Chapter XXI: Introduction (6)

A great deal was nevertheless still wanting ere this fundamental thought, from which Magic seems properly to have sprung, could pass over at once into distinct consciousness and be recognised _in abstracto_, and ere Magic could at once understand itself. Only a few thoughtful and learned writers of former ages--as I mean soon to prove by quotations--express the distinct thought, that it is in _the will_ itself that the magic power lies, and that the strange signs and acts together with the senseless words that accompanied them, which passed for the means of exorcising and the connecting link with demons, are in fact merely vehicles and means for fixing _the will_, by which the act of volition, which is to act magically, ceases to be mere wish and becomes deed, or, to use the language of Paracelsus, "receives a _corpus_," and the individual will in a sense distinctly proclaims that it is now acting as general will, as will in itself. For in every act of Magic--charm-cure or whatever else it may be--the outward action (the connecting link) is exactly what the passes are in magnetising: _i.e._ not what is really essential, but the mere vehicle, that by which the will, the only real agent, is directed and fixed in the material world and enters into reality. As a rule therefore, it is indispensable.--From the rest of the writers of those times we gather that, in conformity with that fundamental thought of Magic, their only aim was to obtain absolute, arbitrary power over Nature. But they were unable to elevate themselves to the thought that this power must be a _direct_ one; they conceived it, on the contrary, absolutely as an _indirect_ one. For all religions in all countries had placed Nature under the dominion of gods and of demons. Now, it was the magician's endeavour to subject these gods and demons to his will, to induce, nay, to force them to serve him; and he attributed all that he succeeded in achieving to their agency, just as Mesmer attributed the success of his Magnetism to the magnetic rods he held in his hands, instead of to his will which was the real agent. It was in this sense that all polytheistic nations took the matter, and even Plotinus,[305] but more especially Iamblichus, understood Magic: that is, as _Theurgy_, an expression which Porphyry was the first to use. That divine aristocracy, Pantheism, was favourable to this interpretation, since it distributed the dominion over the different forces of Nature among as many gods and demons--mostly mere personifications of natural forces--and the magician, by persuasion or by force, subjected now one, now the other of these divinities to his power and made them do his bidding. But in a Divine Monarchy, where all Nature obeys a single ruler, the thought of contracting a private alliance with the Almighty, let alone of exercising sovereignty over him, would have been too audacious. Therefore where Judaism, Christianity or Islam prevailed, the omnipotence of the one God stood in the way of this interpretation of Magic: an omnipotence which the magician could not venture to attack. He had no alternative therefore, but to take refuge with the Devil, and with this rebellious spirit--perhaps even direct descendant of Ahriman--to whom some power over Nature was still attributed, he now entered into a compact, by which he ensured to himself his assistance. This was "necromancy" (the 'black art'). Its antithesis, 'white Magic,' was opposed to it by the circumstance that, in it, the magician did not make friends with the Devil, but rather solicited the permission, not to say co-operation, of the Almighty himself, to intercede with the angels; oftener still, he invoked devils by pronouncing the rarer Hebrew names and titles of the One God, such as Adon-Ai, &c. &c., and compelled them to obey him, without promising them anything in return for their services, in a hell-compulsion[306] (_Höllenzwang_).--But all these mere interpretations and outward trappings of the thing were received so entirely as its essence and as objective processes, that writers like Bodinus, Delrio, Bindsfeldt, &c., whose knowledge of magic was second-hand and not derived from personal experience, all assert the essential characteristic of Magic to be, that it does not act either through forces of Nature or in a natural way, but through the assistance of the Devil. This view was, and long remained, current everywhere, locally modified according to the religions which prevailed in different countries. The laws against sorcery and the trials for witchcraft were based upon it; likewise, wherever the possibility of Magic was contested, the attacks were generally directed against this opinion. An objective view, such as this, was an inevitable consequence of the decided Realism which prevailed throughout ancient and mediæval Europe and which Descartes was the first to disturb. Till then, Man had not learnt to direct the light of speculative thought towards the mysterious depths of his own inner self, but, on the contrary, had sought everything outside himself. Above all the thought of making the will he found within him rule over Nature, was so bold, that people would have been alarmed by it: therefore it was made to rule over fictitious beings, supposed by the prevailing superstition to have command over Nature, in order through them to obtain at least indirect mastery over Nature. Every sort of god or demon moreover, is always a hypostasis, by which believers of all sects and colours bring to their own comprehension the _Metaphysical_, that which lies _behind_ Nature, that which gives her existence and consistence and consequently rules over her. Thus, when it is said, that Magic acts by the help of demons, the meaning which lies at the bottom of this thought still is, that it is an agency which is not physically, but _metaphysically_ exercised: that it is not a natural, but a supernatural, agency. Now if, in the small amount of fact which speaks in favour of the reality of Magic: that is, in Animal Magnetism and charm-cures, we still do not recognise anything but an immediate action of the will which here manifests its direct power outside, instead of inside, the individual; if moreover, as I am about to show and to substantiate by decisive, unequivocal citations, those who are more deeply initiated into ancient Magic, derive all its effects from the magician's will alone: this is surely strong empirical evidence in support of my doctrine, that the Metaphysical in general, that which alone exists apart from representation, the _thing in itself_ of the universe--is nothing but what is known to us within ourselves as _the will_.

