Chapter VIII: Part 8

A traveller is generally satisfied when he has seen the large hall, the gallery, the staircase, and as far as he can conveniently go: besides, he is taken up with the strange works he observes cut in various places, and painted on each side of the walls; so that when he comes to a narrow and difficult passage, or to have to descend to the bottom of a well or cavity, he declines taking such trouble, naturally supposing that he cannot see in these abysses any thing so magnificent as what he sees above, and consequently deeming it useless to proceed any farther. Of some of these tombs many persons could not withstand the suffocating air, which often causes fainting. A vast quantity of dust rises, so fine that it enters into the throat and nostrils, and chokes the nose and mouth to such a degree, that it requires great power of lungs to resist it and the strong effluvia of the mummies. This is not all; the entry or passage where the bodies are is roughly cut in the rocks, and the falling of the sand from the upper part or ceiling of the passage causes it to be nearly filled up. In some places there is not more than a vacancy of a foot left, which you must contrive to pass through in a creeping posture like a snail, on pointed and keen stones, that cut like glass. After getting through these passages, some of them two or three hundred yards long, you generally find a more commodious place, perhaps high enough to sit. But what a place of rest! surrounded by bodies, by heaps of mummies in all directions; which, previous to my being accustomed to the sight, impressed me with horror. The blackness of the wall, the faint light given by the candles or torches for want of air, the different objects that surrounded me, seeming to converse with each other, and the Arabs with the candles or torches in their hands, naked and covered with dust, themselves resembling living mummies, absolutely formed a scene that cannot be described. In such a situation I found myself several times, and often returned exhausted and fainting; till at last I became inured to it, and indifferent to what I suffered, except from the dust, which never failed to choke my throat and nose; and though, fortunately, I am destitute of the sense of smelling, I could taste that the mummies were rather unpleasant to swallow. After the exertion of entering into such a place, through a passage of fifty, a hundred, three hundred, or perhaps six hundred yards, nearly overcome, I sought a resting-place, found one, and contrived to sit; but when my weight bore on the body of an Egyptian, it crushed it like a band-box. I naturally had recourse to my hands to sustain my weight, but they found no better support; so that I sunk altogether among the broken mummies, with a crash of bones, rags, and wooden cases, which raised such a dust as kept me motionless for a quarter of an hour, waiting till it subsided again. I could not remove from the place, however, without increasing it, and every step I took I crushed a mummy in some part or other. Once I was conducted from such a place to another resembling it, through a passage of about twenty feet in length, and no wider than that a body could be forced through. It was choked with mummies, and I could not pass without putting my face in contact with that of some decayed Egyptian; but as the passage inclined downwards, my own weight helped me on: however, I could not avoid being covered with bones, legs, arms, and heads rolling from above. Thus I proceeded from one cave to another, all full of mummies piled up in various ways, some standing, some lying, and some on their heads. The purpose of my researches was to rob the Egyptians of their papyri; of which I found a few hidden in their breasts, under their arms, in the space above the knees, or on the legs, and covered by the numerous folds of cloth, that envelop the mummy. The people of Gournou, who make a trade of antiquities of this sort, are very jealous of strangers, and keep them as secret as possible, deceiving travellers by pretending, that they have arrived at the end of the pits, when they are scarcely at the entrance. I could never prevail on them to conduct me into these places till this my second voyage, when I succeeded in obtaining admission into any cave where mummies were to be seen.

My permanent residence in Thebes was the cause of my success. The Arabs saw that I paid particular attention to the situation of the entrance into the tombs, and that they could not avoid being seen by me when they were at work digging in search of a new tomb, though they are very cautious when any stranger is in Gournou not to let it be known where they go to open the earth; and as travellers generally remain in that place a few days only, they used to leave off digging during that time. If any traveller be curious enough to ask to examine the interior of a tomb, they are ready to show him one immediately, and conduct him to some of the old tombs, where he sees nothing but the grottoes in which mummies formerly had been deposited, or where there are but few, and these already plundered; so that he can form but a poor idea of the real tombs, where the remains were originally placed.

