Chapter XIV: Part 14

OTHER FOODS GIVEN TO INFANTS.--In addition to modified milk, boiled water should be given to infants. A few other foods--egg yolk or vegetable juices and orange juice--may often be given during the first year. The egg yolk should be soft-cooked. This food supplies iron and increases the Calorific value of the diet. Orange juice (strained through muslin) may be usually given at five or six months of age. It is especially necessary to give orange juice to infants whose milk is pasteurized or sterilized. Its use prevents constipation and scurvy.

ENERGY REQUIREMENT OF AN INFANT.--The energy requirement of an infant is greater than one would suppose. Growth and development are going on at a rapid rate. Like the adult, a baby asleep needs energy to carry on the involuntary activities of its body. When awake such muscular activities as crying, kicking, and throwing of arms require energy. An infant's energy requirement is usually based upon its body weight. According to generally accepted standards [Footnote 118: See "Feeding the Family," by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D., p. 103.] an infant's average energy requirement is:

1st to 3d months 50 Calories per pound per day 4th to 6th months 45 Calories per pound per day 7th to 9th months 40 Calories per pound per day 10th to 12th months 35 Calories per pound per day

QUANTITY OF FOOD.--When a baby must be given artificial food entirely or as a supplement to natural food, it is safest and most satisfactory to follow the advice of a physician. It is said, however, that an infant requires an average of 1 1/2 ounces of milk per day for every pound of body weight. After the eighth month, this quantity of milk is usually decreased first to 1 1/3 and then to 1 1/4 ounces for every pound of body weight per day.

The amount of artificial food found satisfactory for the infant during the first few months of its life is usually not sufficient to yield as many Calories as given in the table above. But while the baby is adjusting itself to artificial feeding, it is especially necessary that the stomach be not overtaxed. As the infant develops, the quantity of food can be increased and the deficiency made up later.

QUESTIONS

Define certified, pasteurized, sterilized, modified, and top milk.

Give reasons for sterilizing utensils used for measuring and holding milk.

In preparing modified milk why is milk diluted? Why is sugar added?

What is the price per quart of certified milk?

LESSON CLVII

MODIFYING MILK

Modify cow's milk according to a formula secured from a physician or baby's dispensary. Pasteurize milk.

LESSON CLVIII

REVIEW--MEAL COOKING

MENU

Baked Sweet Potatoes or Scalloped Potatoes Apple Dumpling (made with pastry or biscuit dough)

See Lesson XIV, for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.

LESSON CLIX

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 119: See Lesson IX.]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--If pies are served in your home, bake at least one pie a week. In case pies are not used, bake cake in which different quantities of fat are used.

SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To compare One- and Two-crust Pies. Prepare each kind. Determine the difference in cost, time of preparation, and quality of the crust of each. Which kinds of pies do you consider more successful in regard to quality? Which is cheaper? Which kind meets the approval of other members of your home?

(2) To compare Cake Containing Little and Much Fat. Follow the recipe for One-egg or Plain Cake. Vary the quantity of fat from 1/8 to 1/2 cupful. Make comparisons regarding cost, texture, grain, and flavor. Which amount do you consider most successful from the standpoint of texture, grain, and flavor?

DIVISION SIXTEEN

FROZEN DESSERTS

LESSON CLX

METHOD OF FREEZING--WATER ICE

EXPERIMENT 79: MIXTURES FOR FREEZING.--Prepare 2 cupfuls of cracked ice. Place 1 cupful of the cracked ice in each of two bowls. To one bowl of ice add 1/3 cupful of rock salt, and mix thoroughly. Insert thermometers into both bowls and note temperature. What effect does the salt have upon the temperature of the ice?

Allow the ice mixture to stand a few minutes, then observe the difference in the condition of the ice in the two bowls. Besides lowering the temperature, what does the salt do to the ice?

FREEZING WITH ICE AND SALT.--When a solid substance is changed to a liquid, heat is absorbed from surrounding materials. When solid ice liquefies, heat is absorbed from surrounding materials. Salt makes ice liquefy at a lower temperature, thus absorbing more heat from its surroundings. Since foods must be cooled, i.e. heat drawn from them, in order to freeze them, a mixture of ice and salt rather than ice is used in freezing.

If ice and salt surround a tin can containing substances to be frozen, from what is the heat absorbed when the ice is changed to liquid form? Explain why it is that a mixture of ice and salt, rather than ice alone, is used to freeze a dessert.

CONDUCTORS OF HEAT.--In Experiment 2 and in, _The Principle of Fireless Cookery_, it is shown that some materials are better conductors of heat than others. Which is a better conductor of heat, wood or metal? Explain why it is that most freezers consist of an inner can of metal and an outer bucket of wood. A few freezers have an outside metal bucket. Such freezing devices have been found more satisfactory when heavy paper is tied around the outer metal bucket.

COOLING BY EVAPORATION.--If a few drops of alcohol, ether, or gasoline are poured in the palm of the hand and allowed to evaporate, the hand feels cold. During evaporation, the liquid takes heat from the hand. When any liquid evaporates, heat is absorbed from surrounding materials. Water may be cooled by placing it in a porous jar and hanging it in a breeze.

When there is no ice, this principle of cooling by the rapid evaporation of a liquid may be applied to the cooling of butter and other foods. Wrap butter in an oiled paper and place it in a flower crock or any porous jar. Place the crock in a draft; put a bowl of water beside it. Wrap a wet cloth about the crock and place one end of it in the bowl of water. The continuous evaporation of the moisture keeps the food cool.

PREPARING AND PACKING THE FREEZER.--Scald the can, the cover, and the dasher of the freezer; cool it before the mixture that is to be frozen is placed in it. Adjust the can carefully in the bucket; put in the dasher; pour in the mixture, cover; adjust the crank. Crush the ice for freezing by placing it in a strong bag and pounding it with a wooden mallet. Mix the ice with rock salt in the proportion given below. Then pour the ice and salt mixture around the can of the freezer. The ice and salt mixture should be higher around the can than the level of the mixture inside.

