Chapter XV: Part 15

Sugar was mentioned as one of the preservatives used in the preservation of food (see _The Principles of Preserving Food_). Sugar in large quantity is unfavorable to germ life and hence is a most effective preservative. _Preserves_ are made by cooking fruit in a thick sirup as in the _Method of Canning_ (_a_) Open Kettle. A large quantity of sugar is desirable as far as preservation is concerned; but for flavor less sugar is usually to be preferred. Only a few fruits are better when preserved with considerable sugar. Fruits best adapted for preserving are strawberries, sour cherries, sour plums, quinces, currants, and raspberries. For preserves, use 3/4 to 1 pound of sugar for 1 pound of fruit. The less quantity of sugar should be used for peaches, plums, quinces, currants, and raspberries; the greater quantity, for strawberries and cherries. Use the quantity of water given in _Method of Canning_ (_a_) Open Kettle. Cook and seal as canned fruit.

JAMS

Jam is made as follows: Clean the fruit. If large fruits are used, pare or peel them and cut into small pieces. If small fruits,--berries or grapes, --are used, mash them. Cook the fruit in as little water as possible. When the fruit is soft, measure it and add the sugar,--use 3/4 to 1 part of sugar to 1 part of cooked fruit. Cook until thick, stirring to prevent burning. Test the thickness by dropping from a spoon. If it falls in heavy drops, the jam is sufficiently cooked. Pour into sterilized jelly glasses. Cover the glasses with clean cloth or paper and set aside to cool and stiffen. Melt paraffin. Pour it (hot) over the cold jam. Allow the paraffin to harden and then cover the glasses with the lids. Wipe the outside of the glasses, label, and store.

Fruit that is too soft or too ripe for canning or preserving may be used for making jam.

MARMALADES

Marmalades are made much as jams. However, usually only the pulp and juices of fruits are used. The fruit is first cooked, and the skins and seeds removed before adding the sugar. In Orange Marmalade, the rind is used.

CONSERVES

Conserves consist of a combination of two or more fruits. Nuts and other materials are sometimes added. Conserves may be prepared as preserves, _i.e._ cooking the ingredients with sugar, until thick; or as jam, _i.e._ cooking the ingredients until tender, then adding the sugar and cooking until thick. It is thought by some that the latter method produces a finer flavor; it makes a product less tough and less sticky. In the special recipes for conserves given in this text, the latter method is followed.

ORANGE MARMALADE (I)

1 dozen oranges 1 grapefruit 6 lemons Sugar

Weigh the fruit, slice it. To each pound of fruit add 1 quart of cold water. Let the mixture stand for 24 hours. Then cook slowly for 2 hours. Weigh the cooked fruit. Add an equal weight of sugar. Cook for 1 hour or until it stiffens. Pour into sterilized jelly glasses, seal, and cover as directed for Jams.

ORANGE MARMALADE (II)

1 dozen oranges 3 pounds sugar 2 quarts rhubarb Rind of 6 oranges

Wash the fruit. Slice the oranges and cut the rhubarb into pieces. (Do not peel the rhubarb.) Cook the oranges and rhubarb for 30 minutes. Add the sugar and cook slowly for 2 hours or until thick. Pour into sterilized glasses. When cool, seal and cover as directed for Jams.

CARROT MARMALADE

1 pound carrots 3 cupfuls sugar 2 lemons 1/2 teaspoonful salt

Wash, scrape, and chop the carrots. Extract the juice from the lemons. Put the carrots and lemon rinds through a food chopper, cover them with water, and cook until tender. Add the lemon juice, salt, and sugar to the cooked mixture. Cook until it is thickened. Turn into sterilized jelly glasses. Let stand until cool. Then cover with melted paraffin.

STRAWBERRY AND PINEAPPLE CONSERVE

Use equal quantities of strawberries and shredded pineapple. Cook the shredded pineapple in the least possible quantity of water. When tender, add the strawberries and cook until they are soft. Measure the fruit and add three fourths as much sugar as fruit and a small quantity of salt. Cook until thick (see _Jams_). Pour into sterilized glasses. Seal and cover as directed for Jams.

CRANBERRY CONSERVE

1 quart cranberries 1 1/2 cupfuls water 1/4 pound raisins 1/2 pound California walnuts, chopped 1 orange,--juice and grated rind 1 1/2 pounds sugar 1/2 teaspoonful salt

Wash the fruit. Cook the cranberries in the water until the berries burst. Strain. Add the remaining ingredients and cook 25 minutes or until the mixture is thick (see _Jams_). Pour into sterilized glasses. When cool, seal and cover as directed for Jams.

GRAPE CONSERVE

1/2 peck grapes 2 oranges,--juice and rind 2 lemons,--juice and rind 1 cupful chopped nuts Sugar 1/2 teaspoonful salt

Wash the fruit. Remove the grapes from the stems; remove the skins from the pulp. Cook the pulp until soft; strain, to remove the seeds. Place the strained pulp and skins in a preserving kettle. Extract the juice from the oranges and lemons, then put the rinds through a food-chopper. Add the lemon and orange juice and rind to the grape mixture and cook for 1 hour. Measure the mixture. Then add an equal quantity of sugar and the nuts and salt. Continue cooking until thick (_see Jams_). Pour into sterilized glasses. When cool, seal and cover as directed for Jams.

APRICOT CONSERVE

1 pound dried apricots 1 1/2 quarts water Sugar 2 pineapples _or_ 1 large can shredded pineapple 1/2 teaspoonful salt

Wash the dried apricots and soak them in the water. In the water in which they were soaked, cook the apricots until tender. Press through a colander. If fresh pineapples are used, shred them and cook, in as little water as possible, until tender. Combine the cooked fruits and measure. Add 1/2 as much sugar and the salt. Cook until thick (see _Jams_). Pour into sterilized glasses. When cool, seal and cover as directed for Jams.