The people of Gournou live in the entrance of such caves as have already been opened, and, by making partitions with earthen walls, they form habitations for themselves, as well as for their cows, camels, buffaloes, sheep, goats, dogs, &c. I do not know whether it is because they are so few in number, that the government takes so little notice of what they do; but it is certain, that they are the most unruly people in Egypt. At various times many of them have been destroyed, so that they are reduced from three thousand, the number they formerly reckoned, to three hundred, which form the population of the present day. They have no mosque, nor do they care for one; for though they have at their disposal a great quantity of all sorts of bricks, which abound in every part of Gournou, from the surrounding tombs, they have never built a single house. They are forced to cultivate a small tract of land, extending from the rocks to the Nile, about a mile in breadth, and two and a half in length; and even this is in part neglected; for if left to their own will, they would never take a spade in their hands, except when they go to dig for mummies; which they find to be a more profitable employment than agriculture. This is the fault of travellers, who are so pleased the moment they are presented with any piece of antiquity, that, without thinking of the injury resulting from the example to their successors, they give a great deal more than the people really expect. Hence it has arisen, that they now set such an enormous price on antiquities, and in particular on papyri. Some of them have accumulated a considerable sum of money, and are become so indifferent, that they remain idle, unless whatever price they demand be given them; and it is to be observed, that it is a fixed point in their minds, that the Franks would not be so liberal, unless the articles were worth ten times as much as they pay for them.

The Fellahs of Gournou who dig for antiquities are sometimes divided into parties, and have their chiefs over each; so that what is found by any of the party is sold, and the money divided among them all. They are apparently very true to each other, and particularly in cheating strangers; but when they can find a good opportunity, they do not scruple to cheat each other also. One day when I had to purchase some antiquities according to appointment, and was going to the tomb of one of these companies, my guide told me by the way, that he had some papyri to sell, which he had himself found, previous to his entering into partnership with his associates; and it was agreed, that I was to repair to his house alone to see them. However, I took Mr. Beechey with me, and we had great difficulty to prevent those by whom we were observed from following us; as it is the common custom among these people to enter each other’s houses as they please, and see and hear all that passes. In spite of all his caution, they suspected that the old man had a considerable hoard of papyri, and were persuaded that he wished them not to know the large sum he was to receive for them. Accordingly they did not fail to watch our coming out, so that they might see what we purchased; and when they saw we had nothing, they were all surprised and disappointed. One of the chiefs, who was a favourite with the English, approached the interpreter, to know what had passed; and when he heard that nothing had passed but words, he said, the old man dared not sell any papyri without the consent of the company, and that all they had to sell, and all he had, must be brought to us conjointly. They had no idea how this veteran had deceived them; for other articles of consequence are so very seldom found, that they did not suspect his having any thing but papyri to dispose of. Age and experience, however, had naturally rendered him a greater adept in the art of deceit. When Mr. Beechey, myself, and the interpreter, entered his cave, his wife walked out to watch if any one approached. The donkeymen, who brought us, were at some distance from the cave, and not a single being was near us. His dwelling was a grotto cut in the rock like the rest, and black as any chimney. He made us sit down on a straw mat, which is a luxurious thing in Gournou, and after a little ceremony, put into my hands a brazen vessel, one of the finest and most perfect pieces of Egyptian antiquity I have ever seen of the kind. It was covered with engraved hieroglyphics, very finely executed. It was about eighteen inches high and ten in diameter. The composition is extremely fine, and it sounds not unlike the Corinthian brass. I was most agreeably surprised, and could scarcely believe that I had such a treasure in my hands. I conceive it to be a sacred vessel used by the Egyptians. It has a handle something like our common baskets. We were examining it with astonishment, when the old man took it from our hands, and presented us with another exactly similar to it. The sight of a pair of antiques like these, their admirable preservation, and the opportunity we had of purchasing them, delighted us so much, that the bargain with the old man was made in a few words. The great difficulty was to take them to our boat, which the old man promised to do in the night, after all were asleep. We returned to Luxor in high glee, from the expectation of having in our possession two of the finest articles of metallic composition, that ever were to be found in Egypt. At night the old man did not come, which made me uneasy; but he came in the morning, and said, that he could not bring the vases with him, as his companions were watching, but that he would not fail to bring them at night; meanwhile he should be glad, he added, to receive the money and the present we had promised; and we paid him without hesitation, that he might not retract his bargain. At night, however, no old man came; nor the next day did he make his appearance. I thought it necessary therefore to go to his habitation. I found him at home, and he said, as before, he would not fail to come to us at night. Night, however, again arrived without him; but early the next morning he brought the vessels to our boat. Some time after, one of his companions inquired of me what the old man had received for his antiques. We wondered how he came to know any thing of the matter; when he informed us, the vessels belonged to the company, and the pretence of secrecy was a scheme of the old man to extract from us the present of a turbouse[4], in which he had succeeded.

Footnote 4:

A red cap, or bonnet.

