be the case with the one of Damme.

In so far as the Amsterdam seals are concerned, Witsen further remarks, that the oldest could not date before the year 1200, as Amsterdam did not rank as a city before that time. He adds that it is clearly seen from these arms “hoe het met de bouwery der Kogschepen oulinx heeft gestaen en hoe haer gestalte steeds is veranderd met den tyt, gelyck men ook hedens-daegs (dus ten tyde van dien schryver) de gestalten der schepen steeds verandern ziet” (bl. 364.)[8].

The cogs were clinker built.

Most of the reproductions show only a rounded bow. It can therefore be deduced that the boat which appears in the arms of Harderwijk is a variation of the ordinary “cog”. It should be noticed that all the old types of Dutch ships show, like the “cog”, a slightly rounded bow with no beak.

[Sidenote: II 124 etc.]

Although the old Flemish engravings of the XVth century show different types of ships, it is to be remarked that none of these latter is called a “cog”. Still all these engravings show thick-set boats, with a rounded bow, which must certainly have been derived from the “cogs” which have been scarcely changed.

[Sidenote: II 190]

There is even a reproduction which dates from the beginning of the XVIth century and which shows a Zeeland “cog”. The bow and stern seem there to be identical in shape; it is to be assumed however, judging by the position of the mast which is at about one-third the length of the ship abaft the stem, that the bow was fuller than the stern. The stem is curved as is also the sternpost; the tiller passes through a _statie_[9]. The mast rakes a great deal, as was required by the use of the old sprits; the vessel is also provided with lee-boards.

The reproduction does not show clearly whether the hull is clinker built. It is very possible that the sides were carvel built, because this style of work was already in use at that time. The boat has no “arcasse”[10]; the hold is covered with convex hatch covers.

[Sidenote: III 115]

[Sidenote: III 116]

This Zeeland “cog” is derived, doubtless, from the primitive “cog”. Let us suppose this vessel as having a little fuller ends; as having the mast in the middle; as having a steering oar instead of a rudder; the lee-boards suppressed and a clinker-built hull; we shall have an idea of the “cog”. This being so, the cause of the existence of our “bom” becomes more important; this latter boat, as is well known, has been greatly enlarged during the past century and has gained fullness at the ends so as to increase its capacity. This is noticeable when the bow of a “bom” is compared with that of the boat used for catching shrimps. This latter has still the old rounded forms and is not so wide in proportion to its length.

[Sidenote: III 112]

Let us suppose then that the “bom” is less square at its ends, higher at bow and stern, that is to say: having a little more sheer, like the boats of former times; there will be had a vessel which, with its clinker built sides, will differ little from the old “cog”, still met with as a rarity in our fleet of fishing boats.

Changed in this way, the “bom” no longer differs so much from the “Egmonderpink” reproduced and described by ~Witsen~ (p. 168); it might even be concluded that it descends therefrom. It can be understood from this how it is, even in our days, that the “bommen” are often called “pinken”.

Thus a picture, in the town Museum of The Hague, shows the beach at Schevening covered, not with “bommen” but with “Egmonderpinken”.

This subject will be taken up again in speaking of fishing boats.

[Sidenote: II 243]

The shrimp fishing boats have been less changed; consequently, aside from the _counter_ which was added later, they differed less from the “Egmonderpink” which, finally, are found again almost complete in the Ostend fishing boats, as ~Lelong~ has pointed out in his _Encyclopedia of Naval Architecture_, p. 17.

The “bommen” were still able in the XIXth century to render good service as coast guards. There is nothing to prove that they existed in Witsen’s time; the contrary is more likely, as this author does not mention them. He merely says that, beside the “Egmonderpinken”, other and much smaller fishing boats were seen on the beach and that they carried only fore and aft sails. If these boats had differed much in shape from the “pinken”, it is to be believed that mention of the fact would have been made. (See ~Witsen~, p. 168, 2d column.)

[Sidenote: II 187]

The artist who reproduced the Zeeland “cog” has left also the drawing of a “Doghboot” which also came from Zeeland (~Witsen~, p. 170, 2d col.) and which resembled very much this “cog”. The stem is a little longer, the “statie” is not closed and the vessel has no convex hatch covers. The rig only differs entirely from that of the “pink” and everything leads to the belief that this kind of boat came from the South.

[Sidenote: II 189]

[Sidenote: II 188]

The same artist gives a figure of a “Heude” or “Heu” from Brabant, which might be called a small Zeeland “cog”. Still, there appear to have been larger “Heudes”, judging by the Brussels “Heu” which was a vessel carrying two pieces of artillery, but of which the reproduction does not give the means for determining the shape of the ship.