PLUM CONSERVE

1 pound (1 1/2 dozen) plums 1/4 cupful chopped nuts 1 cupful seeded raisins 2 oranges 1 cupful water 1 1/4 cupfuls sugar 1/2 teaspoonful salt

Wash the plums, stone, and cut into pieces. Extract the juice from the oranges. Put the rind through a food chopper. Mix the plums, raisins, orange rind, and water. Simmer until the fruits and peel are tender. Add the orange juice, sugar, nuts, and salt, and continue cooking until the mixture has the consistency of marmalade. Pour into sterilized glasses. When cool, seal and cover as directed for Jams.

QUESTIONS

How do Preserves differ from Canned Fruit?

How does Jam differ from Preserves?

How does Jam differ from Fruit Sauce?

Why does Jam "keep" better than Fruit Sauce?

Give method of sealing Canned Fruit and method of sealing Jam. Explain why different methods are used.

LESSON CLXIX

PROCESSING WITH MUCH SUGAR--JELLIES

EXPERIMENT 94: PECTIN IN FRUIT JUICE.--Put a few grapes, slices of apple, or cranberries in a small saucepan, and add enough water to cover and cook until the fruit is tender and soft enough to mash. Strain the cooked fruit through cheese-cloth.

Put 1 teaspoonful of the extracted fruit juice in a saucer, add an equal quantity of alcohol. [Footnote 126: Either grain (ethyl), wood (methyl), or denatured alcohol may be used. _Both wood and denatured alcohol are poisonous_. If they are used for testing, they should be handled and stored away with caution.] Mix by gently rotating the saucer. Let the mixture stand for 5 minutes. Then examine. What change has taken place in the fruit juice?

The formation of a solid mass in the mixture of fruit juice and alcohol which has stood for 5 minutes indicates that the fruit juice contains pectin,--a vegetable gelatine.

EXPERIMENT 95: PECTIN IN THE INNER PORTION OF ORANGE OR LEMON PEEL.--Cut away the yellow portion from orange or lemon rind. Cut or chop the white portion of the rind in small pieces. Cover with water and soak several hours or overnight. Then cook slowly for 1/2 hour. Strain and set aside to cool. To 1 teaspoonful of this liquid add an equal quantity of alcohol, and proceed as in Experiment 94. Does the lemon or orange rind contain pectin?

THE PRINCIPLE OF JELLY MAKING.--When the juices of certain fruits are extracted and cooked with sugar, the mixture stiffens when cool. This property of stiffening is due to the presence in fruit of two materials,-- a certain carbohydrate, called _pectin_, and an acid. Pectin is like starch in that it stiffens when cold; but like sugar, in that it is soluble. Not all fruits contain pectin.

Jelly is most easily prepared from fruits which are rich in pectin and contain some acid. Unless pectin is contained in the fruit, the addition of sugar to fruit juice will not cause the juice to jelly. But jelly may be made from a fruit lacking in pectin, if it is combined with a fruit rich in pectin.

Certain fruits contain pectin, but are lacking in acid, hence are not good for jelly making. These fruits can be used for jelly, however, if acid is added.

SELECTION OF FRUITS FOR JELLY MAKING.--For jelly making, choose fruits which contain considerable pectin and some acid. The fruits should be fresh and not over-ripe. Some "green" fruits make fine jelly. Currant, crabapple, grape, apple, and plum are good jelly-making fruits.

If it is desirable to use a fruit containing little pectin, as strawberries, add a fruit rich in pectin, as currants. If about 10 per cent of the fruit which contain much pectin is added to the other fruit, the flavor of the foundation fruit is not much altered.

If it is desired to use a fruit containing pectin but deficient in acid, as sweet apple and quince, add tartaric or citric acid. Since the acidity of fruits varies, no definite quantity of acid can be stated. It has been suggested [Footnote 127: See University of Illinois Bulletin, "Principles of Jelly Making," p. 249.] that enough acid should be added to make the fruit juice about as acid to taste as good tart apples. At least one teaspoonful of acid is required for one quart of fruit juice. Dissolve the acid in the fruit juice, then taste the mixture. If necessary, add more acid to produce the acidity indicated above. Jelly may be prepared from strawberries, peaches, and pears by the addition of these acids, but the flavor is somewhat impaired.

The suggestion has been made also [Footnote 128: _Idem_, p. 25.] that the inner white portion of lemon or orange peel be used as a source of pectin with fruit deficient in pectin. Remove the yellow portion of the rind, put the white portion through a food chopper, and soak in water for several hours or overnight. Then cook slowly for several hours. Strain out the solid portion. Add the liquid to the fruit juice deficient in pectin and use for jelly making. The rind of lemons and oranges may be dried for use in jelly making. When desired for use, soak and cook as directed above.

GENERAL METHOD OF JELLY MAKING

Wash and pick over the fruit; remove the stems, but use the skin and seeds and thus retain as much of the fruit as possible. The skin of fruit usually adds color to jelly. If large fruit is used, cut it in pieces. Cook the fruit slowly in water. Use very little water for juicy fruits, such as currants and raspberries,--_1 cupful of water to 4 or 5 quarts of fruit_. Crush the fruits during cooking.

To cook large fruits requires water. A general proportion is _half as much water, by measure, as prepared fruit_. A little less water may be used for peaches and plums and a little more for winter apples. A fair estimate is 3 quarts of strained juice from 8 quarts of fruit and 4 quarts of water. If the quantity of juice is greater than this, it should be boiled down to 3 quarts before adding the sugar.

When the fruit is cooked until it is very soft, it is ready for straining. For straining, make a bag of double cheesecloth or flannel. Wring the jelly bag out of hot water and suspend it from a strong support. Pour the cooked fruit into the bag and let the juice drip into a bowl. If transparent jelly is desired, do not press the juice through the bag; let the juice drip for several hours or overnight.