After having described the tombs, the mummies, the rocks, and the rogues of Gournou, it is time to cross the Nile, and return to Carnak. Here we continued the work, as I mentioned before. Our opponents had taken away the four sphinxes, which the doctor had dug up, in the name of the Defterdar bey, from the ground I had opened the year before, but had found nothing more, which is somewhat singular, considering the number of men they had employed in their excavation. I now opened another piece of ground, in a line parallel with the point of the temple, and I was fortunate enough to find another line of sphinxes. From the fragments there were probably twenty, but five only were in good preservation. Among them was a sitting figure of a young man nearly of the size of life, of gray granite; but though the face, hands, and arms, were in good condition, the chest and lower parts were quite decayed, and the bust detached from the rest of the body. In the same place I found two small sitting figures of red granite, nearly two feet high, and a stone irregularly shaped, but flat and smooth on the surfaces. It is divided by lines into many little squares of half an inch, in each of which is a hieroglyphic, but all different from each other. This piece, in my opinion, might be of much service to Dr. Young in his undertaking of the discovery of the alphabet of the Egyptians, particularly in the advanced state at which he has at present arrived. Two other articles were found in this excavation, of which one is a tombstone, and the other an iron sickle, that I think worthy the attention of the antiquary. It is certain, that the burial-places of the Egyptians were on the west side of the Nile, for not a single place is to be found on the eastern side to indicate there having ever been a burial-ground there: yet among these sphinxes was a tombstone similar to those which are found in the tombs on the other side of the Nile, and probably, therefore, made to be taken to the tomb of some family on the west. But the iron sickle to which I would call the attention, was found under the feet of one of the sphinxes on its removal. I was present; one of the men took it up and gave it me. It was broken into three pieces, and so decayed, that the rust had eaten even to the centre. It was rather thicker than the sickles of the present time, but exactly of the common shape and size of ours. It is now in the possession of Mr. Salt. The question is, at what time were these statues placed there? They could not have been deposited subsequently to the age of the Ptolemies; for it appears, that since the time of Cambyses, who destroyed the Gods of Egypt, the country has never been invaded, so as to compel the people to conceal their idols; and it is evident, that these statues had been hidden in a hurry, from the irregular and confused manner in which they lie. Now, as the sickle was found under the statue above mentioned, I think it a sufficient proof, that there was iron in the country long before the invasion of the Persians, since the Egyptians had enough to make instruments of agriculture with it. Sickles of the same form are to be seen in many agricultural representations in the tombs; but it does not follow, that they were taken from sickles of iron, like the one in question. I do not mean to decide this point by my own suppositions: I lay the fact before the reader, that he may form his own opinion upon it; yet there are circumstances that would destroy the conjecture, that might be drawn from this discovery. It is very singular, if the Egyptians had iron in such abundance, as to make sickles, that they did not make instruments of war, and other articles for their common use, of the same metal; for if they had done so, it is strange, that none are to be found among the various specimens of their manufacture.

I continued the work as fast as I could with the few men I had, as I foresaw, that when the Defterdar came to the knowledge of my success he would put a stop to our proceedings by some intrigue or other. My daily employment kept me in continual motion. In the morning I used to give my directions for the works at Carnak. The Arabs generally come to work at the rising of the sun, and leave off from noon till two or three o’clock. When I had many employed, I divided them into parties, and set an overseer over each, to see that they worked at the proper hours, and on the allotted spots of ground, which I had previously marked out; but generally some of our people were obliged to be there, for no trust is to be reposed in the Arabs, if they should find any small pieces of antiquity. Before noon I used to cross the river and inspect the works at Gournou. Having been there the year before, and had dealings with these people, I was at home in every part of Thebes, knew every Arab there, and they knew me as well. Mr. Beechey had taken possession of the temple at Luxor, without requesting permission from the Gods, and we made a dwelling-place of one of the chambers: I believe it must have been the sekos. By the help of some mats we procured a very tolerable accommodation, but could not prevent the dust from coming on our beds, and clothes, to which for my part I had long before become indifferent. We could not sleep any longer in the boat; for in consequence of the provision we had on board, such quantities of large rats accompanied us all the way to Luxor, that we had no peace day or night, and at last they succeeded in fairly dislodging us. We thought to have been a match for them, however, for we caused all the provision to be taken out, and the boat to be sunk at Luxor, but as they were good swimmers, they saved their lives, and hid themselves in the holes of the pier; and when the provision had been put on board again, they all returned cheerfully, a few excepted, and were no doubt grateful to us for having given them a fresh appetite and a good bathing.

In Gournou, our researches continued among the mummies. The Arabs had become quite unconcerned about the secret of the tombs; for they saw it was their interest to search, as they were rewarded for what they found, and those who were duly paid were indifferent whether we or their brethren found a tomb. The men were divided into two classes. The most knowing were making researches on their own account, employing eight or ten to assist them. They indicated the ground where they hoped to find a tomb, and sometimes were fortunate enough to hit on the entrance of a mummy pit in the first attempt. At other times, after spending two or three days, they often found only a pit filled with mummies of the inferior class, which had nothing among them worthy of notice: so that, even to the most skilful explorer, it was a mere chance what he should find. On the other hand, in some of the tombs of the better class they found very good specimens of antiquity, of all sorts. I met with some difficulty at first in persuading these people to work in search of tombs, and receive a regular daily payment; for they conceived it to be against their interest, supposing I might obtain the antiquities at too cheap a rate: but when they saw, that sometimes they received their pay regularly, and I had nothing for it, they found it was rather in their favour, to secure twenty paras (three pence) a day, than run the risk of having nothing for their labour, which often happened to those who worked at adventure.