It will be well to note here that great circumspection should be used in the matter of these different names adopted to designate such or such vessel. These names have been the cause of much confusion, an example of which is offered by the famous discussion which took place at Groningen, in 1902-1903, as to the question of knowing what a “pram” was.

The crusades, which began in 1096, contributed largely toward perfecting the ship. It was the same with the invention of the compass in the first half of the XIIIth century (~Holmes~, p. 66). Commerce and navigation rose higher and higher. Already in the course of the XIIIth century, Damme became the ware house of Northern Europe. Italy, Spain and France brought their products there.

The old maritime customs of Damme served later as the basis of maritime law in Holland, Northern Germany (~M. Koenen~, p. 50), Sweden and Denmark.

The XIIIth century saw commercial treaties concluded with the Hanseatic cities and, in 1252, tariffs were fixed (~M. Koenen~). “Losbogen, scharpoise, eenvaren” (boats with high sides) and “hekbooten” are in question in these tariffs; and these names are also found in an act made between the Lords of Kuyck and of Dordrecht to settle a difficulty concerning the city duties at the former of these towns.

Among the “losbogen”, are found the boats which were unloaded at the bow or “booge”, as is still done with vessels which carry wood.

The boats used on the Scarp, a tributary of the Scheldt, are placed among the “scharpoises or exarpoises”.

The “eenvaren” were boats handled by a single boatman, and the “hekbooten” were boats which had a square stern.

These few denominations suffice to prove that, even at so early a period, there were different kinds of boats and that alongside of the “cog” there were other vessels of smaller size.

In the beginning, the “cog” was guided by oars, as were other ships; this method was abandoned gradually in the XIIIth century and the steering oar gave place to the rudder.

It is not possible to determine, for Holland, the time when this change occurred; the various coats of arms of Amsterdam can throw no light on this subject. The ship, on many of them, has no rudder, symbolical, doubtless of the fact that people could sail for all parts of the globe (~Witsen~, p. 634), and that vessels started from Amsterdam bound to all the countries upon earth.

It is to be assumed, nevertheless, that it was also in the XIIIth century that the rudder was introduced into Holland. Some persons have tried to make out that there was a certain connection between the adoption of the compass and that of the rudder; this latter became forced, they say, when, thanks to the compass, more and more distant expeditions could be undertaken.

For my part, I do not think that there can be the slightest connection between the two events; the Norsemen, in fact, crossed the North Sea before the rudder was known.

The oldest reproductions of the “cog”, however primitive they may be, have a mast with the sails and rigging of the boat at the centre. I know of no reproduction showing oars. Hence it can be deduced that the sails and rigging formed the main outfit and that the oars, of which the number, even on the largest “cogs”, was limited to a maximum of 32, or 16 on each side, were used only in calm weather. This is what is done at the present time for vessels of less importance, such as the “hoys”.

Hence the oars were only an accessory, the reverse of what was seen for the galleys, where the oars were the main feature and the sails and rigging were secondary. That is why, contrary to what is seen for the “cog”, no reproduction of a galley without oars has been met with.

It is therefore wrong that the name of galleys should be given sometimes to “cogs”. The former were never implanted in the Netherlands, Mr. de Jonge has already pointed out the inaccuracy of the passage of the Annexes of _Wagenaar_, vol. 3, p. 50, where that author relates that the eleven hundred ships sent against Antwerp by Count William III were almost exclusively galleys.

However, there is a question of galleys in the history of the Netherlands; but it is not a question of the Mediterranean type. Their number was limited and they were used only on rivers.

[Sidenote: II 145]

An engraving which dates from about the year 1600, and shows the Scheldt in front of Antwerp, as well as a view of Gouda, shows boats of this kind.

These galleys were only large rowboats, a little longer than the ordinary ones (~de Jonge~, Vol. I, p. 80) and carried only 32 oars at the most. The largest Netherlands galley belonged to the guard of Amsterdam and was called the Terror of the Zuyder zee. Those which were used in naval battles come from the South.

Any one who knows the national character of the Dutch will not be astonished at seeing that the galley had no success in Holland. The trade of the galley slave was considered too vile and no volunteer rowers were to be found; furthermore slavery did not exist and serfdom had been early suppressed. (~Witsen~, p. 194, col. 1.)

However, the cogs did not confine themselves to the simple forms which have been sketched. The constant wars, which brought out the fortified castles of the Middle Ages, soon led to the construction on the sea of structures of the same sort, and gradually there were seen to develope among us also the towers which arose at the bow and stern of the ships. The seals of Amsterdam give a striking illustration of this.