Measure the clear fruit juice and heat it. The time of cooking depends upon the per cent of pectin and the acidity of the juice; the more pectin and acid, the less the time of cooking. The time varies from 8 to 30 minutes. Skim the juice when necessary. While the juice is cooking, _measure three fourths as much sugar_ [Footnote 129: The quantity of sugar used in jelly making depends upon the quantity of pectin in fruit juice,--the more pectin, the more sugar. A most satisfactory method of determining the quantity of pectin and consequently the quantity of sugar to use with fruit juice is suggested by the Bulletin of the National War Garden Commission. The test follows: To a tablespoonful of fruit juice which has been boiled and cooled, add 1 tablespoonful of alcohol (see footnote 126.). Mix by gently rotating and then let stand. If a solid mass forms, _use equal parts of fruit juice and sugar_. If 2 or 3 masses form, _use 2/3 to 3/4 as much sugar as juice._ If several small solid particles form, _use 1/2 as much sugar as juice_. If no solid particles form, the fruit juice should be enriched by the addition of some pectin-rich fruit juice.] _as fruit juice_ and heat the sugar. For currants and green or under-ripe grapes, use equal quantities of sugar and fruit juice. Add the hot sugar to the boiling sirup and cook. The following are _tests for sufficient cooking of jelly._

(_a_) Coats the spoon.

(_b_) Falls from the spoon in heavy drops. [Footnote 130: Two drops forming side by side along the edge of the spoon has been found to be a reliable test.]

(_c_) Stiffens when dropped on a cold dish and allowed to cool.

The first two tests are more satisfactory than the last, since the cooking process may be carried too far while the "test-jelly" is cooling.

Seal as Jam or shred paraffin and place it in the bottom of sterilized jelly glasses. Pour the hot jelly into the glasses and set aside to stiffen. Then cover and store. It is well to store jelly in a cool, dry, and dark place. The color of fruit sometimes fades when kept in a light place.

Long cooking of pectin changes it into substances which do not have the property of jellying, hence, make jelly in as short a time as possible. The purpose of heating the sugar is to hasten the process of jelly making. The addition of cold sugar would cool the mixture and thus prolong the process.

The addition of too much sugar is often the cause of unsuccessful jelly making. Crystallization of the sugar from the jelly may result from an excess of sugar.

The _fruit pulp left in the jelly bag_ should be utilized. Marmalade may be made from it, or more jelly can be prepared from it. To accomplish the latter, add water to the fruit pulp (enough to cover), mix, and heat slowly until the boiling point is reached. Strain and prepare jelly from the juice. However, more cooking of the juice before the sugar is added is required for the second extraction, since the juice contains so much water. The juice extracted for a third time from most fruits will contain enough pectin for jelly making. It has been found that more desirable jelly can be obtained by this method than by pressing the juice from the bag and thus obtaining what is termed "second quality" jelly.

FRUIT JUICES WITHOUT SUGAR.--Extract the juice from fruit as directed in _General Method of Jelly Making_. Do not add sugar to the juice. Can it as directed in (_a_) or (_b_).

(_a_) Reheat until the boiling temperature is reached, then pour into sterilized jars. Fill to overflowing and seal.

(_b_) Place the juice in sterilized jars. Partially seal and place in a water bath having the water reach the neck of the jar. Let it cook at a simmering temperature from 20 to 30 minutes. Remove from the water bath, and seal securely.

In the winter time or when desired for use, this fruit juice may be made into jelly as directed in _General Method of Jelly Making_, or it may be sweetened, diluted if necessary, and used as a beverage. This method of preserving fruit juice is especially desirable when there is a scarcity of sugar.

QUESTIONS

Note the difference in the quantity of carbohydrates in Canned Fruit and Fruit Jelly (see Figure 92). What kind of carbohydrate is present in greatest quantity in these foods?

To what is the difference in flavor of Canned Fruit and Fruit Jelly largely due?

What is the chief difference in the processes of jam making and jelly making?

What is the result if too much sugar is used in jelly making?

What is the result if jelly is cooked too long?

Note the difference in the methods of sealing jams and jellies. Explain.

LESSON CLXX

PROCESSING WITH VINEGAR AND SPICES--RELISHES

SPICES AND VINEGAR ARE PRESERVATIVES OF FOODS. Not all spices, however, have equal preservative power. It has been found that cinnamon and cloves aid in food preservation, but that pepper and ginger have very little, if any, preservative power. In the lesson on _Flavoring Materials: Food Adjuncts_, it was mentioned that spices and condiments should be used sparingly in the diet, hence spiced fruits and pickles should have only occasional use. There is no doubt that lemon juice or other tart fruit juices are better sources of acid-satisfying materials than vinegar.

SPICED PEARS

1/2 peck pears 3 pounds sugar 1 pint vinegar 1/2 ounce ginger root Rind of 1/2 lemon Whole allspice Stick cinnamon Whole cloves

Cut the pears in halves, remove the seeds, and pare. Into each piece of pear stick two or three cloves. Make a sirup of the vinegar and sugar. Divide the cinnamon, allspice, and ginger into two parts, tie in cheese- cloth bags, and add to the sirup. When the sirup begins to simmer, add the pears and lemon rind; bring to the boiling point, remove from the fire, and turn into a stone jar. Cover and stand in a cool place overnight. Next day bring the mixture to the boiling point, again place in the stone jar and stand overnight. The following day heat as before. Do this for five consecutive days. The last day, remove the fruit from the sirup, heat the sirup and evaporate it until there is just enough to cover the fruit. Add the fruit to the hot sirup, heat to the boiling point, then put in stone or glass jars or tumblers.

The pears may be finished in one day as follows: Cook the fruit until tender, then remove it, evaporate the sirup, add the fruit, reheat again, and finish as above. Fruit prepared by the first method has a finer flavor.

TOMATO CATSUP

12 ripe tomatoes 2 large onions 2 green peppers 2 tablespoonfuls salt 4 tablespoonfuls brown sugar 2 tablespoonfuls ginger 1 tablespoonful cinnamon 1 tablespoonful mustard 1 nutmeg grated 1 pint vinegar

Peel the tomatoes and onions. Chop the onions and peppers fine. Cook all the ingredients together for 3 hours, or until soft and broken. Stir frequently. Bottle and seal while hot. The mixture may be strained before bottling.

