Chapter XXIV: Section IV: , 1. The experiments of Table IX, C, repeat those of A with (4)

Text size

--slate slate
--slate ledge (Col.) slate
--Great Falls, Mont. quartz, granite, shale
--geology quartz, granite, shale, G. F.
--Will B. geology
--State University Will B.
--Sexton James State University
--Mrs. J. Sexton James
--C. S. J. Mrs. J.
--Indian School C. S. J.
--Fort Shaw School Indian School
--Mrs. C. Ft. Shaw School
--Mrs. E. Mrs. C.
--Seattle, Wash Mrs. F.
--Miss M. Seattle, Wash.
--Everyman Miss M.
--Cousin V. Everyman
--theatre Cousin V.

SUBJECT XII

That one starting-point establishes itself more firmly, and offers more dominant associations with an increased degree of suggestiveness is intimated by various expressions of the subjects who state, "the preparatory words called forth associations connected with this or that starting-point"; or "there was a felt fusion of all"; "a summation of all"; or "the preparatory words had an influence throughout"; "they strengthened this or that starting-point"; "they affected one and not the other"; and many similar expressions.

The influence of these preparatory marginal settings was also indicated very often by the nature or kind of words in the series.

Turning to the tables which collectively represent in a graphic and quantitative form the notes of the subject, and which are in harmony with the above, we find they demonstrate that there is a very intimate and definite relationship. When the state of mind immediately preceding the moment of the formation of the associated series is conditioned by the preparatory words leading to the second, the amount to which that starting-point dominates consciousness in arousing associations is greater than in any previous case where the words of like nature are pronounced.

With the preparatory words leading to the second starting-point, we have 11.5% of the influence for the first, 69.2% for the second; with them leading to the first, 58.2% for first, 17.2% for second; with them leading to neither, 40.6% for first, 44.2% for second; with them leading to both, 16.1% for first, 54.8% for second; with a preparatory sentence leading to second, 12.9% for first, 59.7% for second.

A few experiments were made where one word was given as a setting and four or eight starting-points were shown, but the starting-points were so numerous that they tended to confuse the subject's introspective account.

TABLE X. TWO WORDS SHOWN: THREE PREPARATORY WORDS SPOKEN LEADING TO THE SECOND

Time--50 seconds.
Characters--same as Table I.

Corn, Wheat, Oats. (1) MOB--HAY

M. + + + - + + - - - -
R. - - - | + + α + β - - - - -
K. - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
S. + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - -
J. + + + + + + β β - - - - - - -
Ht. - + + + + β β β β β β β β

(1) Corn, Wheat, Oats. MOB--HAY.
(2) Cloud, Mist, Dew. ORATION--CANOE.
(3) Turtle, Fish, Frog. KEY--NET.
(4) Quartz, Granite, Shale. HORN--SLATE.
(5) Geometry, Plane, Rectangle. CASE--CUBE.

| - + α β

{ 10 41 17 0 7
M. { 13.3% 54.7% 22.7% 9.3%

{ 15 37 21 1 4
R. { 19.3% 47.4% 26.9% 1.2% 5.2%

{ 0 55 0 0 0
K. { 100.0%

{ 8 64 4 0 0
S. { 10.5% 84.2% 5.3%

{ 17 69 6 0 2
J. { 18.1% 73.4% 6.3% 2.2%

{ 2 45 17 0 8
Ht. { 2.8% 62.5% 23.6% 11.1%

{ 52 311 65 1 21
Totals { 11.5% 69.2% 14.4% .2% 4.7%

Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 5; number of experiments,
29; number of associations, 449.

TABLE XI. TWO WORDS SHOWN. THREE PREPARATORY WORDS SPOKEN LEADING TO THE FIRST

Time--50 seconds.
Characters--same as Table I.

Dog, Sheep, Horse. (1) SQUIRREL--TELEGRAM

M. | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
R. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
K. | | | | | | | | | | | | |
S. | | - - - - - - - - - -
J. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Ht. | | | | | | | | | | - - - - - - - -

(1) Dog, Sheep, Horse. SQUIRREL--TELEGRAM.
(2) Pineapple, Banana, Orange. FRUIT-STAND--ELECTRIC LIGHT.
(3) Justice, Truth, Beauty. CHARITY--PHOTOGRAPH.
(4) Gold, Copper, Silver. DIME--SKULL.