Military tactics were not without their influence on this way of building vessels. The crusades and the subsequent relations with the peoples of the Mediterranean, among whom the practice of castles was known, made us familiar with these superelevated constructions. If, in a first encounter, the enemy’s vessel could not be sunk, it was boarded so as to bring about a hand to hand fight. The conqueror was then he who had at hand the most robust ships and who could place himself sufficiently high up to let fly his arrows at the enemy. Nothing was more natural, then, than to imitate on ships the fortified castles with their crenelated towers. If the enemy succeeded in boarding the ship, the defense withdrew to the castles. There should be no cause for astonishment therefore at finding the old tops on the masts and at learning that even the boats were hoisted there in order more surely to crush the adversary under a shower of arrows and stones (Mr. ~de Jonge~, p. 20).

It can be conceived that the movable castles should not have answered to expectations and, therefore, that an arrangement was soon reached to make but a single body of the castle and the ship, and thence to raise the bow and the stern.

Portugal and Spain, imitating the Mediterranean, had the start of us in constructing castles.

Thus the vessel of the XVIth century is seen to develope gradually and we can understand how the intermediate low part between the forward and after castles should persist.

In the beginning, the deck did not exist in the central part. Then, in order to protect this last against stones and other projectiles, it was covered with a wooden lattice (See, among others, ~Witsen~, p. 51, col. 2), while its sides were furnished with loopholes covered with pewter, to make it more difficult to scale in case of boarding.

The English seals, more finely and more artistically engraved than ours, give an excellent idea of the progressive development of the castles. Five of them show the sides of the ships as clinker built, while the seal of the city of _Poole_ makes the rivets really visible. The castles are so clearly shown in their successive phases of development, that any explanation is unnecessary. The steering oar, which is seen on the oldest seal, is replaced by a rudder on the others. The Boston seal shows a well turned out three-masted vessel with smooth sides.

All the seals, save this last, show the forms of “cogs”, which proves once more the identity of the types of ships of the North-West of Europe. (Holmes states, on page 70 of his work, that the Poole seal gives the oldest English reproduction of a ship with a rudder, 1325.)

As has been said already, the adoption of the compass was the signal for cutting loose from the coast and for undertaking more distant voyages. We learn, especially in the _Reygersbergh Chronijk van Zeelant_ (published by Boschhorn) Vol. II, p. 212, that about 1440, when the use of the compass had scarcely become general, the Zeelanders worked more and more toward the South, making toward Portugal and Spain.

Before then, these countries seemed so far away that, when starting on a voyage thither, the seamen went to confession and the Holy Sacraments were received.

At the same time with the invention of the compass, another event came to produce a great influence on shipbuilding; it was the invention of gunpowder, with the consequent adoption of artillery.

The history of the Netherlands speaks for the first time of the use of artillery in connection with the expedition of Duke Albert against the Frisians in 1396. It seems, however, to have been used at the siege of the castle of Rozenburg-lez-Voorschoten, in 1351 (M. ~de Jonge~, Vol. I, p. 28).

Cannon were not used either at the battle of the Sluis or in the maritime expeditions of King Richard III. But they were in general use on board ship in the XIVth century. (~Holmes~, p. 71.) The Genoese and the Venetians in the South, and the Hanseatic cities in the North, who were the masters of all peoples in commerce and navigation, were the first to adopt them. (M. ~de Jonge~, Vol. I, p. 29.)

It was natural that artillery should modify war tactics and it can be said that the military value of ships depended on the number of guns which they carried. Finally, ships were built exclusively for war, and the practice of the Middle Ages, which was to utilize merchantmen for this purpose, must needs be abandoned.

The United Provinces did not decide at once to build special ships. Hence the dimensions of existing types had to be increased, in order that a larger number of guns could be mounted. The difference between sea-going ships and inland vessels became more and more marked. The war ship was evidently the one which departed the most from the old forms, for the reason that it had to undergo every change which had been advantageously adopted by the enemy.

[Sidenote: II 145]

The earliest guns were not greatly to be feared. The proof of this is found in the fact that the coverings of staterooms and castles were sloped, like roofs, so as to make the bombs thrown by the foe roll off more easily.

The name of cog disappears as ships increase in size. The vessels met with are generally called “Hulken” and “Baertzen” toward the end of the XIVth and during the XVth centuries; and, after all, says Witsen, they are only types of ships formerly in use in our country. The “Hulk”, he adds, the larger of the two, used to sail for distant lands; its capacity was as great, sometimes, as 200 lasts. (~Witsen~, p. 494, col. 2.)