CELERY SAUCE

20 large ripe tomatoes 6 large onions 4 large stalks celery 3/4 cupful sugar 1 large red pepper 4 tablespoonfuls salt 2 cupfuls vinegar

Chop the vegetables, add the salt and vinegar, and cook for 2 hours. Then add the sugar. Allow it to reach the boiling point again. Turn into sterilized bottles or jars, and seal.

OIL PICKLES

2 dozen small cucumbers 2 dozen small onions 1/2 cupful olive oil 1/4 cupful sugar 1 pint vinegar 1/3 cupful salt 1/4 cupful mustard seed 1 pint vinegar 1 teaspoonful celery seed

Scrub the cucumbers. Cut them (without paring) into thin slices. Wash and cut the onions into thin slices. Mix the salt with these vegetables (to extract moisture), and let the mixture stand over night. Then drain the moisture from the vegetables so that the vinegar may not be diluted.

Mix the remaining ingredients. Pour the mixture over the onions and cucumbers. Mix well, cover, and set aside for a few hours. Then pour into sterilized jars. Fill the jar with liquid. (If necessary, more vinegar may be used.) To drive out the air, place the jars (with covers loosely adjusted) in a water bath at simmering temperature (180 degrees F.) and heat at this temperature for 15 minutes. Remove from the water bath and seal.

TO SEAL BOTTLES.--Melt together, over hot water, equal parts of shoemaker's wax and resin. When liquefied, dip the tops of corked bottles into it. Corks in bottles may be dipped also in hot paraffin. Dip several times.

QUESTIONS

What is the objection to excessive use of spiced foods?

Name some substitutes for pickles. Why is an excessive or continuous use of pickles objectionable in diet?

LESSON CLXXI

CANNED VEGETABLES

MICROORGANISMS IN THE SPORE FORM.--Many microorganisms are destroyed by heating them for a few minutes to boiling temperature. However, some microorganisms have a peculiar power of retaining life under most adverse conditions. When subjected to extreme heat or cold, intense drying, or when there is lack of food, certain microorganisms assume a spore form, _i.e._ they cease growing and reproducing, and are able to undergo conditions which would readily kill microorganisms in the active form. Some microorganisms in the spore form are able to resist the temperature of boiling water for an hour or longer. Then as soon as the adverse conditions mentioned above are removed, the microorganisms assume active form and begin to grow and reproduce. In the growing state, their destruction is not so difficult.

Some of the microorganisms in certain foods, especially vegetables and fruits grown in a dry season, are capable of spore formation. When microorganisms in spore form do exist in foods that are to be canned, or the microorganisms change into spore form during the canning process, the microorganisms may not be destroyed by the time the ordinary process of canning is completed. If such is the case, when the canned foods are cooled and the conditions are favorable for growth, the microorganisms assume active form, begin to grow, and cause the decomposition of food. Twenty-four hours is sufficient time for the microorganisms to change from the spore to the active form. Hence the canned foods must be heated again, if they are to be preserved. For foods difficult to process (for the reason given above) processing should be carried on for three successive days. This is called _intermittent processing_.

Destruction of microorganisms in the spore form can be accomplished in a short time by subjecting them to very intense heat. In canning factories this is done by processing at a temperature higher than that of boiling water. In the home this may be accomplished by processing in the pressure cooker. According to one authority processing intermittently, _i.e._ on three successive days, does not insure satisfactory processing of materials containing spores.

SINGLE PERIOD AND INTERMITTENT PROCESSING.--The acid of tomatoes and fruits aids in the destruction of microorganisms. Hence intermittent processing is unnecessary for these. Processing tomatoes and fruits in a hot water bath for one period has proved very satisfactory and certain.

There is some question, however, regarding the safety of canning all vegetables by one period of processing in the water bath at 212 degrees F., _especially in regions where botulism is known to occur and where Foods cannot be stored in a cool place_. In Farmers' Bulletin 1211, "Home Canning of Fruits and Vegetables," revised August, 1922, one period of processing in the water bath at 212 degrees F. is not advised in climates where the storage conditions are trying for the following vegetables: corn, beans, asparagus, okra, spinach and other greens, and peas (especially if at all mature). For processing these vegetables, a higher temperature than that obtained in the boiling water bath is recommended. Processing at a high temperature (from 228 degrees F. to 250 degrees F.) can be accomplished conveniently by means of a _pressure cooker_. This is especially recommended for vegetable canning in high altitudes and in localities where botulism has occurred.

It is thought that in some places the above mentioned vegetables may be _processed intermittently_ with safety. For vegetables difficult to can, pint jars only are recommended for both intermittent and single period processing in the water bath. Heat penetrates more rapidly to the center of the small jars than to the center of the large jars.

SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF VEGETABLES AND CANNING.--Young vegetables, especially those that have grown quickly, are most desirable for canning. If possible, vegetables, especially corn, should be canned immediately after picking.

Vegetables for canning should be thoroughly washed, pared, scraped, or cut into pieces in the same manner as when they are cooked and served immediately. If the vegetables vary in size, it is well to sort them and fill jars with those of uniform size. If there is much difference in ripeness, sort the mature and young vegetables.

METHOD OF CANNING VEGETABLES.--The method of canning vegetables for a _single period_ does not differ greatly from the method of canning fruits. The chief difference is that jars containing fruit are filled with sirup, while those holding vegetables are filled with water and salt is added. Blanch and cold-dip vegetables as directed previously, for the length of time given. Greens and vegetables of delicate flavor are blanched most successfully by steaming either in a colander placed over boiling water or in a steamer. (Steaming greens prevents the escape of volatile oils and other materials.) Pack the vegetables in jars to within 1/2 inch of the top. It is well not to pack spinach and other greens too solidly in jars. Since lima beans, corn, and peas swell during processing, they should be packed only to about 1 inch of the top of the jar. To each jar add salt,--1 teaspoonful to each quart jar. Fill each jar to 1/2 inch of the top with boiling water. Put a new rubber on the jar, partly seal the cover, and proceed as directed for fruit (see Table below for the length of time for processing).