M. {28 3 15 0 8
{51.8% 5.5% 27.9% 14.8%

R. {16 9 23 0 11
{27.2% 15.3% 38.9% 18.6%

K. {56 2 0 0 0
{96.5% 3.5%

S. {36 24 0 0 0
{60.0% 40.0%

J. {38 4 24 1 7
{51.4% 5.4% 32.4% 1.4% 9.4%

Ht. {37 20 0 0 0
{64.9% 35.1%

Totals {211 62 62 1 26
{58.2% 17.2% 17.2% .2% 7.2%

Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 4; number of experiments,
24; number of associations, 362.

TABLE XII. TWO WORDS SHOWN. THREE PREPARATORY WORDS SPOKEN LEADING TO NEITHER

Time--50 seconds.
Characters--same as Table I.

Botany, Statue, Postal. (1) CHOCOLATE--BANNER

M. | | - - - - - - - - - - - - - |
R. - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
K. | - | | | - | - | - | - |
S. | | - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
J. | | | | | | | - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ht. - - + + + - - - - - - - - - - -

(1) Botany, Statue, Postal. CHOCOLATE--BANNER.
(2) Idea, Proposition, Syllogism. SILVER--GAME.

| - + α β

M. {3 28 0 0 0
{9.6% 90.4%

M. {22 1 2 0 14
{56.5% 2.5% 5.2% 35.8%

K. {28 5 0 0 0
{84.8% 15.2%

S. {13 20 0 0 0
{89.4% 60.6%

J. { 17 22 0 0 0
{ 43.6% 56.4%

Ht. { 0 14 8 7 0
{ 48.3% 27.6% 24.1%

Totals { 83 90 10 7 14
{ 40.6% 44.2% 4.9% 3.4% 6.9%

Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 2; number of experiments,
12; number of associations, 204.

TABLE XIII. TWO WORDS SHOWN. THREE PREPARATORY WORDS SPOKEN LEADING TO BOTH

Time--50 seconds.
Characters--same as Table I.

Tree, Shrub, Grass. (1) TEA--FERN

M. + + α α α α α α α - -
R. + + + + + + + + + + + +
K. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
S. - - - - - - - - - - - -
J. | - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ht. + + α α α α α α | | | | |

(1) Tree, Shrub, Grass. TEA--FERN.
(2) Fox, Wolf, Moose. DEER--DOVE.

| - + α β

M. { 2 12 4 8 0
{ 7.6% 46.3% 15.3% 30.8%

R. { 0 0 25 0 0
{ 100.0%

K. { 1 30 0 0 0
{ 3.2% 96.8%

S. { 8 12 0 4 0
{ 33.3% 50.0% 16.7%

J. { 8 26 0 0 0
{ 23.5% 76.5%

Ht. { 8 12 2 6 0
{ 28.5% 42.8% 7.2% 21.5%

Totals { 27 92 31 18 0
{ 16.1% 54.8% 18.4% 10.7%

Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 2; number of experiments,
12; number of associations, 168.

TABLE XIV. TWO WORDS SHOWN (AUTHORS)--WITH A PREPARATORY SENTENCE LEADING TO THE SECOND

Time--50 seconds.
Characters--same as Table I.

"God's in His Heaven--all's right with the world."

(1) BURNS--BROWNING

M. + - - - - - - - - - | | | | | |
R. | - - - - - - - - - - -
K. + + + + + + + + + + + + +
S. | - - - - - - - - - - - - - | | |
J. | | - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ht. - - - - - - - - - -

(1) "God's in His Heaven--all's right with the world."
BURNS--BROWNING.

(2) "All that glistens is not gold."
BYRON--SHAKSPERE.

(3) "Hitch your wagon to a star."
SPENCER--EMERSON.

| - + α β

M. { 9 15 15 0 4
{20.9% 34.8% 34.8% 9.5%

R. { 1 47 0 0 0
{ 2.1% 97.9%

K. {15 0 26 0 0
{36.5% 63.5%

S. { 6 34 0 0 0
{15.0% 85.0%

J. { 3 43 14 0 0
{ 5.1% 71.6% 23.3%

Ht. { 0 18 13 0 0
{ 58.1% 41.9%

Totals {34 157 68 0 4
{12.9% 59.7% 25.8% 1.6%

Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 3; number of experiments,
18; number of associations, 263.