For _freezing_ ice creams and most ices use _three_ parts of cracked ice to _one_ of rock salt. If ice of coarse grain is desired, use a greater quantity of salt. The less salt in

proportion to ice used, the finer the grain; the process of freezing, however, takes place very slowly when little salt is used.

For mixtures which are frozen by merely packing in ice and salt but are not stirred, such as mousse or parfait, use _two_ parts of cracked ice to _one_ of rock salt.

For packing frozen mixtures after freezing, use _four_ parts of cracked ice to _one_ of rock salt.

FREEZING.--If a dessert of fine texture is desired, turn the crank slowly and steadily until the mixture is rather stiff, then turn more rapidly. In making water ices, it is considered advisable by some to turn the crank steadily for 5 minutes, then allow to stand 5 minutes, turn again 5 minutes, and continue until freezing is completed. Do not draw off the salt water while freezing the mixture, unless the salt water stands so high that there is danger of its getting into the can.

When the mixture is frozen, remove the ice and salt around the top of the can; wipe the cover and top; uncover; and remove the dasher. Then stir the frozen mixture thoroughly; place thin paper or paraffin paper over the can; cover; place a cork in the hole of the cover. Drain off all the water which has collected in freezing; repack the freezer with ice and salt mixture in the proportion given above; cover with carpet, blanket, or newspapers; and allow to stand in a cold place several hours.

FRUIT ICE

4 cupfuls water 2 3/4 cupfuls sugar 3 oranges 3 lemons 3 bananas 1/4 teaspoonful salt

Make a sirup of the sugar and water, and then cool it. Extract the juice from the lemons and oranges; crush the peeled and scraped bananas with a wooden potato masher. Mix the fruits and salt immediately with the sirup. Freeze _at once_. When frozen, remove the dasher and repack as directed above.

A less expensive but more mildly flavored ice may be prepared by using 3 pints of water (instead of 4 cupfuls). When the greater quantity of water is used, 3 1/4 cupfuls (instead of 2 3/4 cupfuls) of sugar should be used.

These recipes for Fruit Ice are modifications of the popular recipe termed "Five Threes."

QUESTIONS

Explain why it is necessary to scald the can, cover, and dasher of an ice cream freezer (see _Care of Milk_).

What harm sometimes results when an ice cream freezer has been carelessly prepared?

Why should not the salt water be drawn from the freezer during freezing (see Experiment 79)?

What is the purpose of placing paper over the can when packing the frozen mixture?

What is the purpose of covering the packed freezer with carpet, blanket, or newspapers (see _The Principle of Fireless Cookery_)?

Why is it well to tie heavy paper around an _outside metal_ bucket of a freezer?

Why should "Fruit Ice" mixture be frozen _at once_ after preparing the fruit?

Heat aids chemical action. Can you explain why acid mixtures are not acted upon by the metal and consequently discolored when _frozen_ in a tin or iron can?

LESSON CLXI

FROZEN CREAMS

Frozen desserts consist of:

1. CREAM MIXTURES:

(_a_) _Plain Ice Cream_.--Cream, sugar, and flavoring. This is sometimes called Philadelphia Ice Cream.

(_b_) _French Ice Cream_.--Custard, cream, and flavoring. On the continent, this frozen mixture is called Neapolitan Ice Cream. In this country, three kinds of frozen mixtures served together make up what is termed Neapolitan Ice Cream.

(_c_) _Mousse_.--Whipped cream, folded into various sweetened and flavored mixtures, placed in a mold, and packed in ice and salt, but not beaten.

2. WATER MIXTURES:

(_a_) _Water Ice._--Fruit juice, water, and sugar.

(_b_) _Sherbet._--Water ice with the addition of dissolved gelatine or beaten whites of eggs.

(_c_) _Frappe._--Water ice of coarse texture.

(_d_) _Granite._--Water ice to which fruit is added after freezing.

3. FROZEN PUDDINGS:

Various sweet mixtures.

METHOD OF MIXING FROZEN FOODS.--The sugar of a frozen dessert should always be dissolved. To accomplish this a sirup should be made of the sugar and water (see Experiment 11). For mixtures that contain no eggs, but in which cream or milk is used, the cream or milk may be scalded, and the sugar dissolved in the hot liquid. If eggs are used to thicken ice cream, they should be combined with the sugar and cream and cooked as for a soft custard.

In sherbets, whites of eggs are often used. They are usually beaten stiff, and added uncooked to the mixture. If fruit juice is to be used with milk or cream, the latter should be chilled before adding the fruit. Fruits that are to be frozen with the other ingredients should be crushed thoroughly. Small fruits, or large fruits cut in pieces, are

sometimes added to a dessert after it is frozen, thereby preventing the fruit from freezing and becoming hard. All frozen mixtures should stand several hours before serving, in order to ripen.

PLAIN ICE CREAM

1 quart cream 3/4 cupful sugar 1 tablespoonful vanilla

Prepare as directed in _Method of Mixing Frozen Foods._

CHOCOLATE ICE CREAM

1 quart cream 1 cupful sugar 2 ounces chocolate 1/3 cupful boiling water Salt 1 teaspoonful vanilla

Scald the cream; add the sugar to it. Prepare the chocolate in the usual way, by cooking it in the boiling water until a smooth paste is formed (see _Chocolate_). Add the chocolate mixture to the hot cream. Cool, add salt and vanilla, and freeze.

FRENCH ICE CREAM

1 quart cream 1 pint milk 3 egg yolks Salt 1 cupful sugar 1 tablespoonful vanilla

Prepare as directed in _Method of Mixing Frozen Foods_.

FRUIT ICE CREAM

2 cupfuls fruit juice, _or_ 3 cupfuls crushed fruit 1 quart cream 2 cupfuls sugar

Prepare and freeze according to the _Method of Mixing Frozen Foods_.

For Frozen Fruit or Water Ice, use water instead of cream.