It was from these works that I became better acquainted with the manner in which the Egyptians regulated their burial-places; and I plainly saw the various degrees and customs of the divers classes, from the peasant to the king. The Egyptians had three different methods of embalming their dead bodies, which, Herodotus informs us, were according to the expense the persons who presented the dead bodies to the mummy-makers chose to incur. This father of history thus expresses himself on the subject: “Certain persons were appointed by the laws to the exercise of this profession. When a dead body was brought to them, they exhibited to the friends of the deceased different models, highly finished in wood. The most perfect of these, they said, resembles one, whom I do not think it religious to name on such an occasion; the second was of less price, and inferior in point of execution; the other was still more mean. They then inquired after which model the deceased should be represented. When the price was determined, the relations retired, and the embalmers proceeded in their work. In the most perfect specimens of their art, they extracted the brain through the nostrils, partly with a piece of crooked iron, and partly by the infusion of drugs. They then, with an Ethiopian stone, made an incision in the side, through which they drew out the intestines. These they cleansed thoroughly, washing them with palm-wine, and afterwards covering them with pounded aromatics. They then filled the body with powder of pure myrrh, cassia, and other spices, without frankincense. Having sown up the body, it was covered with nitre for the space of seventy days, which time they were not allowed to exceed. At the end of this period, being first washed, it was closely wrapped in bandages of cotton, dipped in a gum, which the Egyptians used as a glue. It was then returned to the relations, who enclosed the body in a case of wood, made to resemble a human figure, and placed it against the wall in the repository of their dead. This was the most costly mode of embalming.

“For those who wished to be at less expense, the following method was adopted. They neither drew out the intestines, nor made any incision in the dead body, but injected a liniment made from the cedar. After taking proper means to secure the injected oil within the body, it was covered with nitre for the time above specified. On the last day they withdrew the liquid before introduced, which brought with it all the intestines. The nitre dried up and hardened the flesh, so that the corpse appeared little but skin and bone. In this state the body was returned, and no further care taken concerning it.

“There was a third mode of embalming, appropriated to the poor. A particular kind of lotion was made to pass through the body, which was afterward merely left in nitre for the above space of seventy days, and then returned.” Such is the account given us by Herodotus.

Nothing can be more plainly distinguish the various classes of people, than the manner of their preservation: but there are many other remarks, that may be made to the same effect. I shall describe how I have found the mummies of the principal class untouched, and hence we may judge how they were prepared and deposited in their respective places. I am sorry that I am obliged to contradict my old guide Herodotus; for in this point, and many others, he was not well informed by the Egyptians. In the first place, speaking of the mummies in their cases, he mentions them as erect: but it is somewhat singular, that in so many pits as I have opened, I never saw a single mummy standing. On the contrary, I found them lying regularly, in horizontal rows, and some were sunk into a cement, which must have been nearly fluid when the cases were placed on it. The lower classes were not buried in cases: they were dried up, as it appears, after the regular preparation of the seventy days. Mummies of this sort were in the proportion of about ten to one of the better class, as near as I could calculate by the quantity I have seen of both; and it appeared to me, that, after the operation of the nitre, adopted by the mummy-makers, these bodies may have been dried in the sun. Indeed, for my own part, I am persuaded it was so; as there is not the smallest quantity of gum or any thing else to be found on them. The linen in which they are folded is of a coarser sort, and less in quantity; they have no ornaments about them of any consequence, and they are piled up in layers, so as to crowd several caves excavated for the purpose in a rude manner. In general, the tombs of the lower class are to be found in the lower grounds, at the foot of the mountains of Gournou; and some extend as far as the border to which the inundation reaches. They are to be entered by a small aperture, arched over, or by a shaft four or five feet square, at the bottom of which are entrances into various chambers, all choked up with mummies: and though there is scarcely any thing to be found on them, many of these tombs have been rummaged, and left in the most confused state.