GROUP VIII

The aim here is to test the effect of interruption in the series of associations, and to throw further light on the relation of the series to the present content of consciousness when this content is a series of associations and the new content is a pronounced word which is to act as a point of departure for new associations.

There are three divisions. The time in all is fifty seconds; in the first a word of general connotation is given and after an interim of ten seconds a second more specific word is pronounced. In the second three similar words are given at an interval of fifteen seconds; the third four words with an interval of ten seconds. The following are examples of the first and third divisions:

SUBJECT III

Commencement--Sieve

sieve
- holes sieve
- water sieve
- flour sieve
- space holes
- concept space
- Royce concept
- time concept
- eternity time
- damnation eternity
- Hamlet "Consummation," etc
- Shakspere Hamlet

SUBJECT VII

Wax--Jug--Tar--Sod

wax
| Charley wax
| picnic Charley
| horse Charley
| saddle horse

jug
- ink jug
- clay jug
- Hegel jug

tar
/ 'old tar' tar
/ ship 'old tar'
/ Bermuda 'old tar'

sod
\ grave sod
\ graveyard grave
\ house graveyard
\ church house
\ music church
\ white church

In all the experiments the subject simply knew that possibly more than one starting-point would be given. There was of course the conscious recognition on the part of the subjects that the pronounced words were starting-points, which would imply an attentive consciousness, but they were cautioned neither to favor nor inhibit the newly pronounced word nor an association in progress.

The notes are uniform in showing that often one, two or three words of the former association-series are written after the new word is pronounced. "The momentum," says F., "was great enough to carry the associations two or three words beyond the pronounced word"; while Bl. found "a tendency for the trend of associations to persist, though not strong enough to overcome the new influence." By.'s experience was slightly different. As stated before, he often wrote the word as it came into consciousness. "On hearing a new word it gets precedence over the next associations not yet formed, and there is considerable confusion and lost time unless the motor discharge of writing the pronounced word is permitted to have free expression." The tables verify the same, and also show that there are more associations during the first interval.

Does a former starting-point regain its influence? In the first division there are two cases where the first and second fuse, but no place where the first independently forms an association; in the second but one word for subject Bl. in "Quill--Bench--Chalk," and in the third not any. There was a small amount of fusion in all, since but two words are due to the combined influence of the first and third, five to the combined influence of the first and fourth, with three starting-points, and one to the combined influence of the first and third with four starting-points.

The train of associations is inhibited by a new starting-point which dominates in influence. No mention is made in any note that a former starting-point remains in consciousness for the series, but M. emphatically writes, "Absolutely no influence of the preceding word or words when the next is taken up"; and later, "As soon as the new one is pronounced the old word and the series it had brought up were immediately suppressed." Bl. comments, "How remarkable it is that each new word crowds the old trend of associations out and starts new ones"; and the graphic representation, one of which only is given here on account of lack of space, shows that there is no return to the original series.

The tables are indicative of the tendency. In the first division of the group there are three possible lines of fusion, in the second six possible lines, and in the third twelve possible lines, but we find only 13.2% for all forms of fusion in the first, 7.9% for the second, and 10.5% for the third. In the eighty-seven experiments of the series there is but one absolute return to the previous starting-point. (See Group IX, sec. 2, Bl.) The tables show the varying degrees of fusion, and while the percentages have little meaning, as there is a variable time-element, the numbers do show accurately the number of words and the relative and continued influence of each starting-point.

We conclude that, when the present content of consciousness is a series of associations, the newly given impression establishes itself sufficiently to inhibit the associations of the previous series.

TABLE XV. TWO WORDS--GENERAL AND PARTICULAR--SPOKEN

Time--50 seconds, with an interval of 10 seconds between 1 and 2.
Characters--same as Table I.

(1) Commencement--Sieve

M. | | | - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
F. | | | | | | + + + + + + +
H. | | | | | - - - - - - - - - - - -
V. | | | | | - - - - - - - - - - - -
S. | | | | | | | | - - - -
E. | | | - - - - - - - - -
Bs.| | | - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ht.| | - + + + + + +
By.

| - + α β
M. { 3 14 0 0 0
{17.6% 82.4%

F. { 6 7
{46.2% 0 53.8% 0 0

H. { 5 12 0 0 0
{29.4% 70.6%

V. { 5 12 0 0 0
{29.4% 70.6%

S. { 8 4 0 0 0
{66.6% 33.4%

E. { 3 9 0 0 0
{25.0% 75.0%

Bs. { 3 14 0 0 0
{17.6% 82.4%

Ht. { 2 1 6 0 0
{22.2% 11.2% 66.6%

By. 0 0 0 0 0

Totals {35 66 13 0 0
{31.4% 55.4% 13.2%

Number of subjects, 9; number of groups, 1; number of experiments, 8;
number of associations, 114.