[305] Here and there, Plotinus betrays a more correct knowledge,
for instance, "Enn." ii. lib. iii. c. 7; "Enn." iv. lib. iii. c.
12, et lib. ix. c. 3.

[306] Delrio, "Disq. mag." L. ii. qu. 2. Agrippa a Nettesheym, "De
Vanit. Scient." c. 45.

Now, if the direct power which may occasionally be exercised over Nature by the will, was conceived by those magicians as a merely indirect one, acquired by the help of demons, this still could not prevent its efficiency wherever and whenever it may have taken place. For, precisely because, in things of this kind, the will acts in itself, in its primariness, therefore apart from representation, its efficiency cannot be frustrated by erroneous conceptions of the intellect; on the contrary, the distance here is a wide one between theory and practice: the errors of the former do not stand in the way of the latter, nor does a correct theory qualify for practice. Mesmer, in the beginning, attributed his agency to the magnetic rods he held in his hands and later on explained the wonders of Animal Magnetism by a materialistic theory of a subtle, all-permeating fluid; nevertheless he produced wonderfully powerful effects. I once myself knew the proprietor of an estate, whose peasants were wont by tradition to have their feverish attacks dispelled by a spell of their master's. Now, although he believed he had convinced himself of the impossibility of all such things, yet he continued good-naturedly to comply with their wish as usual, and indeed often succeeded in relieving them. This success he ascribed to his peasants' firm belief, forgetting that a similar faith ought also to bring success to the medical treatment which is so often applied with complete inefficacy to believing patients.

Now, if Theurgy and Demonomagic, as described above, were but the mere interpretation and outward trappings of the thing, the mere husk, at which the majority were content to stop short: there were nevertheless some, who went below the surface and quite recognised that the agent in influences supposed to proceed from magic, was absolutely nothing but _the will_. We must not however look for such deeper observers as these among the discountenancers and antagonists of Magic, and the majority of the writers on this subject belong precisely to these: they derived their knowledge exclusively from Courts of Justice and from the examination of witnesses, so that they merely describe the outside of the matter; and, if at any time they chanced, through confessions, to gain an insight into the inner processes they took good care not to betray that knowledge, lest, by doing so, they should contribute to diffuse the terrible vice of sorcery. To this class belong Bodinus, Delrio, Bindsfeldt, and others. For information as to the real nature of the thing, we must on the contrary go to philosophers and investigators of Nature, who wrote in those times of prevailing superstition. Now, from what they say, it clearly follows, that the real agent in Magic, just as in Animal Magnetism, is nothing but _the will_. Here I must quote some passages in support of this assertion.[307] Theophrastus Paracelsus especially disclosed perhaps more concerning the inner nature of Magic than any other writer, and does not even hesitate to give a minute description of the processes used in it.[308]--He says:[309] "To be observed concerning wax images: if I bear malice in my will against anyone, that malice must be carried out by some medium or _corpus_. Thus it is possible for my spirit to stab or wound another person without help from my body in using a sword, merely by my _fervent desire_. Therefore it is also possible for me to convey my opponent's spirit into the image by my _will_ and then to deform or paralyze it at pleasure.--You must know, that the influence of the _will_ is a great point in medicine. For if a man hate another and begrudge him anything good, it is possible that if he curse him, that curse may take effect.--This occurs also with animals and more easily than with men; for the spirit of man has far greater power of resistance than that of animals."

[307] Roger Bacon already in the thirteenth century said: ...
"_Quod si ulterius aliqua anima maligna cogitat fertiter de
infectione alterius atque ardenter desideret et certitudinaliter
intendat, atque vehementer consideret se posse nocere, non est
dubium quin natura obediet cogitationibus animæ_." (See Rogeri
Bacon, "Opus Majus," Londini, 1733, p. 252.)

[308] Theophrastus Paracelsus, Strassburg edition in two folio
vols., vol. i, pp. 91, 353, et seqq. and p. 789; vol. ii. pp. 362,
496.

[309] Vol. i. p. 19.