The flavor of most fruits is improved by adding 2 tablespoonfuls of lemon juice to the water mixture.

QUESTIONS

For Fruit Ice Cream, why is it necessary to chill the cream before adding the fruit juice or crushed fruit (see Experiment 61)?

Why is it necessary to crush the fruit for frozen fruit mixture?

How much sugar would be required to sweeten one and one half quarts of custard, according to the recipe for Soft Custard? Compare this with the quantity of sugar used for French Ice Cream. How do extremely cold beverages affect the sense of taste? From this, account for the difference in the quantity of sugar used in frozen and in cold desserts. Also compare the quantity of sugar and vanilla used in Chocolate Ice Cream and Chocolate Beverage. Account for the difference.

Approximately how much ice is required to freeze and pack one quart of Ice Cream? What is the cost of ice per hundred pounds?

How many persons does one quart of ice cream serve?

RELATED WORK

LESSON CLXII

DIET FOR YOUNG CHILDREN

SELECTION OF FOOD FOR CHILDREN (2 to 12 years).--Although solid food is included in the diet of a child after the first year, the baby is by no means ready for the food of adults. Childhood differs essentially from maturity in that it is a period of growth. In proportion to weight a child is much more active than an adult. A child has not the reserve power of a grown-up person. His organs of digestion and assimilation are delicate. Because the activities and needs of the child differ greatly from those of the adult, diet suitable for the adult is not adapted to the child. A consideration of foods for young children follows:

(1) _Milk_.--Since milk is the food provided for young animals, it should be used generously all through childhood. The nutritive value of milk is high in proportion to the effort required to digest and assimilate it. The average child with good digestion should take from one and one half pints to one quart daily until the tenth year. In this amount is included not only the milk that is used as a beverage, but the milk served with cereals and vegetables and that used in soups, custards, blanc mange, rice and bread puddings, and other easily digested desserts.

(2) _Cereals and Breads_.--Well-cooked cereals are among the essential foods of childhood. "Ready-to-serve" breakfast cereals are undesirable as staples for young children. Cereals should be _cooked_ from _one_ to _three hours_. For very young children (under eighteen months) all cereals must be strained. For older children, unstrained cereals may be used, provided they are thoroughly cooked. Frequent use of the whole grains, as rolled oats and wheat, is recommended. These cereals contain more protein and ash than the finer cereals and hence may be better body-builders, but they also contain much bran. Usually the latter does not prove irritating if thoroughly cooked. But if these coarse cereals do cause irritation they should either be strained or the cereals containing less bran, as cream of wheat, farina, and arrowroot, should be used. Cereals should be served with milk or cream, but with no sugar or sirup or not more than one teaspoonful to a serving.

Carefully made toast, "zwieback," and stale bread may be given to young children. On account of the difficulty in digesting fresh breads, they are excluded from children's diet.

(3) _Eggs_ are especially good foods for children, provided they are fresh and properly cooked. They should be cooked in some way which leaves them soft such as soft-cooking or poaching. Only soft-cooked egg yolks should be given to children under three years. One whole egg per day may be included in the diet of older children.

(4) _Broth and Meat_.--There is some difference of opinion regarding the use of meat in children's diet. Some authorities advise beef broth and the more easily digested meats for young children. Others say that if a generous amount of eggs and milk is included in children's diet, it is well not to give them meat before eight years. In the diets for children from two to eight years, neither broth nor meat is included. It is possible to obtain sufficient protein from milk and eggs. Doubtless, as with adults, most young children would be benefited by much less meat than is generally given them or by none at all. If meat is given to young children, it should be scraped (see Experiment 50) and pan-broiled (see _Pan-Broiling_), as it is somewhat difficult to masticate.

(5) _Fresh Vegetables_ should be included in children's diet. For very young children select mild vegetables such as spinach, asparagus tips, string beans, and peas. Cook until very soft and press through a sieve or mash. Later, such cooked vegetables as potatoes (baked or mashed), beets, carrots, cauliflower, and squash may be added. No uncooked vegetables should be given to young children.

(6) _Fruits and Sugar_.--Fruits are especially valuable for children. Care should be taken, however, in selecting fruits. It is said that until a child is five years old only cooked fruits and the juice of fresh fruits should be given. For very young children the juice of orange or the pulp of cooked prunes should be given daily, because they contain valuable nutrients and possess laxative properties. For older children the cooked food fruits (see _Kinds of Fruits_) such as dates, figs, and raisins (without seeds), and bananas (baked) are desirable. Apples, peaches, and apricots, baked or made into sauces, are also suggested.

Fruits should be cooked with little or no sugar. Sweets in the form of sweet fruits rather than sugar and candy should be given to children under six years. After six years, very little candy or sweet chocolate may be given at the end of a meal, not between meals. It is a mistake to give children candy just because they want it (see _The Use of Candy in Diet_.)

(7) _Desserts_.--Fruits selected and prepared as given in the previous section, very plain cakes--sponge cake and those containing little fat--and easily digested desserts made of eggs, milk, cereals, etc., are the only desserts suitable for young children.

(8) _Water and Other Beverages_.--"Pure" water in generous quantities is needed for children. Water and milk are the only beverages (if milk can be considered a beverage) that should be given to children under six years. After that age, cocoa made with much milk may be given, but not tea, coffee, or any carbonated drinks.

THE IMPORTANCE OF PROPER DIET FOR CHILDREN cannot be over-emphasized. It is a child's right to be "hardy." Good food in proper quantity given at the right time is essential for the sure and steady growth of the body. The child's future health, usefulness, and happiness depend much upon the nourishment he receives. If insufficient food, or food lacking in foodstuffs for growth, is given to children, a wasting away of brain cells and muscle may take place and stunted growth will result. The additional care in preparing special menus for children is an effort well worth making; its compensation is inestimable. If from babyhood a child is given his own special diet, it is possible to satisfy him at the table with food that differs from that of the rest of the family. Habits of eating plain food should be established in childhood. Mrs. Richards says: "Habit rather than instinct guides civilized man in the choice of food." Likes or dislikes for food should not be discussed in the presence of children. Such discussions may establish distaste for a food of decided nutritive value.