TABLE XVI. THREE WORDS SPOKEN

Time--50 seconds. Interval, 15 seconds.

Characters: | first, - second, / third, + partial fusion between
first and second, α partial fusion between first and second with
first predominating, β partial fusion between first and second with
second predominating, γ partial fusion between first and third, δ
partial fusion between second and third, ε partial fusion between
first and third with third predominating.

(1) Gun--Bug--Jaw

M. | | | | | | | | - - - - - - / / / / / /
F. | | | | | - - - δ δ δ
H. | | | | | | - - - - / / / / /
V. | | | | | | | | - - - - - - / / / / / /
Bl. | | | | | | - - - - - / / / / / / /
By. | | | | | | | | | - - - - - - / / / / / /
Bs. | | | | | + + + + / / / / /
Ht. | | | | | | | α | | | δ - - - -
Ro. | | | | | | - - - - - - / / / / / /

(1) Gun--Bug--Jaw
(2) Quill--Bench--Chalk
(3) Hall--Moss--Leather

| - / + α β γ δ ε

M. {20 14 18 1 0 0 0 0 0
{37.8% 26.4% 33.9% 1.9%

F. {15 11 15 0 0 0 2 3 0
{32.6% 23.9% 32.6% 4.4% 6.5%

H. {19 11 15 0 0 0 0 0 0
{42.3% 24.4% 33.3%

V. {24 15 21 1 0 4 0 0 0
{36.9% 23.1% 32.3% 1.5% 6.2%

Bl. {15 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0
{45.4% 27.3% 27.3%

By. {23 8 14 3 0 4 0 3 0
{41.8% 14.5% 25.5% 5.5% 7.2% 5.5%

Bs. {13 10 10 4 0 0 0 0 5
{30.9% 23.8% 23.8% 9.6% 11.9%

Ht. {23 11 10 1 1 2 0 1 0
{46.9% 22.5% 20.5% 2.0% 2.0% 4.1% 2.0%

Ro. {15 15 24 0 0 0 0 0 0
{27.8% 27.8% 44.4%

Totals {167 104 136 10 1 10 2 7 5
{ 37.8% 23.5% 30.8% 2.3% .2% 2.3% .4% 1.5% 1.2%

Number of subjects, 9; number of sections, 3; number of experiments,
27; number of associations, 442.

TABLE XVII. FOUR WORDS SPOKEN

Time--50 seconds. Interval, 10 seconds.

Characters -- same as Table XVI, with addition of \ representing the
fourth, ς partial fusion between first and fourth, η partial fusion
between second and fourth, θ partial fusion between third and fourth,
☐ total fusion between first, second, third, and fourth, ι partial
fusion between first, third, and fourth, κ partial fusion between
second, third, and fourth, λ partial fusion between third and fourth,
with fourth predominating, [ partial fusion between first, second,
and third.

(1) Den--Nag--Cot--Fan

F. | | | | | | - - - - - - δ - - \ \ \ \ \
H. | | | | | - - - / / / / / / \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
V. | | | | | - - - / / / / \ \ \ \ \ \ \
Bl. | | | | - - - - / / / \ \ \ \
By. | | | | | | - - - - - δ δ δ \ \ \ \ \
Bs. | | | - - / / / \ \ \ \ \
Ht. | | | | | - - - - - / / / / \ \ \ \
Ro. | | | | - - - - / / / / \ \ \ \ \

(1) Den--Nag--Cot--Fan
(2) Tax--Fan--Map--Dog
(3) Paw--Wand--Box--Mug
(4) Bud--Car--Cub--Mat
(5) Wax--Jug--Tar--Sod
(6) Cur--Elk--Pug--Man
(7) Rope--Wig--Ink--Grass

(_Table on page 460_)