And p. 375: "It follows from this, that one image has magic power over another, not by virtue of the characters or anything of that kind impressed on the virgin wax; but the imagination overcomes its own constellation, so as to become a means for fulfilling the will of its heaven, _i.e._ of its man."

p. 334: "All the imagining of man comes from his heart. The heart is the sun of the microcosm. And all the imagining of man passes from the small sun of the microcosm into the sun of the great Universe, into the heart of the macrocosm. Thus the _imaginatio_ of the microcosm is a seed which becomes material," &c.

p. 364: "It suffices for you to know what rigorous imagination does, which is the beginning of all magical works."

p. 789: "Even my thought therefore is a looking at a mark. Now I must not turn my eye with my hands in this or that direction; but my imagination turns it as I wish. And this is also to be understood of walking: I desire, I propose to myself, therefore my body moves, and the firmer my thoughts, the more sure it is that I shall run. Thus _imaginatio_ alone is an impulse for my running."

p. 837: "_Imaginatio_ used against me may be employed with such rigour, that I may be killed by the _imaginatio_ of another person."

Vol. ii. p. 274: "Imagination comes from longing and desire: envy, hatred, proceed from longing, for they do not arise unless you long for them. As soon as you wish, the act of the imagination follows. This longing must be quick, ardent, lively, as that of a pregnant woman, &c. &c.--A general curse is commonly verified. Why? It comes from the heart, and the seed lies and is born in that coming from the heart. Thus parents' curses also come from the heart. The curse of the poor is likewise _imaginatio_. The prisoner's curse, also mere _imaginatio_, comes from the heart.... Thus too, when one man wishes to stab or paralyze, &c., another by means of his _imaginatio_, he must first attract the thing and instrument to himself and then he can impress it (with his wish): for whatever enters into it, may also go out of it again by the medium of thought as well as by that of the hands.... In such imagining, women outdo men ... for they are more ardent in revenge."

p. 298: "_Magica_ is a great occult wisdom; just as Reason is a great, open folly.... No armour avails against sorcery, for it wounds the inner man, the vital spirit.... Some magicians make an image in the shape of a man they intend [to harm], knock a nail into the sole of its foot, and the man is invisibly struck with lameness, until the nail is removed."

p. 307: "We ought to know, that we may convey the spirit of any man into an image, solely by faith and by our strong imagination.--No incantation is needed, and the ceremonies, drawing of circles, fumigations, seals, &c. &c. are mere humbug to mislead.--_Homunculi_ and images are made, &c. &c. ... by which all the operations, powers and will of man are carried out.... The human heart is indeed so great a thing, that no one can express it: as God is eternal and imperishable, so also is the heart of man. If we men thoroughly recognised our heart, nothing would be impossible for us on earth.... Perfect imagination, coming from the stars (_astris_) arises from the heart."

p. 513: "_Imaginatio_ is confirmed and rendered perfect by the belief that it really takes place: for every doubt injures the effect. Faith must confirm the imagination, for faith decides the will.... But just the fact that man does not always perfectly imagine, perfectly _believe_, causes acts to be called uncertain, which nevertheless may certainly and quite well exist." A passage from Campanella's book, "De sensu rerum et magia," may serve to elucidate this last sentence. _Efficiunt alii ne homo possi futuere, si tantum credat: non enim potest facere quod non credit posse facere_ (l. iv. c. 18).

Agrippa von Nettesheim[310] speaks in the same sense. "_Non minus subjicitur corpus alieno animo, quam alieno corpori_;" and:[311] "_Quidquid dictat animus fortissime odientis habet efficaciam nocendi et destruendi; similiter in ceteris, quæ affectat animus fortissimo desiderio. Omnia enim quæ tunc agit et dictat ex characteribus, figuris, verbis, gestibus et ejusmodi, omnia sunt adjuvantia appetitum animæ et acquirunt mirabiles quasdam virtutes, tum ab anima laborantis in illa hora, quando ipsum appetitus ejusmodi maxime invadit, tum ab influxa cœlesti animum tunc taliter movente."[312]--"Inest hominum animis virtus quædam immutandi et ligandi res et homines ad id quod desiderat, et omnes res obediunt illi, quando fertur in magnum excessum alicujus passionis, vel virtutis, in tantum, ut superet eos, quos ligat. Radix ejusmodi ligationis ipsa est affectio animæ vehemens et exterminata."_

[310] "De occulta philosophia," lib. 1, c. 66.

[311] _Ibid._ c. 67.

[312] "De occulta philosophia," lib. 1, cc. 66, 67 et 68.

And likewise Jul. Cæs. Vanninus, "De admir. naturæ arcan." L. iv. dial. 5, § 435: "_Vehementem imaginationem, cui spiritus et sanguis obediunt, rem mente conceptam realiter efficere, non solum intra, sed et extra_."[313]