_Regularity in feeding_ children is most important. There should be no lunches between meals. It is important also that a child be taught to _masticate_ food thoroughly.

ENERGY REQUIREMENTS OF CHILDREN OF DIFFERENT AGES.--It is difficult to write definitely regarding the quantity of food that should be given to children. As with adults, some children require more than others. The personal factor enters largely into this question. In Lesson CXXIV the energy requirements of children of different ages are given (see _Relation of Age to Daily Energy Requirement_). As stated there, these tables indicate the energy requirement of children of normal size, development, and activity. Note that in the menus given below the Calories derived from protein are approximately one seventh of the total Calories (see _Daily Protein Requirement_).

The following menus [Footnote 120: Prepared by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Nutrition, School of Household Arts, Teachers College, Columbia University (see Teachers College Bulletin, "The Feeding of Young Children," pp. 6-9).] for children from two to twelve years were prepared for average children of moderate activity in a family of limited income.

MEALS FOR ONE DAY

_Child 2-4 Years Old_

Breakfast: 7:30 A.M. Oatmeal Mush 0.8 ounce dry cereal
Milk 1 1/2 cupfuls
Stale Bread 1 slice
Orange Juice 4 tablespoonfuls

Lunch: 11 A.M. Milk 1 cupful
Stale Bread 1 slice
Butter 1 teaspoonful

Dinner: 1 P.M. Baked Potato 1
Boiled Onion (Mashed) 1
Bread and Butter 1 slice
Milk to Drink 1 cupful
Baked Apple 1

Supper: 5:30 P.M. Boiled Rice 1 cupful
Milk 3/4 cupful
Bread and Butter 1 slice

Fuel Value, 1313 Calories; Calories derived from protein, 191.2.

Substitutes or Additions:

For Rolled Oats or Rice: Other cereals, such as rolled wheat, wheaten grits, farina, hominy, and corn-meal.

For Orange Juice and Baked Apple: Prune pulp or apple sauce.

For Onions: Spinach, strained peas, stewed celery, carrots, or cauliflower tips.

An egg may be added every day, and should be included at least two or three times a week.

These changes will alter the cost somewhat.

_Child 4-8 Years Old_

Breakfast: Oatmeal 1 1/2 ounces dry cereal
Top Milk 4 ounces
Stewed Prunes 4 or 5
Toast 1 slice
Milk to Drink 6 ounces

Dinner: Pea Soup 1 cupful
Croutons 1 slice bread
Boiled Onions 2 small
Baked Potato 1 large
Molasses Cookies 2

Supper: Cream Toast 2 slices bread
Rice Pudding with
Milk and Sugar 1 cupful
Milk to Drink 5 ounces

Fuel Value, 1892 Calories; Calories derived from protein, 261.6.

Substitutes or Additions:

For Rolled Oats: Other cereals, as suggested on previous page.

For Onions and Peas: Strained dried beans; other vegetables carefully cooked; fresh lettuce.

For Prunes: Fresh ripe apples, baked bananas, other mild fruits well cooked.

For Rice Pudding: Junkets, custards, blanc manges, bread puddings, and other very simple desserts.

For Cookies: Gingerbread, sponge cake, or very plain cookies.

_Child 8-12 Years Old_

Breakfast: Oatmeal Mush 1 1/2 ounces dry cereal
Top Milk 6 ounces
Stewed Prunes 6 or 7
Toast 2 slices
Milk to Drink 6 ounces

Luncheon: Pea Soup 1 cupful
Boiled Onions 2 small
Baked Potato 1 large
Bread and Butter 2 slices bread
Molasses Cookies 3 cookies

Dinner: Baked Haddock small serving (2 ounces)
Creamed Hashed Potato 3/4 cupful
Spinach 1/2 cupful
Bread and Butter 2 slices
Rice Pudding--Milk
and Sugar 1 cupful

Fuel Value, 2420 Calories; Calories derived from protein, 345.6.

Substitutes or Additions:

For Rolled Oats: Other cereals thoroughly cooked.

For Haddock: Rare beefsteak, roast beef, or mutton chops; other fish, especially white varieties.

For Prunes: Any mild ripe fruit uncooked or cooked.

For Onions: String beans, stewed celery, beets, squash. Peas or Spinach: Turnips or cauliflower.

_Suggestive Dietary for Child who will not Drink Milk, Age 5 Years_

(1 quart milk concealed in the menu.)

Breakfast:
7 A.M. Oatmeal 1/4 cup cereal cooked in 1 cupful
milk
Creamy Egg on Toast 1 egg yolk with 1/2 slice bread
and 1/4 cupful milk
Cocoa 1 teaspoonful cocoa and 1/4 cupful
milk

10 A.M. "Zwieback" and Cream 1 piece "zwieback" and 1
tablespoonful cream

1:30 P.M. Spinach Soup 4 ounces
Baked Potato with 1 potato and 2 tablespoonfuls
Cream cream
Bread and Butter 1 slice
Caramel Junket 1 1/2 cupfuls

5:30 P.M. Rice and Prunes 2 tablespoonfuls rice cooked in
1/2 cupful milk, and 5 prunes
"Zwieback" 1 slice

Total Calories, 1431; Calories from protein, 207.6.

QUESTIONS

Give at least three reasons why young children should have different food from adults.

Why are not ready-to-serve cereals suitable staple foods for young children?

What are the advantages of using whole grains for children's food?

Why not serve sugar with breakfast cereals for children?

Why is not meat a desirable food for most young children?

Why are fresh vegetables and fruits such necessary foods for children?

LESSON CLXIII

PLANNING AND PREPARING MENUS FOR CHILDREN

Plan [Footnote 121: See Footnote 72.] a day's feeding for a child of five years, meeting the total energy and the protein requirements. Prepare these foods.

LESSON CLXIV

REVIEW--MEAL COOKING

MENU

Creamed Vegetable Apricot Dainty Coffee

See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.