When vegetables are processed _intermittently_, jars with glass tops and spring clamps are recommended. In processing vegetables for three successive periods, the same method of processing and sealing is followed as for the single period. At the beginning of the second and third periods, raise the clamps of the jars to allow for expansion, then fasten the clamps at the close of processing period (see Table for the length of time of processing on each of the three successive days).

FOOD PRESERVATION

TABLE FOR CANNING FRESH, SOUND, AND FIRM VEGETABLES BY ONE PERIOD OF PROCESSING [Footnote 131: Adapted from Farmers' Bulletin 1211. Revised August, 1922.]

TIME OF PROCESSING TIME OF VEGETABLE BLANCHING OR (_a_) (_b_) Steam Pressure Water (Pressure Cooker) COOKING Bath at (1) 5lb (2) 10lb (3) 15lb 212 deg. F. 228 deg. F. 240 deg. F. 250 deg. F. Minutes Hours Minutes Minutes Minutes Asparagus 4 - - 30 to 40 Corn 1 to 5 - - 90 60 to 90 Lima beans 3 to 5 - - 45 to 60 Okra 6 to 8 - - 30 Peas 3 to 8 - - 40 to 50 Spinach 4 in water or 15 in steam - - 90 35 String beans. 3 to 5 - - 40 to 50 Tomatoes 1 to 1 1/2 to loosen skins 1/2 15 10

[Footnote for Asparagus: Scrape off tough outer skin of _asparagus_. Tie into bundles for blanching. Blanch tough ends 2 minutes and entire bundle 2 minutes longer.]

[Footnote for Corn: Blanch _corn_ on the cob, then cold dip and cut from the cob. For each pint jar, use 1 pint of cut corn, 1 cupful boiling water, and 1/2 tea-spoonful each of salt and sugar. Cook the mixture in a saucepan until it boils and pour immediately into a hot, sterilized jar.]

[Footnote for Okra: Cold dip _okra_ in _salt_ water (1 tablespoonful salt to 1 quart water).]

[Footnote for Spinach: To loosen grit, cover _spinach_ with scalding water, let stand 1 or 2 minutes. Then wash in several cold waters. Do not cold dip after blanching.]

[Footnote for Tomatoes: Pack _tomatoes_ whole in jars, then fill the jars with cooked and strained tomato pulp. Tomatoes cut into pieces may be packed closely in jars. When this is done, no liquid need be added.]

NOTE.--Processing in the hot water bath is not advised for non-acid vegetables such as asparagus, corn, lima beans, okra, peas, spinach, and string beans.

Count time of processing in a water bath after the water boils.

When two different times of processing are given, use the longer time for quart glass jars, the shorter time for tin cans.

If the jar is packed tightly, increase the time of processing.

For altitudes higher than 1000 feet, increase the time of processing 10 per cent for each additional 1000 feet. For very high altitudes, the pressure cooker rather than the hot water bath should be used.

TIME TABLE FOR CANNING VEGETABLES BY INTERMITTENT PROCESSING [Footnote 132: See statements previously]

VEGETABLE TIME OF TIME OF PROCESSING IN WATER BATH
BLANCHING AT 212 F. 12 TO 18 HOUR
INTERVALS BETWEEN PERIODS
(_a_) First Day (_b_) Second
and Third Day

Asparagus 10 to 15 60 60 Corn 5 to 10 90 90 Lima Beans 3 to 5 90 90 Peas 5 90 90 String Beans 3 to 5 90 90

[Footnote 133: (For Asparagus, Corn, and Lima Beans) Process in _pint jars only_. See footnotes for Asparagus and Okra, above.]

USE OF CANNED VEGETABLES.--Open the can and if it is tin, empty its contents at once. If the vegetable is surrounded by liquid, use the water in cooking the vegetable, as it contains valuable materials. There are some who contend, however, that the flavor of certain vegetables such as peas and string beans is improved if the vegetable water is drained from them and they are cooked in fresh water. If this is done, the vegetable water should not be wasted. It should be used in making soup or sauce. If possible, let the vegetable stand exposed to the air for an hour or longer.

If the vegetable is to be served plain, turn into a saucepan. Cook in its own liquor at boiling temperature, for at least 30 minutes. (Cooking at boiling temperature for this length of time is advised to remove any possible danger of botulism.) When cooked, the liquid should be almost entirely evaporated. Add butter, salt, and, if desired, a very little sugar, and serve hot.

A White Sauce may also be used with a vegetable that has been heated as above.

QUESTIONS

Explain why vegetables (except tomatoes) are more difficult to can successfully than fruits.

What foodstuffs does the water in which vegetables are canned contain? From this explain why the water should not be drained from vegetables when removing them from the cans.

What is the purpose of cooking canned vegetables at boiling temperature?

LESSON CLXXII

DRIED VEGETABLES

ADVANTAGES OF DRYING FOODS.--While preserving foods by drying does not take the place of canning foods and storing them in jars or cans, it has certain advantages, viz.:

1. Little storage space is required for dried foods.

2. Dried foods can be stored in containers that cannot be used for canning.

When foods are dried, they may be reduced in bulk as much as 90 per cent; for example, 10 pounds of fresh food may be reduced to 1 pound of dried food. By this reduction no food value is lost, and the flavor is not greatly changed.

Dried foods may be stored in paper bags and boxes which are much less expensive containers than glass jars or tin cans. Hence if space is limited and glass or tin containers are difficult to secure or are expensive, drying may prove a very satisfactory method of preserving food.

METHODS OF DRYING AND DRIERS.--Food may be dried by:

1. Sun.

2. Steam (placing food on a specially constructed tray (see Figure 93) which is heated with steam).

3. Stove or oven drying (placing food above a stove or in the oven).

4. Fan drying (placing an electric fan near the food).

A combination of these methods, especially the two latter, is often used in drying foods.