The “Baertze” was a ship equipped as much for coast defense as for war at sea. In 1518, there were built a very large number of them which ran under sail, but which could be moved by oars in calm weather. (~Witsen~, p. 483, col. 1.)

Hence these two types were merchantmen, the “Baertze” especially being used for war. Their equipment included oars too, which were used when the wind failed.

[Sidenote: II 124]

[Sidenote: II 131]

Nor did the XVth century, itself, see any ships built exclusively for war. This century has left us some very beautiful reproductions of Flemish origin (See, _Der Meister W. A._ of ~Max Lehr~, 1895, p. 1), on three of which appear the names of “Baertze”, “Barge” and “Kraeck”.

The ships shown there have the same characteristics and differ from each other only in their rig. It is seen that they are bluff-bowed and that their bow is rounded as is also their stern.

[Sidenote: II 127]

Aside from the “Kraeck” none of these vessels carries artillery: all have, however, a castle, still of quite simple construction, at bow and stern. The “Kraeck” alone was supplied later with windows in the stern above the gallery.

Then too, in these reproductions, all the castles, except those of the “Kraeck”, have no roof. This last vessel is the largest, beyond doubt; its very name brings at once to mind a type of ship of which the size and the strong construction seem to find their origin in the Spanish “Carack”, whence the name of “Kraeck”.

[Sidenote: II 64]

The form of this vessel scarcely differs, however, from that of the others; the bow especially approaches rather the Dutch type than the type of the Spanish carack or of the galleon (compare the figure reproduced in ~Van Yk~’s work, p. 9). Hence it may be supposed that the “Kraeck” should have differed from other vessels only by larger castles, stronger rig and increased size.

The “Barge” and the “Baertze” give, with vessels shown on other reproductions, an idea of the Dutch ship of the XVth century. No “Hulken” are met with among these vessels; they were clinker built (~Witsen~, p. 496, col. 1, Caravelle), while all the reproductions under consideration show only ships with smooth sides.

Besides the “Hulken”, there were “Razeilers” and “Krayers” which had also clinker built sides. Here, then, is found the old way of building “cogs”, and it may be stated that we are in the presence of vessels which owe their origin to this type of ship, and only have a different name because of certain changes of detail in the matter of their rig or the construction of their castles.

A Flemish miniature of the XVth century gives a very remarkable reproduction of a vessel of the time. A “cog” with overlapping planks is seen here. In accordance with the custom of the Middle Ages, this ship has three masts with tops, a castle at bow and stern, and guns; there are no gun-ports.

[Sidenote: II 118]

The “cogs” which were in use in the XIIIth century, were replaced in the XIVth by the “Krayers” and “Hulken” which had to give way, in their turn in the XVth century, to the “Barges”, “Baertzen” etc. The clinker built sides of large ships only disappeared in this last century, to give room to the smooth sides, a mode of construction which took root with us as the result of our relations with the peoples of the Mediterranean.

An old Record of Hoorn, written by D. Velius, relates that the carvel built side was first applied by “Juliaan” at Zierikzee, and adopted at Hoorn in 1460. The ships built in this way were called “Karviel”, “Kraweel” or “Karveel” (~Witsen~, p. 496, col. 1) and their type, according to this author, would seem to have been copied from the Latin vessel “Carabus”. ~M. de Jonge~, on his side (vol. I, p. 79, note) remarks that “Juliaan” might well have been an Italian.

Witsen gives of these “Karviel” a description which is well worthy of attention: these vessels were rather narrow at the bow, broader at the stern, thus having the shape of a chisel. In other words, their lines were finer, wherein they differed from the types of ships used in Holland.

Hence we seem to have before us not only a given mode of construction, but also a well determined type which has come from the Mediterranean. ~Jal~, in his _Glossaire Nautique_, pp. 419-420, tells us, as to that, that caravels were already to be found on the Mediterranean in 1307; their dimensions were, however, smaller than those of the ships used by Vasco da Gama and Columbus. Here is what this author says about this style of vessel: “The caravel was a small ship of the family of round-stern vessels but with finer lines than the _nefs_ of its time and more slender forward. It was also faster, more handy and better fitted for all expeditions where speed in going ahead and great quickness in coming about were required.”

These caravels dit not remain in use to act as “Kraecks”; but with this vessel we reach the time when the reciprocal influence of the two centres begins to be felt.