LESSON CLXV

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 122: See Lesson IX.]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Plan a week's diet for a small sister, brother, or other child in whom you are interested. (Follow suggestions given in Lesson CLXII.) Calculate the total Calorific value and Calories derived from protein. Does your menu consist of foods which furnish the proper Calorific value and Calories derived from protein?

SUPPOSED AIMS: (1) If your menus do not conform to the requirements, to change them so as to meet the requirements of the young child.

(2) If possible, to arrange to have your menus prepared and fed to the child, assisting as much as possible in the preparation of the food and in the feeding of the child.

DIVISION SEVENTEEN

FOOD PRESERVATION

LESSON CLXVI

THE PRINCIPLES OF PRESERVING FOOD

WHY FOODS SPOIL.--Most foods spoil or change readily,--fruits decay, milk sours, butter becomes rancid, and meat putrefies. Knowledge concerning the spoiling of foods makes it possible for the housekeeper to preserve foods from one season to another; it gives her the assurance that her preserved fruit will "keep."

The decay of foods is due largely to the existence of minute vegetable organisms or microorganisms. These microorganisms are molds, yeasts, and bacteria. The molds (see Figure 88) are visible to the naked eye, the yeasts (see Figure 86) and bacteria (see Figure 89) are microscopic in size. These plants exist everywhere, and in everything (except those things in which the organisms have been destroyed and prevented from reentering),--in the air, in and on foods, and all over our bodies. Like all plants, these organisms require warmth, moisture, and food for their most rapid growth. Oxygen is necessary for the growth of some of these plants.

Many foods constitute nourishment for these organisms. It is because these plants exist in foods and live upon them that changes in foods result. The mold on bread and fruit, the odor from decaying meat and eggs, the liquefaction of decayed eggs, and the gas from fermenting canned fruit are caused by microorganisms existing and growing in these foods. The following experiments show the growth of molds on food and other materials:

EXPERIMENT 80: EFFECT OF AIR, LIGHT, AND DRYING UPON THE GROWTH OF MOLDS. --Place a piece of bread on a saucer. Allow it to remain uncovered, in a light place, at room temperature, for several days. Examine. What is the condition (moist or dry) of the bread? Have molds grown upon the bread?

EXPERIMENT 81: EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND LIGHT UPON THE GROWTH OF MOLDS.-- Sprinkle a thick piece of bread with water, place it on a saucer, and cover with a jelly glass or any glass dish. Leave in a light place at room temperature for several days. Examine. Is the bread moist or dry? Have molds grown upon the bread?

From the results of Experiments 80 and 81 what would you say has caused the molds to grow? What conclusion can you draw

from this concerning the growth of molds upon foods in damp and dry places and in damp and dry weather? How should bread be stored in dry weather? In damp weather? Give the reason for storing Dried Bread Crumbs as directed in Lesson L.

EXPERIMENT 82: EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND DARKNESS UPON THE GROWTH OF MOLDS.-- Repeat Experiment 81, except the method of covering. Cover with an earthen dish so that the light is excluded. Let it remain at room temperature for the same length of time as given in Experiment 81. Have molds grown? How does the growth compare in quantity with that of Experiment 81?

EXPERIMENT 83: EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND LOW TEMPERATURES UPON THE GROWTH OF MOLDS.--Repeat Experiment 81, but place the bread on the lower shelf of the refrigerator. After several days, examine. Have molds grown? How do they compare in quantity with that of Experiment 81? What conclusion can you draw from this concerning the temperature at which food liable to mold should be kept?

EXPERIMENT 84: GROWTH OF MOLDS UPON CUT FRUIT.--Place pieces of apple, banana, lemon, or other fruits on separate saucers and cover each with a glass dish. Place some lemon or other fruit juice in a test tube and allow it to stand. After two days examine. Have molds grown on all the fruits? Do you notice any difference in the quantity of the molds on the different fruits? Have molds grown on the fruit juice?

EXPERIMENT 85: GROWTH OF MOLDS UPON WHOLE FRUITS.--Place whole fruits, such as apples and lemons, on saucers and cover with glass. After two days examine. Have molds grown upon the whole fruits? If so, how do the molds compare in quantity to those growing on cut fruit? Account for this difference. Apply the results of Experiments 84 and 85 to the "keeping" of fresh fruits.

EXPERIMENT 86: GROWTH OF MOLDS ON OTHER FOODS.--Place a piece of cheese and a piece of meat on separate saucers and cover each with a glass dish. After two days examine. Have molds grown upon these foods? Account for the growth of molds upon these foods when no moisture was added to them. Devise a method for keeping cheese free from mold. Give the reasons for your method.

EXPERIMENT 87: GROWTH OF MOLD UPON WOOD.--Soak a bit of wood in water for at least 15 minutes. Cover it with an earthen dish and let it stand at room temperature for several days. Examine. Have molds grown upon the wood? What has caused the molds to grow upon the wood? From this give directions for the care of the wooden part of the dasher of an ice cream freezer. Draw conclusions concerning the care of pastry and bread boards and butter paddles after scrubbing. Draw conclusions concerning the scrubbing, drying, and airing of wooden floors.

EXPERIMENT 88: GROWTH OF MOLDS UPON CLOTH.--Sprinkle a bit of cloth with water. Cover with an earthen dish. Let stand a few days at room temperature. Examine. Have molds (mildew) grown upon the cloth? What caused the molds to grow? From this draw a conclusion concerning the care of washed clothes, wet dish-cloths, towels, and wash-cloths.

EXPERIMENT 89: CONTAMINATION OF FRESH FOOD BY MEANS OF MOLDY FOOD.--Dip a piece of bread in water and place it on a saucer. With a knitting needle, place bits of mold at several points on the surface of the bread. Cover with a glass dish. After several days examine. At what points on the bread have the molds started to grow? What conclusion can you draw from this concerning the placing of moldy food with fresh food? When fruit is falling to the ground, tell how an orchard should be cared for. Explain.