Plates or dishes may serve as driers when the drying is done in the oven. Trays for drying may be constructed at home or they may be purchased. Most of them consist of a wood or metal frame over which wire netting is tacked. Single trays or a series of trays one placed above the other may serve as driers. When drying is accomplished by heat from a stove, the drier is hung over a stove or it rests on the top of the stove. In the latter case, it is necessary that the frame of the tray be constructed so that the bottom tray does not rest directly on the stove. In case the drying is done over a kerosene stove, the bottom of the tray must be of tin or galvanized iron to protect the food from kerosene fumes. The lowest tray must be placed at least 4 inches above the metal bottom.

SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF VEGETABLES FOR DRYING.--To secure the best results, select mature but fresh vegetables. They should be in good condition, free from blemish.

Certain foods, such as berries, cherries, peas, lima and shell beans, are dried whole. Most vegetables should be cut into slices from 1/8 to 1/4 inch in thickness. The slicing may be done with a paring or kitchen knife, or it may be done by means of a slaw-cutter or a rotary chopper. Foods are sometimes cut into pieces for drying by means of the food chopper. It is necessary that all knives and cutting devices be clean. There should be no discoloration of the vegetable from the cutting utensil. It has been found advisable to blanch most vegetables before drying. The method of blanching given previously can be used in drying vegetables as well as canning them. Foods are not cold-dipped, however, after blanching when they are to be dried. Fruits are usually not blanched before drying.

FOOD PRESERVATION

METHOD OF DRYING FOODS.--Place the prepared food on drying trays. Unless the drying is done in the oven, cover the food with cheese-cloth. If possible, tack the cloth to the frame so that no dust or insects can come in contact with the food. Stir or turn foods once or twice a day while they are drying. This is especially necessary when foods are dried in the sun.

_If the food is to be dried in the sun_, place the tray containing the food in the sun, where there is a breeze. If it rains, take the trays indoors. Also bring the trays indoors just before sunset.

_If food is to be dried by means of steam_, a special device is needed (see Figure 93). The device consists of a large pan for holding water and a hollow tray. The under surface of the tray has an opening about the size of the diameter of the pan. To this opening is fastened a collar which fits snugly into the pan. The pan filled with water is placed over a burner. When the water boils, the steam rises and fills the hollow tray and escapes by means of the small pipe in the upper surface of the tray. The food is placed on the upper surface and is dried by steam heat.

_If the food is to be dried in the oven_, place the food on suitable trays. Oven drying is much more satisfactorily done if the oven is provided with a thermometer. The temperature for drying foods is much less than that of boiling water,--it varies from 115 degrees to 175 degrees F. It is often necessary to keep the oven door open so that the temperature does not become too high.

_If food is dried over a stove in a series of trays_ one placed above the other, the position of the trays should be changed so that the food may be uniformly dried.

_If food is dried by means of an electric fan_, the fan should be so placed that the current of air is directed along the trays lengthwise. The drying will be most rapid nearest the fan; hence it is necessary to change the position of the tray or of the food every few hours. Foods may be dried in less than 24 hours by means of an electric fan. A few foods such as sliced string beans may be dried in a few hours. Before drying by means of a fan, food should be blanched. It is also necessary to heat food dried in this way in an oven at 180 degrees F. for 10 or 15 minutes before storing.

Testing for Sufficient Drying and Conditioning.--The time for drying varies with the method of drying and the kind of food. A definite time of drying cannot be stated. There are some tests which may be applied in determining when a food is sufficiently dried. The following is quoted from the Bulletin of the _National War Garden Commission_, Victory Edition, p. 22:

"When first taken from the drier, vegetables should be rather brittle and fruits rather leathery and pliable. One method of determining whether fruit is dry enough is to squeeze a handful; if the fruit separates when the hand is opened, it is dry enough. Another way is to press a single piece; if no moisture comes to the surface the piece is sufficiently dry. Berries are dry enough if they stick to the hand but do not crush when squeezed."

When the food is judged to be sufficiently dried, it should be placed in boxes or bowls and covered with clean cloths. The dried foods should be stirred or poured from one container to another once a day for 10 days or two weeks. If at the end of this time the food is found to be moist, it must be subjected to the drying process for a short time. After the second drying, it should be treated as directed above. If the food is observed for several days and found to be dry, it may be stored away. This process of testing and making them sufficiently dry after removing from the drier is termed _conditioning_.

DRIED CORN

Select such sweet corn for drying as you would for immediate table use. Blanch the corn (on the cob) for 8 to 12 minutes in boiling water. Drain thoroughly. Then cut the corn from the cob as directed in Lesson IV. Dry by subjecting to a temperature of 130 degrees F. gradually increased to 140 degrees F. Stir the corn often. It is sufficiently dried when it is hard and semi-transparent.

(Adapted from _Bulletin of the National War Garden Commission, Victory Edition_.)

TABLE FOR BLANCHING AND DRYING [Footnote 134: From Bulletin of the _National War Garden Commission_, Victory Edition]

The following table shows blanching time for vegetables and the temperatures to be used in drying by artificial heat.

VEGETABLES BLANCHING TEMPERATURE
TIME (FAHRENHEIT)
Minutes Degrees

Beets 2 120 to 145 Cabbage 3 to 4 115 to 135 Carrots 2 120 to 145 Cauliflower 4 to 6 120 to 130 Celery 2 to 3 135 Figs 120 to 140 Garden peas 3 to 5 115 to 140 Green string beans 5 to 8 130 to 145 Lima beans 3 150 Okra 3 115 to 135 Onions 140 Parsnips 2 120 to 145 Potatoes 2 to 3 125 to 150 Prunes - 130 to 175 Pumpkin and winter squash 3 to 6 135 to 160 Spinach 2 130 Summer squash 3 to 6 135 to 160 Sweet corn 8 to 12 130 to 140 Sweet potatoes 6 to 8 145 to 165 Tomatoes 1 1/2 120 to 140 Turnips 1 to 2 135 to 165 Wax beans 3 150

Fruits

Apples 130 to 175 Apricots 130 to 165 Berries 130 to 155 Cherries 120 to 150 Peaches 130 to 165 Pears 130 to 175 Plums 130 to 165

QUESTIONS

Under what conditions do you think it would be advisable to dry foods rather than can them?