GROUP IX

The aim here was to see if it were possible to have the first starting-point such that the conditions would be similar to the results obtained by using preparatory marginal settings, but include rather than inhibit the second starting-point. A review of the tendency toward mental combination in the former experiments suggested that the words be in the relation of the whole and part. The "part" was given the position of predominating influence in order to see to just what extent it would persist in combining.

| -- / \ + γ δ ς η θ

F. { 29 19 11 19 3 0 4 0 0 11
{ 30.3% 19.8% 11.4% 19.8% 3.1% 4.2% 11.4%

H. { 31 18 24 25 3 0 0 0 0 8
{ 28.5% 16.5% 22.1% 22.9% 2.7% 73%

V. { 28 28 21 50 0 0 0 0 0 0
{ 22.0% 22.0% 16.6% 39.4%

Bl. { 18 17 17 29 0 0 0 0 0 0
{ 21.6% 20.5% 20.5% 34.9%

By. { 36 22 9 24 2 4 3 0 6 2
{ 32.1% 19.6% 8.0% 21.4% 1.8% 3.7% 2.6% 5.3% 1.8%

Bs. { 22 13 17 18 4 1 0 1 0 6
{ 24.2% 14.3% 18.7% 19.8% 4.4% 1.1% 1.1% 6.6%

Ht. { 30 18 10 21 3 0 0 0 2 1
{ 34.4% 20.6% 11.4% 24.2% 3.4% 2.4% 1.2%

Ro. { 24 22 16 48 0 0 3 0 0 0
{ 21.3% 19.4% 14.2% 42.4% 2.7%

Totals{218 157 125 234 15 5 10 1 8 28
{ 26.6% 19.2% 15.2% 28.5% 1.9% .6% 1.3% .2% .9% 3.4%

☐ ι β κ λ [

F. 0 0 0 0 0 0

H. 0 0 0 0 0 0

V. 0 0 0 0 0 0

Bl. 0 0 0 2 0 0
2.5%

By. 4 0 0 0 0 0

Bs. 0 3 1 0 5 0
3.3% 1.1% 0 5.4% 0

Ht. 0 0 0 0 0 2
2.4%

Ro. 0 0 0 0 0 0

Totals{ 4 3 1 2 5 2
{ .4% .3% .2% .3% .7% .3%

Number of subjects, 8; number of sections, 7; number of experiments,
52; number of associations, 819.

In the light of the interpretation of previous facts and the subsequent results of this group of experiments, we are now in a position to conclude that, if the present content of consciousness on the reception of a new impression is such that the reactions are not antagonistic but reënforce each other, the second will not persist in independent influence, but will be rather included in and supplementary to the influence of the first, which otherwise would be less assertive. The results below show that while the first of the two starting-points has a decided disadvantage of position, and therefore has little influence in arousing associations, it here is responsible for 43.2% and the second for but 9.5%, while there is a combined influence of 47.3%, the first strongly predominating in partial fusion. There is but one case where the second was followed exclusively.

The explanation of this, extended to an hypothesis, would rest in the fact that each word has definite characteristic reactions and that the fusion of two words or lines of thought means that the motor accompaniments are such that they unite and reënforce each other, or that the one includes the other. There are few antagonistic impulses.

TABLE XVIII

TWO WORDS--WHOLE AND PART--SPOKEN

Time--15 seconds.
Characters--same as Table I.

(1) Crowd--Man

A. | + +
M. + + + + + + + + +
F. + + + + +
H.
J. | | | | | | + + +
S. - - - -
V. + + + α α α α α α
E. | + + +
L. | | | |
Bs. α α α α α α
Br. | | | | | + +

(1) Crowd--Man
(2) Ton--Pound
(3) Moose--Horn
(4) Engine--Whistle
(5) Book--Page
(6) Music--Octave

| - + α β

A. { 4 3 24 0 0
{ 12.9% 9.6% 77.5%

M. { 13 0 27 2 0
{ 30.9% 64.2% 4.9%

F. { 7 3 22 1 0
{ 20.6% 8.8% 64.8% 5.8%

H. { 28 5 0 0 5
{ 73.6% 13.2% 13.2%

J. { 21 1 17 6 0
{ 46.6% 2.3% 37.8% 13.3%

S. { 25 12 0 0 0
{ 67.5% 32.5%

V. { 4 2 16 10 0
{ 12.5% 6.3% 50.1% 31.1%

E. { 11 3 9 5 0
{ 39.2% 10.8% 32.2% 17.8%

L. { 14 6 4 0 0
{ 58.4% 25.0% 16.6%

Bs. { 15 2 11 6 0
{ 44.2% 5.8% 32.4% 17.6%

Br. { 25 0 9 9 0
{ 58.2% 20.9% 20.9%

Totals { 167 37 139 39 5
{ 43.2% 9.5% 35.9% 10.0% 1.4%

Number of subjects, 11; number of sections, 6; number of experiments,
62; number of associations, 387.