The following experiments show the growth of bacteria on food:

EXPERIMENT 90: GROWTH OF BACTERIA.--Into test tubes put one of the following foods: (1) bit of uncooked meat; (2) small quantity of egg; (3) piece of bread; (4) crushed peas or beans; (5) sugar or syrup. Add a little water to each tube. Set aside in a warm place. After several days, examine. What change in appearance do you note? What has caused the foods to spoil?

EXPERIMENT 91: EFFECT OF BOILING ON THE GROWTH OF BACTERIA.--Place a little chopped meat in two test tubes. Add lukewarm water to each. Boil the contents of one of the tubes for several minutes. Set both aside. After 24 hours, examine. What difference is there in the condition of the meat in each tube? Explain this difference. From the result of this Experiment draw conclusions regarding the boiling of food to prevent spoiling.

EXPERIMENT 92: EFFECT OF PRESERVATIVES ON THE GROWTH OF BACTERIA.--Beat slightly an egg white. Add to it 1/2 cupful of water. Pour a little of the diluted egg white into four test tubes. To three of the test tubes add one of the following: (1) salt; (2) sugar; (3) vinegar. Put all of the tubes in a warm place. After several days, examine. What is the condition of the egg white in each tube? Explain. Draw inferences regarding the use of "safe" preservatives to prevent foods from spoiling.

THE PRINCIPLES OF PRESERVING FOOD.--Food may be preserved by opposing the growth of microorganisms or by destroying them. Low temperatures, certain preservatives, and drying destroy microorganisms or retard their growth.

FIGURE 89.-THE FOUR TYPES OF BACTERIA. A, cocci; B, bacilli; C, spirilla; D, branched filamentous organism.]

Drying is effective in preserving such foods as fruits, certain vegetables, fish, and meats. The drying of fruit and vegetables may be done in the home. This process of food preservation is often advisable when there is an excessive supply of fruit or vegetables in the orchard or garden.

Substances known as _preservatives_ are used in food preservation. Some of these are harmless, as sugar, salt, vinegar, and spices. Others are harmful, as formaldehyde, boric, salicylic, benzoic, and sulphurous acids, with their related compounds. Saltpeter and smoke are also preservatives. There is some doubt concerning the harmlessness of these latter preserving agents. Foods preserved with harmful materials should never be used. Good food materials can be preserved without the use of harmful preservatives.

The destruction of microorganisms by _heat_ is the basic principle of preserving much food, especially fruit and vegetables. In order to preserve fruits it is necessary to _process_ them, _i.e._ to apply heat in such a way as to insure preservation and secure the maximum of good quality. To do this, the fruit must be cooked well, packed in cans which have been boiled, and sealed to exclude the air from them. It is necessary, also, to sterilize all utensils which come in contact with the foods in the processes of cooking and sealing.

If canned fruits do not "keep," some microorganisms either in the fruit, on the can, or on the utensils used in canning, have not been destroyed, or the can has not been securely sealed. Slight flaws in the can or rubbers which were not detected at the time of sealing may cause the spoiling of carefully canned fruit. In the preservation of fruit, every effort should be made to secure sound fruit, perfect jars, and good rubbers, and to have the fruit and utensils perfectly processed, and the jars securely sealed. Failure to accomplish these ends may result in much loss of materials and time.

KINDS OF SPOILAGE.--As mentioned previously, canned foods spoil either from imperfect processing or sealing. Different organisms growing in preserved foods cause different kinds of spoilage. A discussion [Footnote 123: Adapted from Journal of Home Economics, Vol. X (July, 1918), pp. 329- 331, "A Consideration of the Canning Problem," by Elizabeth F. Genung.] of the various kinds of spoilage follows:

(_a_) FERMENTATION OR "SWELL."--When canned foods spoil with a production of gas, fermentation of the food is taking place. The visible indications of such spoilage are gas bubbles in the jar and a bulging of the lid of a jar or a distending of the top and bottom of a can. Because of the latter condition, the term "swell" is used in the commercial canning industry to designate this kind of spoilage. When fermentation takes place, the lid of a jar may become loosened instead of bulged.

This type of spoilage is caused by the action either of yeast or of a certain kind of bacterium which thrives best without air. It is usually due to imperfect sterilization. Fermentation can usually be detected by the presence of bubbles of gas in the jar and a loosening of the sealed cover.

(_b_) Flat Sour is a kind of spoilage in which no gas is formed, but acid is produced, giving the food a sour taste. In some cases of flat sour, a milky deposit appears in the bottom of the jar which can be detected if the container is glass. In other cases, no change in the appearance of the jar and its contents takes place.

Little is known of the kind of organism producing flat sour. Whether or not food thus spoiled is injurious also has not been determined.

Flat sour is probably due to imperfect sterilization.

(_c_) PUTREFACTION.--When putrefaction takes place, food decays and disintegrates, or decay takes place with the production of a gas of a disagreeable odor. This type of spoilage is readily detected. Food thus affected is unfit for use.

Putrefaction is usually caused by imperfect sealing. It may result, however, from imperfect sterilization.

(_d_) BOTULISM.--A bacillus termed _botulinus_ sometimes grows on canned foods, especially those rich in protein or lacking in acid. This organism produces a violent poison in the food. But fortunately, the poison may be destroyed by boiling the food for ten minutes. Hence, it is advisable to _boil_ canned food at least 30 minutes before using. This should be done even though the food is to be served cold. It may easily be cooled after boiling. When there is the least suspicion that food is spoiled, it should be discarded.

QUESTIONS

Explain why boiled milk keeps sweet for a longer time than uncooked milk. Why do foods need to be sealed to preserve them?

Why does cooked meat "keep" longer than uncooked meat?

LESSON CLXVII

PROCESSING WITH LITTLE OR NO SUGAR--CANNED FRUIT

JARS FOR CANNED FRUIT.--There are many types of fruit jars. Glass jars rather than metal cans should be used for home canning. Jars should be constructed so that there is no contact of the fruit with metal, hence a jar having a glass cover is desirable. A large opening, simple construction, ease in cleaning, and perfect sealing are characteristics of good fruit jars.