Name the advantages of dried over canned foods and the advantages of canned over dried.

From what you have learned regarding the cooking of dried fruits and dried peas and beans, how would you cook home-dried vegetables?

Give a reason for each step of the process.

Why is it necessary to stir foods occasionally while drying?

Why is oven drying of foods much more satisfactory when the oven is provided with a thermometer?

Explain why it is necessary to condition dried foods before storing.

RELATED WORK

LESSON CLXXIII

THE SICK-ROOM TRAY

SELECTION OF FOODS FOR THE SICK.--Methods of preparation of food for the sick differ somewhat from methods of preparation of food for those in health. The chief difference is in the _selection_ of the foods to be prepared. In severe illness the physician prescribes definitely the diet of the patient. In the absence of a trained nurse, it is the home-keeper's work to follow the physician's directions and to prepare such foods as can readily be digested.

Often the home-keeper not only prepares, but selects the foods for the indisposed members of the household. In any case of feeding the sick, the following suggestions should be kept in mind:

(_a_) Choose easily digested foods and prepare them in such a way that they will be easily digested. Liquid or easily liquefied foods are digested with the least effort, hence the use of milk, broths, soups, and gruels in sick-room diet. Such semisolid foods as eggs (uncooked or soft cooked), cereals, softened toast, etc., are also easily digested. Avoid foods that are digested with difficulty, as pastry, fried foods, "rich" sauces, pork, veal, lobster, and baked beans.

(_b_) Give special attention to the selection of foods that appeal to the appetite. When foods are served, even though they are selected according to the physician's directions, likes and dislikes of the patient should be observed. If food suitable for the patient is distasteful to him, substitutions should be made or distasteful foods should be disguised. Eggs, for example, are most valuable foods for the sick. If disliked by the patient they may be slipped into such foods as cocoa or gruels. Appeal to the appetite can be made by changing the methods of preparing foods. The selection and preparation of food for the sick call for ingenuity and resourcefulness on the part of the homekeeper.

(_c_) Prepare less food for the sick than for those in health. Sometimes a lessened quantity of easily digested food is all that is needed to effect recovery from an indisposed condition. Some energy is needed to carry on the involuntary activities of the body, such as the beating of the heart, and the movements of the lungs (see _Table of Energy Requirements_). For the very sick patient, food served in small quantities, but served often, is necessary.

SELECTION OF FOODS FOR THE CONVALESCENT.--In recovery from severe illness, there is often the problem of building up an emaciated body. Knowledge of the proper quantity and the kind of food aids greatly in solving this problem.

The basic principles of the selection of food _to increase weight_ were discussed previously (see _Daily Carbohydrate and Fat Requirement_). The use of concentrated foods, _i.e._ those whose fuel value is high, such as eggs, cream or top milk, and butter, is usually advisable. These foods can be added to foods of less fuel value such as vegetables. A generous use of whole milk is also effective in gaining weight. This can be used to advantage not only at meal times but between meals and at bed time. Milk is one of the few foods which can be used effectively between meals. Because it is bland in flavor, it does not "spoil the appetite" for the following meal. Bread and other grain foods and starch-rich vegetables are useful foods for gaining weight.

Many of the suggestions for the selection of foods for the sick apply to the selection of foods for the convalescent.

PREPARATION OF SPECIAL FOODS FOR THE SICK AND FOR THE CONVALESCENT.--(1) _Milk_.--Milk is one of the most important foods for an invalid because it is a liquid containing valuable nutrients. It is used in a partially predigested condition in Junket "Custard", peptonized milk, and malted milk. Buttermilk, kumiss, and matzoon are often agreeable and beneficial to the sick; by some, they are more easily digested than whole milk. Frozen desserts made of milk or cream are popular foods for the sick.

(2) _Eggs_.--Since eggs are both high in nutrients and easily digested, they serve as a most important article of diet for the sick. The variety of ways in which eggs can be cooked and served also adds to their value as a sick-room food. Eggs combined with milk (egg-nog, custards), with cereals (rice pudding, gruels), and with toast make suitable foods for the sick and convalescent. The principles used in the preparation of custards (see Lesson LI) should be applied in combining eggs with hot liquids.

(3) _Gruels_.--The principle of preparing breakfast cereals may be applied to the preparation of gruels. In the making of gruels less cereal and more liquid are used, _i.e._ mix 1 tablespoonful of cereal with 1 cupful of liquid. The finished product is strained. A gruel may be prepared by diluting a cooked cereal and straining. Gruels should be of the consistency of cream soups. Corn-meal, oatmeal, barley, rice, flour-- especially graham, whole wheat, and gluten--arrowroot, and crushed crackers--especially graham and oatmeal--are suitable cereals for gruels. Water or a combination of water and milk is used for the liquid. When both water and milk are used, the method of cooking Rice Pudding should be followed.

The seasoning and flavoring of gruels are most important. Distaste for gruels is often due to improper seasoning. "High" seasoning is not desirable for the sick or convalescent. Usually a patient does not care for highly seasoned food. But some seasoning is necessary to make a tasty gruel. Gruels may be flavored with whole spices, meat extract, fruits, such as raisins, cranberries, etc., and lemon peel. The flavor of whole spices and fruits is extracted by cooking them with the gruel. If nutmeg is used, it is grated over the surface of the cooked food. The identity of this spice can thus be recognized. Sugar is used sparingly for the sick.

(4) _Broth and Meat_.--Although there is little nourishment contained in meat broths (see _Protein in Meat_), beef tea is often used as food for the sick, especially when liquid diet is necessary. It is appetizing and tasty.