I must not omit, that among these tombs we saw some which contained the mummies of animals intermixed with human bodies. There were bulls, cows, sheep, monkeys, foxes, cats, crocodiles, fishes, and birds, in them (see Plate 44): idols often occur; and one tomb was filled with nothing but cats, carefully folded in red and white linen, the head covered by a mask representing the cat, and made of the same linen. I have opened all these sorts of animals. Of the bull, the calf, and the sheep, there is no part but the head and bones which is covered with linen, and the horns projecting out of the cloth; the rest of the body being represented by two pieces of wood, eighteen inches wide and three feet long, in an horizontal direction, at the end of which was another, placed perpendicularly, two feet high, to form the breast of the animal. The calves and sheep are of the same structure, and large in proportion to the bulls. The monkey is in its full form, in a sitting posture. The fox is squeezed up by the bandages, but in some measure the shape of the head is kept perfect. The crocodile is left in its own shape, and after being well bound round with linen, the eyes and mouth are painted on this covering. The birds are squeezed together, and lose their shape, except the ibis, which is found like a fowl ready to be cooked, and bound round with linen, like all the rest.—(See Plate 44.)

It is somewhat singular that such animals are not to be met with in the tombs of the higher sort of people; while few or no papyri are to be found among the lower order, and if any occur they are only small pieces stuck upon the breast with a little gum or asphaltum, being probably all that the poor individual could afford to himself. In those of the better classes other objects are found. I think they ought to be divided into several classes, as I cannot confine myself to three. I do not mean to impute error to Herodotus when he speaks of the three modes of embalming; but I will venture to assert, that the high, middling, and poorer classes, all admit of farther distinction. In the same pit where I found mummies in cases, I found others without; and in these, papyri are most likely to be met with. I remarked, that the mummies in the cases have no papyri; at least, I never observed any: on the contrary, in those without cases they are often obtained. It appears to me, that such people as could afford it would have a case to be buried in, on which the history of their lives was painted; and those who could not afford a case were contented to have their lives written on papyri, rolled up, and placed above their knees. Even in the appearance of the cases there is a great difference: some are exceedingly plain, others more ornamented, and some very richly adorned with figures, well painted. The cases are generally made of Egyptian sycamore: apparently, this was the most plentiful wood in the country, as it is usually employed for the different utensils. All the cases have a human face, male or female. Some of the large cases contain others within them, either of wood or of plaster, painted. The inner cases are sometimes fitted to the body of the mummy: others are only covers to the body, in form of a man or woman, easily distinguishable by the beard and the breast, like that on the outside. Some of the mummies have garlands of flowers, and leaves of the acacia, or sunt tree, over their heads and breasts. This tree is often seen on the banks of the Nile, above Thebes, and particularly in Nubia. The flower, when fresh, is yellow, and of a very hard substance, appearing as if artificial. The leaves, also, are very strong, and though dried and turned brown, they still retain their firmness. In the inside of these mummies are found lumps of asphaltum, sometimes so large as to weigh two pounds. The entrails of these mummies are often found bound up in linen and asphaltum. What does not incorporate with the fleshy part, remains of the natural colour of the pitch; but that which does incorporate becomes brown, and evidently mixed with the grease of the body, forming a mass, which on pressure crumbles into dust. The wooden case is first covered with a layer or two of cement, not unlike plaster of Paris; and on this are sometimes cast figures in basso relievo, for which they make holes cut In stone. The whole case is painted; the ground generally yellow, the figures and hieroglyphics blue, green, red, and black. The last is very seldom used. The whole of the painting is covered with a varnish, which preserves it very effectually. Some of the colours, in my humble opinion, were vegetable, for they are evidently transparent; besides, I conceive it was easier for the Egyptians to produce vegetable colours than mineral, from the great difficulty of grinding the latter to such perfection.

The next sort of mummy that drew my attention, I believe I may with reason conclude to have been appropriated to the priests. They are folded in a manner totally different from the others, and so carefully executed, as to show the great respect paid to those personages. The bandages are stripes of red and white linen intermixed, covering the whole body, and forming a curious effect from the two colours. The arms and legs are not enclosed in the same envelope with the body, as in the common mode, but are bandaged separately, even the fingers and toes being preserved distinct. They have sandals of painted leather on their feet, and bracelets on their arms and wrists. They are always found with the arms across the breast, but not pressing it; and though the body is bound with such a quantity of linen, the shape of the person is carefully preserved in every limb. The cases in which mummies of this sort are found are somewhat better executed, and I have seen one, that had the eyes and eyebrows of enamel, beautifully executed, in imitation of nature. Among the various tombs, I discovered one of this description in the valley adjacent to Beban el Malook on the west of it, of which I shall have to speak hereafter.

I found eight mummies, all untouched since they had been deposited in their resting-place. The cases lay flat on the ground, facing the east, in two equal rows, imbedded four inches deep in mortar, which must have been soft when they were put into it; for when I had them removed, the impression of them remained perfect. The opening of them I shall describe, with that of the tomb.