[313] _Ibid_. p. 440: _Addunt Avicennæ dictum_: "_Ad validam
alicujus imaginationem cadit camelus_." _Ibid._ p. 478,
speaking of charms: _fascinatio ne quis cum muliere coeat_,
he says: _Equidem in Germania complures allocutus sum vulgari
cognomento Necromantistas, qui ingenue confessi sunt, se firme
satis credere, meras fabulas esse opiniones, quæ de dæmonibus
vulgo circumferuntur, aliquid tamen ipsos operari, vel vi
herbarum commovendo phantasiam, vel vi imaginationis et fidei
vehementissimæ, quam ipsorum nugacissimis confictis excantationibus
adhibent ignaræ mulieres, quibus persuadent, recitatis magna
cum devotione aliquibus preculis, statim effici fascinum, quare
credulæ ex intimo cordis effundunt excantationes, atque ita,
non vi verborum, neque caracterum, ut ipsæ existimant, sed
spiritibus[314], fascini inferendi percupidis exsufflatis proximos
effascinant. Hinc fit, ut ipsi Necromantici, in causa propria, vel
aliena, si soli sint operarii, nihil unquam mirabile præstiterint:
carent enim fide, quæ cuncta operatur_. [Add. to 3rd ed.]

[314] Schopenhauer has added to _spiritibus_ in parenthesis
(_sc. vitalibus et animalibus_).

Just so Joh. Bapt. Van Helmont, who takes great pains to explain away as much as possible of the Devil's influence, in order to attribute it to the will. I quote a few passages from the voluminous collection of his works, _Ortus Medicinæ_:

_Recepta injecta_. § 12. _Quum hostis naturæ_ (_diabolus_) _ipsam applicationem complere ex se nequeat, suscitat ideam fortis desiderii et odii in saga, ut, mutuatis istis mentalibus et liberis mediis, transferat suum velle per quod quodque afficere intendit.[315] Quorsum imprimis etiam execrationes, cum idea desiderii et terroris, odiosissimis suis scrofis præscribit._--§ 13. _Quippe desiderium istud, ut est passio imaginantis, ita quoque creat ideam, non quidem inanem, sed executivam atque incantamenti motivam._--§ 19. _prout jam demonstravi, quod vis incantamenti potissima pendeat ab idea naturali sagæ._

[315]
"Der Teufel hat sie's zwar gelehrt;
Allein der Teufel kann's nicht machen."--Faust.

[Add. to 3rd ed.]

_+De injectis materialibus.+_ § 15. _Saga, per ens naturale, imaginative format ideam liberam, naturalem et nocuam.... Sagæ operantur virtute naturali.... Homo etiam dimittit medium aliud executivum, emanativum et mandativum ad incantandum hominem; quod medium est Idea fortis desiderii. Est nempe desiderio inseparabile ferri circa optata._

_+De sympatheticis mediis.+_ § 2. _Ideæ scilicet desiderii, per modum influentiarum cœlestium, jaciuntur in proprium objectum, utcunque localiter remotum. Diriguntur nempe a desiderio objectum sibi specificante._

_+De magnetica vulnerum curatione.+_ § 76. _Igitur in sanguine est quædam potestas exstatica, quæ, si quando ardenti desiderio excita fuerit, etiam ad absens aliquod objectum, exterioris hominis spiritu deducenda sit: ea autem potestas in exteriori homine latet, velut in potentia; nec ducitur ad actum, nisi excitetur, accensa imaginatione ferventi desiderio, vel arte aliqua pari._--§ 98. _Anima, prorsum spiritus, nequaquam posset spiritum vitalem (corporeum equidem), multo minus carnem et ossa movere aut concitare, nisi vis illi quæpiam naturalis, magica tamen et spiritualis, ex anima in spiritum et corpus descenderet. Cedo, quo pacto obediret spiritus corporeus jussui animæ, nisi jussus spiritum, et deinceps corpus movendo foret? At extemplo contra hanc magicam motricem objicies, istam esse intra concretum sibi, suumque hospitium naturale, idcirco hanc etsi magam vocitemus, tantum erit nominis detorsio et abusus, siquidem vera et superstitiosa magica non ex anima basin desumit; cum eadem hæc nil quidquam valeat, extra corpus suum movere, alterare aut ciere. Respondeo, vim et magicam illam naturalem animæ, quæ extra se agat, virtute imaginis Dei, latere jam obscuram in homine, velut obdormire (post prævaricationem), excitationisque indigam: quæ eadem, utut somnolenta, ac velut ebria, alioqui sit in nobis quotidie: sufficit tamen ad obeunda munia in corpore suo: dormit itaque scientia et potestas magica, et solo nutu actrix in homine._--§ 102. _Satan itaque vim magicam hanc excitat (secus dormientem et scientia exterioris hominis impeditam) in suis mancipiis, et inservit eadem illis, ensis vice in manu potentis, id est sagæ. Nec aliud prorsus Satan ad homicidium affert, præter excitationem dictæ potestatis somnolentæ._--§ 106. _Saga in stabulo absente occidit equum: virtus quædam naturalis a spiritu sagæ, et non a Satana, derivatur, quæ opprimat vel strangulet spiritum vitalem equi._--§ 139. _Spiritus voco magnetismi patronos, non qui ex cœlo demittuntur, multoque minus de infernalibus sermo est; sed de iis, qui fiunt in ipso homine, sicut ex silice ignis; ex voluntate hominis nempe aliquantillum spiritus vitalis influentis desumitur, et id ipsum assumit idealem entitatem, tanquam formam ad complementum. Qua nacta perfectione, spiritus mediam sortem inter corpora et non corpora assumit. Mittitur autem eo, quo voluntas ipsum dirigit; idealis igitur entitas ... nullis stringitur locorum, temporum aut dimensionum imperiis, ea nec dæmon est, nec ejus ullus effectus; sed spiritualis quædam est actio illius, nobis plane naturalis et vernacula._--§ 168. _Ingens mysterium propalare hactenus distuli, ostendere videlicet, ad manum in homine sitam esse energiam, qua, solo nutu et phantasia sua, queat agere extra se et imprimere virtutem aliquam, influentiam deinceps perseverantem, et agentem in objectum longissime absens._