GROUP X

In the last group the words were called whole and part, although the reader no doubt observed that this was not always strictly the case, but rather that the more complex was more influential as a word-suggester than the simple and often tended to include it. Can this be demonstrated in another way? Attention was called in Group of Experiments IV (two pictures shown) that picture no. 3 (a man sawing wood), although first, had more than the normal number of associations, the explanation of which might lie in the fact that it contained more objects. We here attempt to test this by comparing a comparatively complex and a comparatively simple picture as starting-points. It has been clearly proven that the second picture to be presented has a decided advantage of position. The simple picture is here given the advantage of position. The notes show the first to be more important, while there is no suggestion of the first including the second, on account of there being less fusion than for words and more independent associations for the second starting-point; the averages are 38.5% for the first, 30.5% for the second, 31.0% fusion.

TABLE XIX. TWO PICTURES SHOWN

Time--50 seconds.
Characters--same as Table I.

(1) (a) Blacksmith shoeing Horse
(b) A Sheep

J. | | | | | - - - - - - | | | | | | |
E. | + + - - | | |
W. | - | - - - | | | | | | |
V. | | + + + + + + + + + + + + +
L. - | | | | | | | |
Ht. - - α α | | | | - + + + + +

(1) (a) Blacksmith shoeing Horse
(b) A Sheep

(2) (a) Girl and Boy
(b) A Bird

(3) (a) Three Children
(b) A Duck

(4) (a) A Sower
(b) A Dog

| - + α β

J. { 30 23 9 18 0
{ 37.5% 28.8% 11.2% 22.5%

E. { 28 10 2 0 0
{ 70.0% 25.0% 5.0%

W. { 14 18 5 0 0
{ 37.8% 48.7% 13.5%

V. { 6 11 37 0 13
{ 8.9% 16.4% 55.3% 19.4%

L. { 27 4 1 0 0
{ 84.3% 12.5% 3.2%

Ht. { 16 30 6 6 0
{ 27.6% 51.8% 10.3% 10.3%

Totals {121 96 60 24 13
{ 38.5% 30.5% 19.2% 7.6% 4.2%

Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 4; number of experiments,
24; number of associations, 314.

GROUP XI

Three words spoken, one immediately following the other, are given in this group in order to test the span of consciousness and the influence of an immediate interruption, as one was given immediately following the other in such a way that all associations were checked until after the third starting-point. If we attempt to follow the initial starting-points we see they may disappear after the first few associations and reappear in the series; or each remain as initial starting-points for a few associations; or one alone control the whole series, while the others are present without influence; or there may be an alternation of independent influences; or an influence which shows a modifying effect of one or both of the other starting-points, which may reach such a degree that all fuse, and in so doing get an advantage over the single words. The starting-points are to a large extent disparate and there is very little fusion; we find only .5% total fusion and 18.7% partial fusion.

An example would be as follows:

SUBJECT VIII

FROG--ICE--TABLE

There were no cases of the total fusion of all the starting-points throughout the series, no cases of total fusion of the first and second, and two cases for the second and third. There were two cases of partial fusion of the first, second, and third throughout. The first was followed exclusively in two cases, the third in one. The first and third were followed intermittently in four cases, the second and third in eleven, the first, second, and third in thirty-five.

The second starting-point has the ascendency of influence. This is not due to habits formed in earlier experiments, as the two groups of experiments with two words were given in connection with other experiments. This group informs us that in immediate interruption the new impression has not sufficient power to establish itself more firmly than a past impression which is just past, and must in a manner be reproduced to start associations. The influence of the first has been somewhat destroyed, but the second is greater than the third.

TABLE XX. THREE WORDS SPOKEN

Time--50 seconds.

Characters--same as Table XVI, with the addition of [ representing
total fusion between the first, second, and third, μ partial fusion
between first, second, and third with first predominating, ν partial
fusion between first, second, and third with first and third
predominating.