The tombs containing the better classes of people are of course superior to the others. There are some more extensive than the rest, having various apartments, adorned with figures representing different actions of life. Funeral processions are generally predominant. Agricultural processes, religious ceremonies, and more ordinary occurrences, such as feasting, &c. are to be seen every where. I shall not enter into a minute account of these paintings, as they have been so often described, particularly by Mr. Hamilton, whose perspicuous observations upon them give the best idea of their various representation. It would be impossible to describe the numerous little articles found in them, which are well adapted to show the domestic habits of the ancient Egyptians. It is here the smaller idols are occasionally found, either lying on the ground, or on the cases of the mummies. Vases are sometimes found containing the embalmed entrails of the mummies. These are generally made of baked clay, and painted over: their sizes differ from eight inches to eighteen: their covers represent the head of some divinity, bearing either the human form, or that of a monkey, fox, cat, or some other animal. I met with a few of these vases of alabaster in the tombs of the kings, but unfortunately they were broken. A great quantity of pottery is found, and also wooden articles in some of the tombs, as if the deceased had resolved to have all he possessed deposited along with him. The most singular among these things are the ornaments, in particular the small works in clay and other composition. I have been fortunate enough to find many specimens of their manufactures, among which is gold leaf, beaten nearly as thin as ours. The gold appears to me extremely pure, and of a finer colour than is generally seen in our own. It is somewhat singular that no instruments of war are found in these places, when we consider what a warlike nation the Egyptians were. What has become of their weapons I cannot conjecture; for in all my researches I found only one arrow, two feet long. At one extremity it had a copper point well fixed in it, and at the other a notch as usual to receive the string of the bow: it had been evidently split by the string, and glued together again.

Among other articles too numerous to be mentioned, the beetle, or scarabæus, to all appearance a highly sacred animal, is found in the tombs. There are various sorts; some of basalt, verde antico, or other stones, and some of baked clay. They are scarce, particularly those with hieroglyphics on them, which no doubt contain some particular prayers, or the commemoration of striking events in the life of the deceased. It is supposed, that the Egyptians hung the scarabæus to their necks when they went to war; but of this we have no clear proofs. I must mention a circumstance on this subject, which perhaps will solve the doubt. The scarabæi are of such a peculiar form, that, if they were among the ornaments of the warriors, they would be easily distinguished. One solitary instance of this kind I have observed. There is a sitting figure in the tomb of Psammuthis, which I discovered in the valley below Beban el Malook, that, by its splendid dress and ornaments, may be intended to represent a king. It has a square plate of basalt hung to its neck, with an obelisk in the centre, and a figure on each side of it. I was extremely fortunate in meeting with one of these plates, I believe the only one that ever was found of the kind. It has the form of an Egyptian temple, and in the centre is an elevated scarabæus on a boat, guarded by two figures, one at each side; and on the reverse of the scarabæus is an inscription over a boat, on which are two other figures, exactly like the former. The plate has the holes by which it was hung to a chain or string. I found also other scarabæi, with human heads, which I never saw before.

The Egyptians were certainly well acquainted with linen manufactures to a perfection equal to our own; for, in many of their figures, we observe their garments quite transparent; and among the folding of the mummies, I observed some cloth quite as fine as our common muslin, very strong, and of an even texture. They had the art of tanning leather, with which they made shoes as well as we do, some of which I found of various shapes. They had also the art of staining the leather with various colours, as we do morocco, and actually knew the mode of embossing on it, for I found leather with figures impressed on it, quite elevated. I think it must have been done with a hot iron while the leather was damp. They also fabricated a sort of coarse glass, with which they made beads and other ornaments.

Beside enamelling, the art of gilding was in great perfection among them, as I found several ornaments of the kind. They knew how to cast copper, as well as to form it into sheets, and had a metallic composition not unlike our lead, rather softer, but of greater tenacity. It is much like the lead which we see on paper in the tea-chests from China, but much thicker. I found some pieces of it covered on both sides with a thin coat of another metal, which might be taken for silver, but I cannot believe it to be so. It certainly is a proof of the scarcity of this metal in Egypt, where, in my opinion, it was less common than gold; for it is seldom found, whereas the latter is quite common on the ornaments.

Carved works were very common, and in great perfection, particularly in the proportion of the figures; and it is to be observed, that though the Egyptians were unacquainted with anatomy, yet in these, as well as in their statues of marble, they preserved that sweet simplicity peculiar to themselves, which is always pleasing to the beholder.

In one of the tombs of the kings I found two wooden figures, nearly seven feet high, of very fine workmanship. They are in a standing posture, with one arm extended, as if holding a torch. They had many other carved works, hieroglyphics, ornaments, &c.