P. Pomponatius also says: _Sic contigit, tales esse homines, qui habeant ejusmodi vires in potentia, et per vim imaginativam et desiderativam cum actu operantur, tales virtus exit ad actum, et afficit sanguinem et spiritum, quæ per evaporationem petunt ad extra et producunt tales effectus_.[316]

[316] De incantationibus. Opera Basil. 1567, p. 44.

Jane Leade, an English mystic visionary of Cromwell's time and pupil of Pordage, has given us some very curious disclosures of this kind. She is led to Magic in a very singular way. For, as the doctrine of their becoming one with the God of their religion is a fundamental characteristic of all Mystics, so is it with Jane Leade also. Now, with her however, the human will has its share in the omnipotence of the Divine will as a consequence of the two having become one, and accordingly acquires magic power. What other magicians therefore believe to be due to a compact with the Devil, she attributes to her becoming one with her God. Her Magic is therefore in the highest sense 'white Magic.' Besides, this alters nothing as to the practice and results. She is reserved and mysterious, as people had to be in those times; still it is easy to see that the thing is not a mere theoretical corollary, but that it has sprung from knowledge and experience obtained in another way.

It is in her "Revelation of Revelations"[317] that we find the chief passage; but the following one, which is rather an abridgment than a literal quotation and is contained in Horst's "Zauberbibliothek,"[318] comes from the same book: "Magic power enables its possessor to rule over and to renew the creation--_i.e._ the animal, vegetable and mineral kingdoms--so that, were _many_ to co-operate in _one_ magical power, Nature might be created anew as a paradise.... How is this magic power to be acquired? By renascence through faith: that is, by our _will_ harmonizing with the divine _will_. For faith subjects the world to us, inasmuch as our own _will_, when it is in harmony with the divine _will_, results, as St. Paul tells us, in making everything submit to and obey us." Thus far Horst.--p. 131 of the "Revelation, &c.," Jane Leade shows that it was by the force of his will that Christ worked miracles, as, for instance, when he said to the leper: "I _will_; be thou clean." Sometimes however he left it to the will of those who, he saw, believed in him, saying to them: "'What _will_ ye that I shall do unto you?' in which cases no less was done for them than they had desired in their will that the Lord should do. These words of our Saviour's are well deserving of notice, since the _highest Magia lies in the will_, so far as it is in union with the will of the Almighty: when these two wheels fit into each other, becoming in a sense _one_, they are, &c."--Again, p. 132, she says: "For what could resist that which is united with the will of God? The power of such a will is so great, that it always achieves its end. It is no _naked will_ deprived of its clothing, or power; on the contrary, it brings with it an irresistible omnipotence, which enables it to uproot, to plant, to put to death and to bring to life, to bind and to loose, to heal and to injure, which power will be collected and concentrated in its entirety in the royal, free-born will. Of this power we shall attain knowledge, when we shall have been made one with the Holy Ghost. or when we shall be united in one spirit and being."--Again, p. 133: "We must quench or drown altogether the many multifarious wills which arise out of the mixed essence of souls, and they must lose themselves in the abysmal depth from which there will then arise and present itself the _virgin will_, which was never the slave of anything belonging to degenerate man; on the contrary, it stands in connection with the Almighty Power, quite free and pure, and will infallibly produce fruits and results quite similar to those of the divine will ... wherefrom the burning oil of the Holy Ghost flows up in Magic, as it emits its fiery sparks."

[317] German translation, Amsterdam, 1695, pp. 126 to 151,
especially the pages headed "the power of calm will."

[318] Horst, "Zauberbibliothek" (Library of Magic), vol. i. p. 325.

Jacob Böhme too[319] speaks of Magic precisely in the sense here described. Among other things he says: "Magic is the mother of the essence of all beings: for it creates itself and is understood in _desire_.... True Magic is not a being, but the _desiring spirit_ of the being.--In fine: Magic is action in the _will's spirit_."

[319] J. Böhme, "Erklärung von sechs Punkten," under Punkt v.