[Sidenote: II 119]

[Sidenote: II 117]

Two existing Flemish miniatures show clearly the difference which existed between the Dutch type and the foreign type; they date from 1482 and 1488 respectively. The first is the picture of the true type of the Dutch vessel; the second shows a foreign ship. On the first, the vessel is represented with smooth sides; therefore this system of construction was adopted among us in the XVth century.

The vessels are not yet made with a square stern, however; their stern being still round in accordance with the ancient way. As a general rule, they were of small size, and our present sea “hoys” could have been compared with them in this respect. They had a capacity of 160, 180 and 200 tonnes, or 80, 90 and 100 “lasts”. Nevertheless, there were also some of 220, 230 and 240 tonnes, or, 110, 115 and 120 lasts. (~M. de Jonge~, Vol. I, p. 80.)

The “Karvielen” and the “Kraecken” disappear in the XVIIth century and, at this time, no more types which differ from the ordinary Holland type are met with. Hence it can be maintained that the “Karvielen” and “Kraecken” did not succeed in taking root with us. It will be seen, on the contrary that the full-bowed vessels came more and more into use.

The name of “cog” was, therefore, no longer in use in the XVth century. Nevertheless this type of vessel continued to exist. The “cog” gave birth to the “Hulken” and these latter to the “Baertzen”. Although modified, the first form, that of the full-bowed ship, remained in use. One single characteristic disappeared: that of the slender bows and sterns of the old “Viking” boat which are found in all the reproductions known in the North-West of Europe, from Denmark to and including England and the North of France.

The rigging developed in its turn: the single mast was replaced by three pole masts, each having a top and a single large sail. The ropes were made stronger and channels appeared near the end of the XVth century. The steering oar of the old “cog” had long since given place to the rudder.

It would be incorrect to call “cogs” the vessels represented by Master W. A., as Arenhold has done in his work: _Die allmähl. Entwickelung des Segelschiffes von der Römerzeit bis zur Zeit der Dampfer_, p. 650--(_Jahrbuch der Schiffbautechnischen Gesellschaft_, 1906). They are, however, forms which issue from the “cog” but not new forms developed alongside of ancient forms. If history be consulted, there will be no cause for surprise at seeing the effects of the contact of the two Centres appear exactly in the XVth century.

The Crusades (1096-1291), which brought the nations very much together, had come to an end. The alliance of the Hanseatic cities, concluded in 1250, had caused a prodigious growth of our trade in the Baltic Sea. The Frisians, especially, had devoted themselves to the art of shipbuilding, but the Flemings would not let themselves be distanced.

In 1339, there broke out between France and England the Hundred Years’ war, which led the latter to take up shipbuilding much more actively than in the past.

One of the most famous actions of this period was the battle of the Sluis (1340), at which the English fleet of two hundred ships, under the command of King Edward III, completely defeated the Franco-Genoese fleet. This latter, 190 vessels strong, was composed of bluff-bowed vessels, galleys, barges and a large number of small vessels. Certain chroniclers claim that it included four hundred units. (~Holmes~, p. 71.)

The English lost four thousand men in this battle, and the French and Genoese twenty-five thousand, which leads to the assumption that the latter had a large number of galleys at their disposal.

In 1345, Edward III came again to France at the head of a fleet of 1000 to 1100 ships and, in 1347, a third expedition, having to do with the siege of Calais, was sent against this country.

~Holmes~ relates (p. 72) that, for this expedition, the greater part of the fleet, which counted 745 units and 15,895 men, came from England; the other vessels were furnished by the Flanders and Spain.

The size of the crews, which reduces to 21 men per vessel shows sufficiently that the boats of the fleet were relatively small. Under these conditions, a pretty exact idea can be had of this fleet by giving a glance at old engravings which show a flotilla of fishing boats, including some busses and a few “Noordvaarders”, putting out to sea.

The castles which ships carried at this time were small and not set up as a permanence.

The medal struck as a commemoration of the battle of the Sluis also shows a “Cog”, or at least a vessel which is exactly like it by its clinker built sides. It may be supposed that the type of vessel shown in this reproduction was the one most widely used at this period; so, once more is shown the great affinity which existed among the northern nations.

Military tactics had forced the peoples of the Mediterranean and, later, Spain and Portugal, their imitators, to increase the height of their ships. This is confirmed by ~Holmes~ in the following quotation relating to the battle fought by Edward III, near Winchelsea, against forty Spanish ships: “The tactics of the English consisted chiefly of boarding, while the Spaniards, whose vessels were much the higher, attacked with crossbows and heavy stones; the latter they hurled from their fighting tops into their adversaries’ ships”.

The history of the Netherlands also mentions this fact.

England first made use of artillery at sea in 1372; the Mediterranean saw it used by the Genoese in 1377.