Glass jars should be _tested_ before using: Partly fill the jar with water, adjust the rubber and cover, seal, invert the jar. Examine carefully for leakage.

RUBBER RINGS.--Soft, elastic rubbers should be chosen. It is poor economy to use old rubbers. Rubber after usage becomes hard and inelastic; it may cause imperfect sealing and hence decay of the fruit.

In certain processes of canning, it is necessary to subject the jars provided with rubber rings and covers to long periods of boiling or to the intense heat of a pressure or steam cooker. When such a method is followed it is especially necessary that rubber rings of good quality be used. To meet this requirement, the United States Department of Agriculture advises that rubber rings conform to the following:

1. Inside diameter of 2 1/4 inches (for the jar of standard size).

2. Width of ring or flange from 1/4 to 12/32 of an inch.

3. Thickness of 1/12 of an inch.

4. Tensile strength sufficient to "stretch considerably and return promptly to place without changing the inside diameter."

5. Firm enough so that no crease or break shows after it has been tightly folded.

SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF FRUIT FOR CANNING.--Select solid, and not over-ripe, fruit. It is better to have underripe than over-ripe fruit. Fresh fruits--if possible picked on the same day they are to be used--are desirable for canning.

Most fruits should be washed before using. Quinces should be rubbed with a coarse towel before they are washed. Berries and small fruits should be washed before they are hulled or stemmed. Most small fruits contain so much water that it is not necessary to add water for cooking. Hence such fruits should be drained thoroughly after washing. If there are any decayed or bruised spots on fruit, the damaged portion should be removed completely.

Peaches and tomatoes may be peeled instead of pared. This is done by placing the fruit in a wire basket and then immersing the basket in a kettle of boiling water for 3 minutes. Remove the basket of fruit from the hot water and plunge it for a moment in cold water. Drain, then peel the fruit. If desired, cut into halves, quarters, or slices. After fruit is peeled or pared, it can be kept from discoloring by covering with cold water.

METHODS OF CANNING FRUIT

Several methods may be used for canning fruit:

(_a_) OPEN KETTLE.--This method consists of cooking the fruit in water or sirup and pouring it into jars and sealing. The entire process of sterilization takes place in the kettle before the food is poured into the jars. Hence the name of the process,--_Open Kettle_.

For this method it is necessary to _boil the jars and rubbers_ before placing the food in them. This is done as follows:

Fill and surround jars with cold water. Cover lids and rubbers with cold water. Gradually heat the water and allow it to boil for at least 15 minutes. Allow the jars, covers, and rubbers to remain in the boiling water until just ready to use them. Do not touch the inside of the jars and covers with your fingers. Immerse spoons, cups, knives, skewers, or knitting needles used for testing fruits, in boiling water before using them in contact with the foods. If corks are used for sealing bottles, scald them also.

If small juicy fruits are preserved by the open kettle method, no water should be added. Add the sugar to them and allow them to stand until some of the juice is drawn from them, then cook.

If tough fruits are canned by this method, first steam, then cook in sirup, or first cook them in clear water, add the sugar, and finish cooking.

Fruit may be canned with or without sugar. Usually some sugar is used. However, some housekeepers contend that the fresh-fruit flavor is retained better by reheating the fruit and adding the sugar just before it is served. Different quantities of sugar may be used. If the fruit breaks into pieces readily, cook in a thick sirup. The quantity of water used with the sugar varies with the juiciness of the fruit. _For each pound of fruit use from 1/2 to 1 cupful of sugar with from 1/8 to 1 cupful of water_.

After cooking the fruit, adjust the rubber on the sterilized jar, fill the jar (to overflowing) with the hot fruit and sirup, cover at once, and seal. Invert the can and let it stand until cool.

(_b_) COLD PACK.--This method is followed by placing the prepared food in a clean, tested, hot jar, covering the food with water or sirup, adjusting the rubber ring and cover to the jar, and processing both the jar and its contents in boiling water or steam.

Before placing the food in the jar, it may be _blanched_, _i.e._ subjected to boiling water or steam. After blanching, the food is _cold- dipped_, _i.e._ plunged into cold water. After the preliminary steps, such as washing, paring, and cutting into pieces, foods may be _blanched_ and _cold-dipped_ as follows:

Place the food in a cheese-cloth bag or in a wire basket and immerse it in boiling water. Certain fruits are allowed to remain in the water from 1 to 5 minutes (see Table). (The time is dependent upon the kind of fruit.) Then remove the product from the boiling water, dip it immediately in cold water, remove at once, and drain for a few minutes. These two processes are used for large firm fruits. Berries and all soft fruits are canned without blanching and cold-dipping.

Whether the fruit is blanched and cold-dipped or not, place it in hot jars to 1/2 inch of the top. If a sirup is desired, it may be made by using 1/4 _to_ 1 _cupful of sugar for each quart jar with from 2 to 3 cupfuls of water._ Adjust a new, wet rubber on the jar; fill the jar to 1/4 inch of the top with sirup or with boiling water. Place the cover on the jar, but do not seal it tightly. If a screw top jar is used, screw on the lid by grasping it with the thumb and little finger. If the jar has a bail top, adjust the top bail only,--not the lower bail. Then process the jars and their contents by placing in:

(1) Kettle or clothes boiler provided with a rack (see Figure 91) or some sort of false bottom such as strips of wood, straw, paper, or wire-netting of one half inch mesh.

(2) Steam cooker (see Figure 18).

(3) Pressure cooker (see Figure 17).

If the kettle or wash boiler is used, rest the jars on the rack in the container, fill the latter with enough hot water so that it extends to a depth of one inch above the covers of the jars. Then boil the water. Count the time of processing when the water begins to boil. Keep the water at boiling temperature for the length of time given in the Table below.