In corroboration, or at any rate in explanation, of the above view of the will as the real agent in magic, a curious and interesting anecdote, related by Campanella, from Avicenna, may here find its place.[320] "_Mulieres quædam condixerunt, ut irent animi gratia in viridarium. Una earum non ivit. Ceteræ colludentes arangium acceperunt et perforabant eum stilis acutis, dicentes: ita perforamus mulierem talem, quæ nobiscum venire detrectavit, et, projecto arangio intra fontem, abierunt. Postmodum mulierem illam dolentem invenerunt, quod se transfigi quasi clavis acutis sentiret, ab ea hora, qua arangium ceteræ; perforarunt: et cruciata est valde donec arangii clavos extraxerunt imprecantes bona et salutem._"

[320] Campanella, "De sensu rerum et magia," l. iv. c. 18.

Krusenstern[321] gives a very curious and minute description of maleficent sorcery as practised, it is said successfully, by the priests of the savage tribes on the island of Nukahiva, the procedure in which is exactly similar to that of our cures by charms.--This fact is especially remarkable on account of the identity of the thing, notwithstanding the distance from all European tradition. With it ought to be compared Bende Bendsen's account of a headache he caused in another person by sorcery, through the medium of some of that person's hair which had been cut off. He concludes with the following words: "As far as I can learn, what is called witchcraft consists simply in preparing and applying noxious magnetic charms combined with a _maleficent influence of the will_: this is the detestable league with Satan."[322]

[321] Krusenstern's words are: "A universal belief in witchcraft,
which is held to be very important by all islanders, seems to me to
be connected with their religion; for they assert that the priests
alone possess magic power, although some of the common people
also, it is said, profess to have the secret, probably in order to
make themselves feared, and to exact presents. This sorcery, which
they call _Kaha_, consists in inflicting a lingering death upon
those to whom they bear a grudge, twenty days being however fixed
as the term for this. They go to work as follows. Whoever wishes
to practise revenge by means of sorcery, seeks to procure either
saliva or urine or excrements of his enemy in some way or other.
These he mixes with a powder, lays the compound in a bag which is
woven in a special manner, and buries it. The most important secret
is in the art of weaving the bag in the right way and of preparing
the powder. As soon as it is buried, the effects show themselves
in the person who is the object of this witchcraft. He sickens,
becomes daily weaker, loses at last all his strength, and in twenty
days is sure to die. If, on the other hand, he attempts to divert
his enemy's revenge from himself by offering up a pig, or making
some other valuable present in order to save his life, he may yet
be saved, even on the nineteenth day, and no sooner is the bag
unburied, than the attacks of illness cease. He recovers gradually,
and after a few days is quite restored to health."--"Reise um die
Welt." Ed. in 12mo, 1812, Part i., p. 249 _et seq._ [Add. to 3rd
ed.]

[322] Kieser, "Archiv für thierischen Magnetismus," vol. ix. s. i.
in the note, pp. 128-132.

The agreement of all these writers, not only among themselves, but with the convictions to which Animal Magnetism has led in latter years, and finally even with what might be concluded from my speculative doctrine on this point, is surely a most remarkable phenomenon. This much is at any rate certain, that at the bottom of all the experiments, successful or unsuccessful, which have ever been made in Magic, there lies an anticipation of my Metaphysic. For in them is expressed the consciousness, that the causal law only connects phenomena, while the inner nature of things remains independent of it; and also, that if any _direct_ influence on Nature be possible from within, it can only take place through the _will_ itself. But even if Magic were to be ranked as practical Metaphysic, according to Bacon's classification, it is certain that no other theoretical Metaphysic would stand in the right relation to it but mine, by which the world is resolved into Will and Representation.

The zealous cruelty with which Magic has always been persecuted by the Church and to which the papal _malleus maleficarum_ bears terrible evidence, seems not to have for its sole basis the criminal purposes often associated with the practice of Magic or the part assumed to be played by the Devil, but rather to proceed partly from a vague foreboding and fear lest Magic should trace back its original power to its true source; whereas the Church has assigned to it a place outside Nature.[323] The detestation shown by the cautious clergy of England towards Animal Magnetism [324] tends to confirm this supposition, and also the active zeal with which they oppose table-turning, which at any rate is harmless, yet which, for the same reason, has been violently assailed by the anathemas of the French, and even of the German, clergy.[325]

[323] They scent something of the

"Nos habitat, non tartara sed nec sidera cœli:
Spiritus in nobis qui viget, illa facit."
(Not in the heavens it lives, nor yet in hell;
The spirit that does it all, doth in us dwell.)

Compare Johann Beaumont, "Historisch-Physiologisch-und
Theologischer Tractat von Geistern, Erscheinungen, Hexereyen und
andern Zauber-Händeln, Halle im Magdeburgischen, 1721," p. 281.
[Add. to 3rd ed.]