Shipbuilding was only developed much later in France. Nevertheless, there is proof that ships were already built there in the XIVth century and it appears that they had cannons on board even in 1339. Still, it was only on the shores of the Mediterranean that shipbuilding was regularly carried on, under the impulse, it appears, of Jean de Vienne, who was made admiral in 1373. (_Le Musée de Marine du Louvre._)

It was under the rule of Henri the Navigator (1417) that shipbuilding reached its height in Portugal, a country which was entirely under the influence of the Mediterranean.

Meanwhile, the relations of the Netherlands with the southern countries had developed rapidly.

The closing of the old route to the Indies, which led through the Mediterranean and Asia Minor, brought about a complete upsetting of the commerce of the world. New explorations must needs be undertaken and it is thus that we read in history that after having pushed as far as Guinea with six caravels, in 1446, the Cape Verde Islands were reached soon afterwards.

In 1449, it was the turn of the Azore Islands and, in 1486, Bartholomeo Diaz reached the Cape of Good Hope. Eleven years later, this navigator turned the Cape and landed at the Indies with three vessels, the _San Gabriel_, the _San Raphael_ and the _Bonio_. According to existing data, the first of these ships must have had a capacity of 400 tons or 250 to 300 registered tons. (~Holmes~, p. 86.)

[Sidenote: II 61]

It is useless to dwell longer on these episodes of which the history is sufficiently well known and of which the last act was the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492. This latter had at his disposal but three small ships, although Spain was already using, at this time, larger vessels. The best known and the largest of the three was the “Santa-Maria”. This ship had a length of keel of 60.68 feet and a length over all of 128.25 feet with a total breadth of 25.71 feet. The Chicago Exposition of 1893 exhibited a model of this vessel of which ~Holmes~’s work gives a reproduction on p. 85.

The discovery of America gave rise to the thirst for gold, drove the nations of North-Western Europe to venture on the high seas and obliged them to go actively into shipbuilding. The rise of the Netherlands then was important; the size of their ships grew greatly, and as far back as the XVIth century, vessels of 300, 400, 500 and 600 tons were found.

However, smaller vessels continued to be used, in preference, for war because they were more easily handled. (See, among others, ~de Jonge~, Vol. I, p. 81.)

After 1500, our shipbuilding became so developed that our country was called the shipyard of Europe. Different from Portugal, where nothing has been preserved, the Netherlands possess a whole series of drawings of the XVIth, XVIIth and XVIIIth centuries, which enable us to form a very exact idea of the progressive development of the ship.

In the old reproductions aforementioned of Maître W. A., as well as in the Flemish miniatures at hand, the forward castle projected beyond the bow, but it already forms, however, a component part of the ship and is fastened to a beam let into the stem and resting on a bracket fastened thereto. This construction gives to the stem the appearance of starting upward and then of falling back in the shape of an S. This is evidently only an illusion.

The vessels after 1500 become larger and the castles gain in importance. The projection of the forward castle, however, diminishes gradually and this castle reached only as far as the stem, by the middle of the XVIth century.

[Sidenote: II 138]

~Witsen~, in the appendix of his remarkable work (pp. 8 and 10), gives a fine model of a ship at the end of the XVth century. It is a question of the reproduction of a vessel which, in his time, decorated the arch of the church at Diemer-lez-Amsterdam, built in the year 1500. The rigging of this vessel, as well as the pole mast supplied with tops and carrying large square sails, brings us back to the Middle Ages. The forward castle, which projects beyond the stem, and the after castle are higher than usual. These are no bends such as were used later; several heavy pieces of wood supported on brackets take their place. The sides are evidently smooth and, according to the constant practice of the period, the ship carried on the bow and on the sides pieces of wood for protection.

The stern alone is not clearly shown; there is no rudder to be seen, and this gives the impression that the drawing is at fault.

This vessel had no upper stern, in all probability, for our ships did not yet know this addition. There is a proof of it in the _Noah’s Ark_, reproduced in the _Nürenberger Chronik_, folio XI, of 1494, as well as in that of the ship which appears in the _Ecclesiastical Painting of the Middle Ages in Holland_, 1518-1525, nᵒ 14, and which shows Jonah in the water.

[Sidenote: II 136]

[Sidenote: II 119]

This last picture especially gives a magnificent type of boat of the beginning of the XVIth century. It is not so old as the ship of the Church at Diemer, as to which the rig furnishes proof: the pole of the mast passes through the top and, another characteristic, the forward castle does not project beyond the stem. The ram has been broken off near the frame. Besides, the human figures, as compared with the ship, are exaggerated. The sides of the vessel are smooth. It brings admirably to mind the Flemish miniature of 1482.