The art of varnishing, and baking the varnish on clay, was in such perfection among them, that I doubt whether it could be imitated at present. Articles of the best sort of this manufacture, however, were rather scarce, as there are but few to be found; while, on the contrary, there are great quantities of the inferior sorts. Indeed, the few good ones I met with were all in the great tomb of Psammuthis, and these are of the most beautiful colour.

The art of painting was but simple among the Egyptians, as they had no knowledge of shadowing to elevate their figures; but great credit is due to them for their taste in disposing their colours. There is great harmony even in the red and green, which do not always agree with us, and which they knew how to mingle so well, that it produced a very splendid effect, particularly by candle-light. Their drawings and sculpture are but simple, and systematically done; notwithstanding which, they knew how to impart a certain vivacity to their posture, which animates their figures. They knew little or nothing of perspective, and all that was done was in profile. The wall, or whatever other place was to be ornamented, was previously prepared, by grinding it very smooth. The first lines were done in red by a scholar, or one not so expert as the master, who examined the outlines, and corrected them in black. Specimens of this are to be seen in the tomb of Psammuthis, as I shall have to mention hereafter.

When the outlines were completed, the sculptor began his work. He raised the figure by cutting away the stone all round it. The angles are smoothly turned, and the ornaments on the figure or garments are traced with a chisel, which leaves a slight impression, and adorns the whole figure. The last was the painter, who finished the piece. They could not find any other colours than red, blue, yellow, green, and black. The blue is divided into two sorts, the dark and the light. With these colours they adorned their temples, tombs, or whatever they wished to have painted. As there is no colour among these that could imitate the living human flesh, they adopted the red for this purpose. The ornaments were decorated with the other colours; and, though so few, I am sure they are not all used in the same piece.

As to their architecture, I can only say it is in conformity with their ideas. It is to be recollected, that they had a notion of returning to life again, body and soul, after a period of three thousand years: whence we may presume, that they intended to make their edifices last so long, that they might see them again in good preservation. As to arches, can we not prove, from the circumstance of their having made them in a different form from ours, that they could also have made them of a larger size, than we see to this very day in Thebes? Yes, I say, in Thebes there are Egyptian arches. If any reader will observe Plate 44, he will see an Egyptian arch which exists at Gournou, under the rocks that separate this place from the valley Beban el Malook. The arch is made in a manner entirely different from our own; but if the Egyptians were inclined to have arches in their edifices, they might have constructed them in their own manner, and of considerable sizes, equal in proportion to the enormous blocks which we see in their edifices. No, they did not want arches—they preferred having their temples crowded with columns, which formed the finest embellishments of their edifices; and I assert, that the number of these columns is no detriment to the beauty or magnificence of these sacred places. On the contrary, without these columns, their architecture would not have appeared to the Egyptians so substantially firm, which was their principal object. This, in my opinion, was their reason for not erecting arches. But I shall endeavour farther to prove, that they knew how to make an arch with the key-stone as well as we do. A traveller may wander among the ruins of Thebes, and his attention be so much taken by the magnificence of the great edifices, as to overlook what is inferior, especially what is constructed of simple bricks, baked in the sun. Besides, he has a preconceived notion, that the Egyptians were ignorant of the art of turning an arch; so that, if he should see one, or even pass under an archway, he would take it for granted, that it was the work of a later people. I shall now describe the situation of several arches, which are to be seen in Thebes; point out the purpose for which they were evidently erected; and leave the reader to conjecture whether they were made by the Egyptians, or by any other people.

The mode of building enormously strong walls with unburnt bricks is peculiar to the Egyptians. Of this I trust there can be no doubt, from the many instances clearly before our eyes; but if it be questioned, I would inquire of any traveller, who has seen Thebes, whether he thinks that the wall, which surrounded the avenue of sphinxes, or lion-headed statues, which I discovered at Carnak, could have been made by any other people. There are even some of these walls that enclose their sacred places: and if it be objected to, on the supposition that some subsequent nation, who adored the same gods, may have erected these walls to preserve the holy edifices, I can boldly say: No, this was not the case; for the walls are so connected with the Egyptian works, that it is plain they were constructed at the same time with them. But what is still more to the point, at Gournou there are various and extensive tombs, excavated not in the rocks themselves, but in the plains at their foot, twelve or fourteen feet below the surface, and extending a considerable length under ground. The way to these tombs is generally by a staircase, which led into a large square hall, cut in the rock, in some instances ninety or a hundred feet long; and opposite the stairs is generally the entrance into the tomb. It is to be observed, that these halls entered into the original plan of the structure: there was nothing to protect or to enclose them on any side but a wall, by which they were completely surrounded. Without this, they would have been exposed to all the rubbish of other tombs, which might have fallen in. The necessity of building these walls is evident; and I have no doubt many travellers will plainly see, that no other succeeding nation would have built these enormous walls to preserve the tombs of the Egyptians. Now over the stairs, which lead into the hall, there are some very high and majestic arches, not only made of the same bricks, but connected with the walls themselves; consequently, made by the Egyptians, and constructed with the same key-stones as our own in the present day. There is also at Gournou a great number of other buildings of sun-burnt bricks, of a later date, which I hope will not be confounded with the others. Some of these are built with a smaller sort of bricks; others with bricks taken from the Egyptian walls; but their construction plainly shows the difference of the people who erected them.