If the steam cooker is used, place the filled jars in the cooker and steam for a few minutes longer than when the jar is immersed in boiling water (see Table below).

If the pressure cooker is used, process according to the length of time stated in the Table given below.

After sterilizing fruit by any of these methods, remove the jars from the container, seal, invert, and set them aside to cool in a place free from draft. When cool, wash the outside of the jars, and label. Store in a cool, dark cupboard. Wrapping each jar in paper before storing is advised.

Bail top jars may be tested for perfect sealing by loosening the top bail, and lifting the jar by grasping its lid with the fingers. If the jar is securely sealed, the lid will not come off, because of internal suction. In case the lid comes off, remove the rubber, replace it with a new, wet one, adjust the cover and again process for at least 1/3 of the original processing period or not less than 10 minutes.

A DISCUSSION OF METHODS OF CANNING.--(_a_) While the open kettle is not as safe a method of canning as the cold pack from the standpoint of perfect processing, it is desirable for small watery fruits, especially strawberries, since evaporation of some of the water takes place. It is also generally used for fruits preserved with much sugar, such as preserves, jams, conserves, etc. Many housekeepers find this method desirable for canning tomatoes and beets. The skins may be removed from the latter after cooking, thereby losing less coloring of the vegetable.

(_b_) The cold pack method of canning is very satisfactory for most fruits and all vegetables. It is especially desirable for whole fruits or for fruits in large pieces. The shape of the fruit may be preserved better by this method than by the open kettle process. It is also a safer method as far as satisfactory processing is concerned. Many housekeepers find it easier than the open kettle method.

The blanching and cold-dipping of vegetables and fruits which may be one of the steps in the cold pack method is thought to accomplish several things:

1. To remove objectionable acids and flavors.

2. To make the foods more pliable for packing in the jars.

It was formerly thought that blanching and cold-dipping of vegetables destroyed some of the bacteria and aided in processing the food. Recent experimentation shows that these processes do not affect the bacteria and have no value as far as the preservation of the food is concerned.

TABLE FOR CANNING FRUITS BY ONE PERIOD OF PROCESSING [Footnote 124: Adapted from Farmers' Bulletin 1211, "Home Canning of Fruits and Vegetables," Revised August, 1922.]

TIME OF PROCESSING IN PINT OR
FOOD TIME OF QUART JARS IN:
BLANCHING (_a_) (_b_)
Water Bath at Pressure
12 degrees F. or Steam Cooker 5 Pounds
Cooker
Minutes Minutes Minutes

Apples, cut in pieces 1 1/2 20 to 30 Apricots 1 to 2 30 10 Blackberries, Blueberries None 10 to 20 10 Cherries 1/4 25 10 Currants, Dewberries, Gooseberries None 10 to 20 10 Pears 4-8 in boiling sirup 20 to 30 10 [Footnote 125: Do not cold dip after blanching in boiling sirup. Use the longer time of processing in the water bath for large pears.] Peaches 1 or until skin is loosened 20 to 30 10 Plums None 20 to 30 12 Pineapples None 30 10 Raspberries None 10 to 20 10 Rhubarb None 20 to 30 10 to 15 Strawberries None 10 to 20 10

NOTE.--Use only fresh, sound fruits for canning.

Do not begin to count the time of processing in a water bath until the water reaches the boiling point.

When different times of processing are given, as 20 to 30 minutes, use the longer time for quart glass jars and the shorter for tin cans.

For altitudes higher than 1000 feet, increase the time of processing 10 per cent for each additional 1000 feet. For very high altitudes it may be best to use a pressure cooker for certain fruits.

If fruits are packed tightly, time of processing should be increased.

DISCUSSION OF THE DIFFERENT DEVICES USED IN THE COLD PACK PROCESS.--(1) The kettle or wash boiler provided with a rack is an inexpensive device. It is satisfactory for processing fruits and acid vegetables; there is a question whether non-acid vegetables may be processed in the hot water bath even though they are processed on three successive days. It is thought by some that the flavor of foods canned at low temperature, _i.e._ not above 212 degrees F., is superior to that canned at a higher temperature.

(2) The steam cooker is a convenient and satisfactory equipment to use for canning fruits and some vegetables. It is more expensive, however, than the kettle having a rack, but less fuel is required when using it.

(3) The pressure cooker is the most satisfactory from the standpoint of processing. It is especially satisfactory for vegetables and meat, since a much higher temperature than that of boiling water is maintained during the processing period. The higher temperature also makes it possible to process foods in a shorter time. However, it is thought by some that the flavor of foods canned above 212 degrees F. is inferior to that canned at a lower temperature. Moreover, the pressure cooker is a more expensive device than either of the other two.

QUESTIONS

Why should processed jars, covers, and rubbers remain in boiling water until just ready for use?

Why not touch the inside of jars and covers with the fingers?

Why should berries and small fruits be washed before hulling or stemming?

Why should decayed or bruised spots on fruits be removed completely before canning the fruit?

Why is it that the cold pack method of canning is safer from the standpoint of processing than the open kettle method?

Why should the jar containing fruit that is to be processed by the

cold pack method be filled to 1/4 inch of the top with sirup rather than to overflowing?

Why should the covers of jars not be sealed tightly before placing in the kettle or steamer used for processing?

Why is it unnecessary and undesirable to dislodge air bubbles in jars containing food processed by the cold pack process?

When food is processed by immersing the jars in boiling water, why should the water extend above the covers of the jars to a depth of one inch?

LESSON CLXVIII

PROCESSING WITH MUCH SUGAR--PRESERVES, JAMS, AND CONSERVES

EXPERIMENT 93: THE USE OF SUGAR AS A PRESERVATIVE.--Place 2 thin slices of fresh fruit in a sauce dish. Sprinkle one of the slices generously with sugar. Set the sauce dish aside for at least 24 hours. Examine. What change has taken place in the fruit without sugar? What has caused the change? Compare the sugared fruit with that without sugar. What conclusion can be drawn concerning the use of sugar in preserving fruit?

PRESERVES