These reproductions are most interesting in view of the development of the ship; we see in them the forms of the castle become more precise, the rigging improve and increase and the vessel itself gain in size.

Attention is called to the fact that the ships in all these drawings carry a bowsprit which was used at first only to hoist the anchor, as is the practice still on the large river lakes.

Let us now turn our eyes to Breugel’s pictures of which F. Huis has left some superb engravings.

[Sidenote: II 132]

[Sidenote: II 135]

[Sidenote: II 64]

A close examination of these reproductions brings out different types of ships. Several of them show us important vessels which, by their great rams, their high castles and their broad sterns, differ notably from the old Holland ship.

Van Yk’s work also shows, on page 9, a reproduction of those big vessels which the author calls Spanish “Caracks” or galleons, two types of ships which arose under the influence of the Mediterranean.

But, alongside of these “caracks” are also found smaller Dutch vessels. An engraving of 1564, of a Breugel picture, shows particularly an Amsterdam merchantman. It has a round stern. It can be compared advantageously with an old Flemish engraving, dating from 1480 or 1490, which shows a “Kraeck” without escutcheon, and of which the castles differ completely in form and size from those carried by the ships seen in the engravings of Maître W. A. These castles agree with the Mediterranean types.

The boat with the square stern had been adopted in Holland, therefore, as far back as the end of the XVIth century.

Square sterns remained in use there, for large vessels up to the end of the XVIIIth century; at that time a return was made to the old structure, in imitation of England which used the square stern for only a short time, seeing that William Pitt (~Holmes~, p. 40) introduced the rounded forms there in the XVIIth century. Hence Mr. de Jonge is in error when he says in his work that the vessel with the square stern only appeared in Holland in 1651.

The adoption of the square stern, nevertheless, did not cause the old round-stern, full-bow vessel to disappear; this is an established fact.

Another word about ports. The old reproductions of the XVIth century show ports; some are even found on a miniature of 1428. In any event, their general use dates back to the end of the XVth century; they seem to have been invented by a Frenchman from Brest, named Descharges. (~De Jonge~, Vol. I, p. 85.)

The masts and rigging also underwent important changes. At the beginning of the Eighty Years War (1590), an inhabitant of Enkhuizen, “Kryn Wouterez” by name, according to Brandt (_History of Enkhuizen_, Vol. I, p. 139), invented a process for making masts in several sections (~De Jonge~, Vol. I, p. 390). The masts, made first of two pieces, were, by means of this new invention, soon made in three parts each carrying a square sail. From this time, the old medieval rig of one large sail begins to disappear.

In order to facilitate the evolutions of the ship, a square sail was placed on the bowsprit.

Finally, the guns are placed more rationally and, imitating the practice on the Spanish caracks, some were located in the forward and after castles so as to command the deck. This arrangement recalls the practice of the Middle Ages, in accordance with which, in case of boarding, the crew retired into the castles whence a charge was made on the invaders.

[Sidenote: II 143]

[Sidenote: II 141]

The vessel represented on the engraving of 1594, therefore, arose gradually from the old forms, but not without having felt the influence of the Mediterranean; this evolution leads us to the “Pinnace” of the XVIIth century. The ship was then richly ornamented and bedecked, and its sails, in accordance with use, carried handsome paintings. This custom disappeared insensibly during the century named, but the custom of decorating ships continued, none the less, for still a long time afterwards.

According to ~Witsen~, fixed rules governed the construction of vessels from the XVIth century on. One strict rule, among others, did not allow the stem to project more than ⁷⁄₆, or less than ⅚ of its height, nor could the sternpost project more than a fifth or a fourth of its height. The author mentioned pretends that the stem was made with a marked slope, for the reason that it was believed that, under such conditions, the ships would glide more easily over the water (p. 47, column 2 at the end).

At about one-third of the length of the keel from the stem, were placed from one to four main frames; the ship narrowed aft to such a degree that the wing transom was equal in length to half the greatest beam of the ship. The bow was full, which allowed the water to be thrown more easily aside. (~Witsen~, pp. 49 and 50.)

The seams were calked and, in accordance with an old custom, covered with lead plates.

The forward castle had been reduced in height while the after castle, on the contrary, had been raised. A fourth mast was placed in the stern to facilitate the manœuvring of the ship; this mast disappeared later on, when the bowsprit was adopted in the course of the XVIIth century. (~Witsen~, p. 139, 2d column.)