If we extend our observations on the Egyptian architecture, it will appear, that the Egyptians undoubtedly have the merit of invention, which I consider as the source of improvement, &c. The Greeks may claim their having brought the art to great perfection; but it is well known, that they took their principal hints from the Egyptians.

The Egyptians were a primitive nation. They had to form every thing without any model before them to imitate. Yet so fertile was their inventive faculty, that to this day new orders of architecture might be extracted from their ruins. If we observe the Egyptian capitals, do we not see a complication of orders in one mass, which, if divided, would produce numerous hints for new ideas? If the lover of truth will but inspect the various representations of the lotus on the capitals, he will plainly see, that not only the Doric and the Corinthian orders have been extracted from them, but that more might still be formed. There is reason also to believe, that the Ionic order originated in Egypt. The capitals of the columns of Tentyra, those in the small temple of Edfu, and, lastly, the others in the small temple of Isis, in the island of Philoe, sufficiently indicate this. The name of the deity, to which the first and third of these temples are dedicated, seems to strengthen this supposition. We well know, that Isis is the Io of the Greeks, from whom the name of Ionic was no doubt derived; and it is very probable, that he who introduced the order gave it that name, as having been taken from the temple of the goddess.

The wonderful sculptures of the Egyptians are to be admired for the boldness of their execution. Their enormous sizes rendered it difficult for the artists to maintain their due proportions, which were according to the height of the figure. For instance, if a statue were erected of the size of life, the head was of the natural size; if the statue were thirty feet high, the head was larger in proportion to the body; and if fifty feet high, the magnitude of the head was farther increased. Had it been otherwise in statues of so great height, the distance from the eyes of the spectator would have so much diminished the size, that the head would have appeared too small in proportion to the legs. The tedious work of the endless hieroglyphics which are to be seen in every part of every edifice, the numberless figures on the temples, tombs, obelisks, and walls, must have required wonderful labour. They had only four sorts of stones in general use for sculpture, the sandy, the calcareous, breccia, and granite. All except the first are very hard, and what is most singular is, we do not know with what tools they were cut out. We have ocular demonstration, that the tools of the present day will not cut granite without great difficulty, and I doubt whether we could give it that smoothness of surface we see in Egypt. But I would observe it is not unreasonable to suppose, that the granite and other stones were less hard at the time of the Egyptians than they are at present. On the calcareous stone the figures have angles so sharp, that the best tempered chisel of our time could not produce the like; it is so hard that it breaks more like glass than stone; and the granite is almost impenetrable.

At the end of the above-mentioned plain in Gournou, at the foot of the rocks which divide that valley from Beban el Malook, the excavation was going on at the end of an avenue where sphinxes must have been. Here was found a causeway gradually rising to some ruins, which being uncovered, proved to be a temple, with columns doubly octangular, the only one of such form I saw in Egypt. The temple is evidently ancient, but I dare not affirm it to be Egyptian, though it has hieroglyphics, &c. It was probably made by the Ptolemies; for the proportions of the plan, as far as I could see, and the order of the columns, being totally different from any others of the Egyptians, lead me to suppose this temple to be of a later date. Farther on, just under the rocks, we discovered a granite door nine feet high by five wide, and one and a half thick. It is covered with hieroglyphics and figures neatly cut, and on the top it has the winged globe and a cornice. It had been painted, and was buried entirely under ground.

While my men were at work, I was in the habit of searching among these tombs, and entered all the places and holes I could possibly squeeze myself into. In the large tombs I caused the side wall or rock to be struck with the large sledge hammer, to discover by the sound if any cavity were near. One day the hammer not only gave a hollow sound, but made an aperture a foot and half wide into another tomb. Having enlarged the hole sufficiently to pass, we entered, and found several mummies, and a great quantity of broken cases. The stones which had fallen from the roof were as sharp as a razor, and as my shoes were not very strong, my feet were cut in several places. These stones detach themselves from the roof in flakes, which proves them to be much harder than when first cut. In an inner apartment of this tomb is a square opening, into which we descended, and at the bottom found a small chamber at each side of the shaft. In one was a granite sarcophagus with its cover quite perfect, but so situated, that it would be an arduous undertaking to draw it out. Among the mummies I found some small papyri, and one extraordinarily large.