To make _beef tea_, soak chopped meat in water for at least one hour. (Use 1 pint of water to 1 pound of lean beef.) Then cook the mixture _slightly_, over hot water (until it becomes reddish brown in color), and stir constantly. Strain through a _coarse_ strainer, season, and serve at once.

Sometimes the _juice of beef_ without any dilution with water is served to the sick. The meat is cut into pieces and heated slightly; then by means of a lemon "squeezer" or a meat press the juice is extracted.

Meats such as chicken (white meat preferably), lamb, broiled or roasted beef, can be used for convalescents. Scraped meat, _i.e._ meat from which the tough tissue is removed (see Experiment 50), can often be given to an invalid when solid meats are denied. The scraped meat contains more nutriment than beef juice (see _Protein in Meat_). It should be made into balls and pan-broiled (see _Pan-broiling_).

PREPARING THE TRAY.--Attractive serving of foods may make a stronger appeal to the appetite than choice selection or skilful preparation of foods. It should be remembered that the foods are to be carried from the kitchen to the sick room. For this reason, it is well to place foods, especially liquids, in deep dishes suitable for transit. All hot foods should be placed in covered dishes, that they may be hot when the bedside is reached.

For serving sick-room foods, the daintiest china available should be used. The tray should be spread with a clean napkin or doily. In the case of a contagious disease, a paper napkin or doily may be used. It should be destroyed at once after using.

A bedside stand which supports the tray without any effort of the patient is a comfort.

For contagious diseases, burn any remaining bits of food and sterilize the dishes,--cover with cold water, heat, and boil.

QUESTIONS

Keeping in mind that the requisite for food for the sick is ease of digestion, make a list of liquid, semisolid, and solid foods suitable for the sick room.

Explain why it is that liquid foods are invariably prescribed for the sick.

Give a variety of ways of cooking and serving eggs for the sick.

Keeping in mind the suggestions given in the chapter on _Menu-making_ and in the present chapter, write several menus for an indisposed or convalescent patient.

LESSON CLXXIV

PREPARING TRAYS FOR THE SICK AND CONVALESCENT

Plan [Footnote 135: See Footnote 72.] menus for the sick and for the convalescent. Prepare the foods and arrange them on trays.

LESSON CLXXV

REVIEW--MEAL COOKING

MENU

Cream of Potato Soup Croutons Baked Custard

See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.

LESSON CLXXVI

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 136: See Lesson IX.]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Can fruit or vegetables, or make marmalades, jellies, etc. If possible, select the fruits or vegetables at market.

SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To compare home-canned and factory-canned products. Determine the difference in cost per pint or quart. Compare the difference in flavor and appearance.

(2) To compare the yield of fruit made into jam or conserve and jelly. Note the weight of the fruit, sugar, and other ingredients before preserving. How many glasses of jam or conserve does each five pounds of material yield? State the advantages of preparing jelly from fruit and of preparing jam or conserve.

DIVISION EIGHTEEN

SUPPLEMENTARY

LESSON I

THANKSGIVING SAUCE

CRANBERRY SAUCE

1 quart (1 pound) cranberries 2 cupfuls water 2 cupfuls sugar Salt

Pick over and wash the cranberries. Cook them in water until they are soft and the skins are broken. Remove from the fire; strain if desired, add the sugar and salt, and stir until dissolved. Set aside to cool.

CRANBERRY "JELLY"

1 quart (1 pound) cranberries 1 cupful water 2 cupfuls sugar Salt

Prepare and cook the cranberries in water, as for Cranberry Sauce. Press through a strainer, add the sugar and salt, and mix well. Without further cooking pour the mixture into molds which have been rinsed in cold water. Set aside to cool and stiffen.

QUESTIONS

Give a practical method of washing cranberries. How does Cranberry Sauce differ from Cranberry Jelly? If you desired to make _clear_ Cranberry Jelly what change would you make in the method given above?

LESSON II

THANKSGIVING DESSERTS

PLUM PUDDING

2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs 1/4 teaspoonful baking soda 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1/8 teaspoonful cloves 1/2 teaspoonful cinnamon 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1/2 cupful suet 1/2 cupful molasses 1 egg 3/4 cupful milk 1/2 cupful currants 1/2 cupful raisins

To prevent suet from sticking while being chopped, sprinkle it with a little flour. Use a meat grinder, or a chopping bowl and knife, to chop the suet. Beat the eggs lightly and add the milk to them. The currants and raisins should be cleaned as directed previously, and sprinkled with flour. Mix the ingredients in the order given. Steam in an oiled pudding mold for at least 2 hours. Serve with Hard Sauce I or II, Yellow Sauce, or Vanilla Sauce.

VEGETABLE PLUM PUDDING

2 cupfuls flour 1 pound seeded raisins 1 cupful potatoes 1 cupful carrots 1 cupful sugar 1 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful baking soda 1 tablespoonful cold water 1 cupful suet 2 oranges--juice and grated rind 1 lemon--juice and grated rind

Mix the flour and raisins. Put the potatoes, carrots, and suet through a food chopper. Mix the baking soda and water. Combine these three mixtures. Then add the remaining ingredients. Turn into a greased mold and steam three hours. Serve hot with Lemon Sauce or with Hard or Yellow Sauce.

HARD SAUCE II

3/4 cupful brown sugar 1/3 cupful butter 2 tablespoonfuls cream or milk 1 teaspoonful vanilla _or_ 1 teaspoonful lemon juice and 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla

Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, and mix thoroughly. Add the cream or milk gradually. Add the flavoring. Chill; serve over hot puddings.

YELLOW SAUCE

2 eggs 1/2 cupful powdered sugar 1 tablespoonful milk or cream 1/2 teaspoonful vanilla Salt

Separate the eggs; beat the whites until they are stiff and dry. Add the yolks and continue beating until the mixture is very light. Then add the powdered sugar and beat again. Continue beating and add the milk or cream gradually; finally add the vanilla and salt. Serve at once over hot puddings.

CRANBERRY FRAPPE