[324] Compare Parerga, vol. i. p. 257 (2nd ed. vol. i. p. 286).

[325] On the 4th of August, 1856, the Roman Inquisition issued
a circular to all the bishops, in which it called upon them in
the name of the Church to use their utmost influence against the
practice of Animal Magnetism. The reasons for this are given with
striking want of lucidity and great vagueness, and even here and
there are not unmixed with falsehood; and it is easy to see that
the Church is reluctant to own the real reason. This circular is
published in the "Turin Journal" of December, 1856, and again in
the French "Univers," and reprinted from this in the "Journal des
Débats" of January 3rd, 1857. [Add. to 3rd ed.]

SINOLOGY.

Nothing perhaps points more directly to a high degree of civilization in China than the almost incredible density of its population, now rated, according to Gützlaff, at 367 millions of inhabitants.[326] For whether we compare countries or ages, we find on the whole that civilization keeps pace with population.

[326] According to a Chinese official Report on the census, printed
in Pekin, and found by the English in the Chinese Governor's palace
on entering Canton, China had 396 millions of inhabitants in 1852,
and allowing for a constant increase, may now have 400 millions.
("Moniteur de la Flotte," end of May, 1857.)

The Reports of the Russian Clerical Mission in Pekin give the
returns of 1842 as 414,687,000.

According to the tables published by the Russian Embassy at Pekin,
the population, in 1849, amounted to 415 millions. ("Post-Zeitung,"
1858.) [Add. to 3rd ed.]

The pertinacious zeal with which the Jesuit missionaries of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries strove to inculcate their own relatively new doctrines into the minds of this very ancient nation, and their futile endeavours to discover early traces of their own faith in that country, left them no time for a profound study of the belief which prevails there. Therefore Europe has only lately obtained some slight knowledge of the religious state of the Chinese. We now know, that is to say, that in China there exists first of all a worship of Nature, which is universally professed, and dates from the earliest times, even, it is alleged, from before the discovery of fire, wherefore animals were sacrificed raw. The sacrifices offered up publicly at certain seasons or after great events by the Chinese Emperor and the chief dignitaries of the Empire, belong to this worship. These sacrifices are dedicated first and foremost to the blue sky and to the earth--to the blue sky in the winter solstice, to the earth in the summer solstice--and, after these, to every possible power of Nature: the sea, mountains, rivers, winds, thunder, rain, fire, &c. &c. A genius presides over each of these, and each genius has several temples. On the other hand, each genius presiding over every single province, town, village, or street, nay over family funerals and even sometimes over a merchant's warehouse, has also temples; only, in the two last cases they are destined exclusively for private worship. But public worship is besides offered up to former illustrious Emperors, founders of dynasties and to heroes, _i.e._ to all such as have benefited (Chinese) mankind by word or deed. Even these have their temples: Confucius alone having no less than 1,650 dedicated to him. This therefore accounts for the great number of small temples found throughout the Empire. With this hero-worship too, is associated the private worship offered up by every respectable family on the tombs of their ancestors.--Now besides this worship of Nature and of heroes, which is universal, there are three other prevailing religious doctrines in China, more with a dogmatical intent. First among these is the doctrine of Taossee, founded by Laotse, an older contemporary of Confucius. This is the doctrine of Reason, as the inner order of the Universe or inherent principle of all things, of the great One, the sublime Gable-Beam (Taiki) which supports all the Rafters, yet is above them (properly the all-pervading Soul of the World) and of Tao, _i.e._ the _Way_, namely to salvation: that is, to redemption from the world and its misery. We have an exposition of this doctrine taken from the fountain-head in Stanislas Julien's translation (1842) of Laotse's Taoteking, in which we find that the Tao-doctrine completely harmonizes with Buddhism both in meaning and in spirit. This sect however seems to have fallen very much into the background, and its teachers to be now looked down upon.--Secondly, we find the wisdom of Confucius, which has special attractions for Chinese _savants_ and statesmen. Judging from translations, it is a rambling, commonplace, predominantly political, moral philosophy, without any metaphysical support, which has something peculiarly insipid and tiresome about it.--Finally, there exists for the bulk of the nation Buddha's sublime doctrine full of love. The name, or rather title, of Buddha in China is _Fo_ or _Fhu_, whilst in Tartary the "Victoriously-Perfect" is more frequently called by his family-name, _Shakia-Muni_, and also _Burkhan-Bakshi_; in Birma and Ceylon, he is generally called _Gótama_ or _Tagátata_, but his original name was Prince _Siddharta_.[327] This religion which, on account of its intrinsic excellence and truth, as well as of the great number of its followers, may be considered as ranking highest among all religions on earth, prevails throughout the greater part of Asia, and according to the latest investigator, Spence Hardy, numbers 369 millions of believers: that is, far more than any other.--These three religions, the most widely diffused of which, Buddhism, subsists without any protection whatever from the State, by its own power alone--a circumstance which speaks greatly in its favour--are far from being hostile to one another, and exist quietly side by side, nay, harmonize even to a certain extent, perhaps by reciprocal influence, so that the sentence: "The three doctrines are only one", has become proverbial. The Emperor, as such, professes all three; still many of the Emperors, even up to the most recent times, have been especially devoted to Buddhism. This is shown by their profound respect for the Dalaï-Lama, nay, even for the Teshoo-Lama, to whom they unhesitatingly yield precedence.--These three religions are neither monotheistic nor polytheistic, nor are they even pantheistic--Buddhism, at any rate, is not; since Buddha did not look upon a world sunk in sin and suffering, whose tenants, all subject to death, only subsist for a short time by devouring each other, as a manifestation of God. Moreover the word Pantheism, properly speaking, contains a contradiction; for it denotes a self-destroying conception, and has therefore never been understood otherwise than as a polite term of expression by those who know what seriousness means. It accordingly never entered into the heads of the clever, acute philosophers of the eighteenth century, not to take Spinoza for an Atheist, on account of his having called the world Deus; on the contrary, this discovery was reserved for the sham philosophers of our own times, who know nothing but words: they even pique themselves on the achievement and accordingly talk about Acomism, the wags! But I would humbly suggest leaving their meanings to words--in short, calling the world, the world; and gods gods.