The XVIth century was a memorable period for the Netherlands; it was during this century that was laid the foundation of that navy to which, as says Mr. ~De Jonge~, Holland was to owe later her liberty, her greatness and her prosperity. This navy united within itself everything which could concur to bring forth a force able to defend the country, to protect commerce, navigation and the fisheries and to bring to Holland glory and power.

Our marine, in general, and our shipbuilding, in particular, then developed steadily. A long period of struggles began and many battles were fought both before and after the Eighty Years War (1568-1648).

According to the old custom, the ships which took part in actions were only merchantmen fitted out for the purpose. (~De Jonge~, Vol. I, p. 180.) These vessels, which were called “Vliebooten” or “Vlietbooten” (flyboats), had a small capacity varying from 40 to 140 tons and carried six, eight, ten or twenty guns. The size of the crew was proportioned generally to capacity; a vessel of 50 tons carried 50 men. (~De Jonge~, Vol. I, p. 101.)

The “Heuden”, already mentioned above, as well as “Boeiers” (tenders), also called “Kromstevens”, and other flat-bottomed craft were used on the rivers.

The navy of Zeeland included, in addition to a number of small boats, a few vessels of more respectable size. “Hulken” were used at the siege of Middleburg; one of them, called the big “Hulk”, must have had a capacity of 600 lasts, or 1200 tons, and a crew of at least 500 to 600 men. (~Van Meteren~, fol. 81 and 102.)

As a general rule, the vessels of North Holland were larger than those of Zeeland. Their capacity was 50 to 125 last, or 100 to 250 tons and a crew of 50 to 150 sailors and soldiers. The largest vessels carried thirty-two guns. (~De Jonge~, Vol. I, p. 187.)

Bor relates (_Guerres de Hollande_, Vol. I, p. 650) that thirteen vessels of this latter category were fitted out in 1575, and that this fleet was filled out by “Kraveelschepen”, “Yachten”, “Waterschepen” and “Booten”, while according to ~De Jonge~ (Vol. I, p. 187), a few galleys were still in service on the Zuyder Zee.

In order to be able to form a more exact idea of the importance of our naval power at this time, the following table, of which the original is preserved in the Archives of the State (~De Jonge~, Vol. I, p. 586), has been inserted here to show the navy of the province of Holland in 1587.

+=========+=======+======+=======+===============================+
| NUMBER | | | | |
| OF | LASTS | GUNS | CREW | REMARKS |
| VESSELS | | | | |
+---------+-------+------+-------+-------------------------------+
| 1 | 100 | 16 | 95 | 1 Last = 2 tons. |
| | | | | |
| 1 | -- | 14 | 70 | |
| | | | | |
| 1 | 27 | 14 | 32 | Small calibre. |
| | | | | |
| 10 | 30-90 | 12 | 45-76 | |
| | | | | |
| 35 | 17-70 | 8-11 | 29-75 | the largest: 50 to 60 men. |
| | | | | |
| 4 Y | -- | -- | 36-50 | Y stands for Yachts. |
| | | | | |
| 25 | 8-40 | 4-7 | 11-70 | the largest: 30 to 40 men. |
| | | | | |
| 6 | -- | 1-2 | 7-11 | |
| | | | | |
| 1 G | -- | 1 | 16 | G stands for galley. |
| | | | | |

In addition to the “Vliebooten”, there were vessels of less importance called “Kromstevens”, “Kraveelen”, “Heuden” or freight vessels, “Krapschuiten”, “Potten”, “Yachten”, “Boeiers”. The largest vessels were still, however, only of modest dimensions. According to the decisions of the Government, dated June 1, 1588, three of the largest vessels were to be equipped for war and it was stipulated that their capacity was to be 200 lasts. (~De Jonge~, Vol. I, p. 201, note.)

There are some who claim that only small boats were used at the beginning of our war for independence, because the battles were fought only on rivers and because, furthermore, the financial situation was very bad. (~De Jonge~, Vol. I, pp. 203-204.) I consider, for my part, that the latter reason was the main one. Later on, complaints were again made about the unsatisfactory state of the fleet by reason of lack of funds.

[Sidenote: III 8]

[Sidenote: III 9]

Returning new to the shapes of the ships. The “Hulk” has been seen to appear after the “Cog”, only to be replaced, itself, by the “Baertze”. The “Kraeck” arose alongside of this last type which was followed finally by the “Spiegelschip” under the form of a pinnace and a war vessel.

The full bow lasted, however, in boats of little importance and so the “Vlieboot” or “Vlietboot” was seen to follow the “Baertze”. It is the old type of the “Baertze” of which the topsides tumbled in appreciably.