[327] For the benefit of those who wish to acquire a fuller
knowledge of Buddhism, I here note down those works belonging
to its literature, and written in European languages, which I
can really recommend, for I possess them and know them well;
the omission of a few others, for instance of Hodgson's and A.
Rémusat's books, is intentional.

1. "Dsanglun, or the Sage and the Fool," in Tibetan and German,
by I. J. Schmidt, Petersburg, 1843, 2 vols. in 4to, contains in
the preface to vol. i. (_i.e._ the Tibetan volume), from pp. xxxi
to xxxviii, a very brief, but excellent, sketch of the whole
doctrine, admirably calculated for a first introduction to the
knowledge of it: the whole book even, as a part of the Kandshur
(canonical books), may be recommended.--2. In the Memoranda of
the Academy of St. Petersburg are to be found several lectures by
the same excellent author (I. J. Schmidt), which were delivered
in German in that Academy in 1829-1832. As they are of very great
value for the knowledge of this religion, it is to be hoped that
they will be collected and published all together in Germany.--3.
By the same writer: "Forschungen über die Tibeter und Mongolen."
Petersb. 1829, in 4to. (Investigations concerning the Tibetans
and Mongols).--4. By the same writer: "Über die Verwandtschaft
der gnostisch-theosophischen Lehren mit dem Buddhaismus," 1828.
(On the relation between the Gnostic-Theosophic Doctrines and
Buddhism.)--5. By the same: "Geschichte der Ost-Mongolen,"
Petersb. 1829, in 4to. (History of the Eastern Mongols.) [This
is very instructive, especially the explanations and appendix,
which give long extracts from writings on Religion, in which many
passages clearly show the deep meaning and breathe the genuine
spirit of Buddhism.--Add. to 3rd ed.]--6. Two treatises by
Schiefner in German, in the "Mélanges Asiatiques tirés du Bulletin
Historico-Philol. de l'Acad. d. St. Pétersburg," Tome 1, 1851.--7.
"Samuel Turner's journey to the Court of the Teshoo-Lama" (at the
end), 1801.--8. Bochinger, "La Vie ascétique chez les Indous et les
Bouddhistes," Strasbourg, 1831.--9. In the 7th vol. of the "Journal
Asiatique," 1825, an extremely beautiful biography of Buddha by
Deshauterayes.--10. Bournouf, "Introd, à l'Hist, d. Bouddhisme,"
vol. i. in 4to, 1844.--11. "Rgya Tsher Rolpa," traduit du Tibétain,
par Foucaux, 1848, in 4to. This is the "Lalita Vistara," _i.e._
life of Buddha, the gospel of the Buddhists.--12. "Foe Koue Ki,
relation des royaumes Bouddhiques," traduit du Chinois par Abel
Rémusat, 1836, in 4to.--13. "Description du Tubet," traduit du
Chinois en Russe par Bitchourin, et du Russe en Français par
Klaproth, 1831.--14. Klaproth, "Fragments Bouddhiques," printed
separately from the "Nouveau Journal Asiatique," Mars, 1831.--15.
Spiegel, "De officiis sacerdotum Buddhicorum," Palice et Latine,
1841.--16. The same author's "Anecdota Palica," 1845.--[17.
"Dhammapadam," palice edidet et latine vertit Fausböll, Hovniæ,
1855.--Add. to 3rd ed.]--18. Asiatic Researches, vol. vi. Buchanan,
"On the Religion of the Burmas," and vol. xx. (Calcutta, 1839),