(1) Frog--Ice--Table

A. / - - - - -
M. - | | γ γ γ γ γ γ γ γ γ
F. - - - - - / / | | | | / / / - - -
H. | - - - - - | | | | / / / - - -
J. | - - / / / / - + + + + + + + +
Bl. - / | | | | | | - - - -
By. | / / / / / / - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Bs. - | | | - - - / /
Ro. | | - - / / / / / / / / / / /
Br. - / / / δ δ δ δ δ δ

(1) Frog--Ice--Table
(2) Key--Shoe--Knife
(3) Desk--Park--Glove
(4) College--Church--Cafe
(5) Boston--Elevator--Lake
(6) Skate--Book--Theatre
(7) Bridge--Sleigh--Ticket
(8) Gun--Lamp--Watch

| - / + α β γ δ [ μ ν
A. { 26 32 30 0 0 0 0 0 2 10 0
{ 26% 32% 30% 2% 10%

M. { 25 36 21 3 0 0 10 1 1 0 6
{ 24.3% 34.9% 20.5% 2.9% 9.8% .9% .9% 5.8%

F. { 15 23 24 8 11 0 7 6 0 0 0
{ 15.9% 24.5% 25.5% 8.5% 11.8% 7.4% 6.4%

H. { 31 68 31 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
{ 23.8% 52.4% 23.8%

J. { 19 18 48 15 0 0 0 22 1 0 0
{ 15.5% 14.6% 39.1% 12.2% 17.8% .8%

Bl. { 23 33 16 5 0 0 0 22 0 0 0
{ 23.2% 33.2% 16.0% 5.0% 22.6%

By. { 13 56 48 15 0 1 17 2 0 0 0
{ 8.7% 36.8% 31.5% 9.8% .6% 11.2% 1.4%

Bs. { 19 13 19 9 0 0 0 19 2 0 0
{ 23.4% 16.0% 23.4% 11.2% 23.5% 2.5%

Ro. { 32 33 33 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
{ 32.6% 33.7% 33.7%

Br. { 12 24 38 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0
{ 15.0% 30.0% 47.5% 7.5%

Totals{215 336 308 55 11 1 40 72 6 10 6
{ 20.3% 31.1% 29.1% 5.2% 1.1% .9% 3.6% 6.8% .5% .9% .5%

Number of subjects, 10; number of sections, 8; number of experiments,
79; number of associations, 1060.

GROUP XII

In order to test the relative influence and to throw more light on the problem of immediate interruption four words were shown and the subject was directed to read from left to right. There were few experiments and most of the subjects were new. The results show that the third starting-point has a decided disadvantage, having an influence of only 7.8%. The second and fourth are almost equal, while the first is again less.

TABLE XXI. FOUR WORDS SHOWN

Time--50 seconds.

Characters--same as Table XVII, with the addition of ξ partial fusion
between the second, third, and fourth with the second predominating.

(1) Gun--Car--Ink--Fan

M. \ \ \ - - - - - / / / / / /
R. \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
K. \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
S. - | / - - - - - - - -
J. | | | - - - - - - - - - - -
Ht. + + α α α | | | | | | | | |

(1) Gun--Car--Ink--Fan
(2) Brain--Umbrella--Telephone--Chain
(3) Book--Money--Hour--Chart

| - / \ + γ θ α κ ξ
M. {14 6 9 4 0 6 0 0 0 0
{35.9% 15.4% 23.0% 10.3% 15.4%

R. {16 0 0 30 0 0 0 0 0 0
{34.8% 65.2%

K. { 0 35 0 16 0 0 0 0 0 0
{ 68.6% 31.4%

S. { 5 15 7 4 0 0 0 0 0 0
{16.2% 48.4% 22.5% 12.9%

J. {13 13 4 15 2 0 0 0 0 0
{27.7% 27.7% 8.5% 31.9% 4.2%

Ht. {15 9 0 5 2 0 7 3 1 1
{34.8% 20.9% 11.6% 4.7% 16.3% 6.9% 2.4% 2.4%

Totals{63 78 20 74 4 6 7 3 1 1
{24.5% 30.4% 7.8% 28.5% 1.6% 2.4% 2.6% 1.4% .4% .4%

Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 3; number of experiments,
18; number of associations, 257.

GROUP XIII

Four similar words were pronounced in immediate succession, the results of which show that we are correct in calling the above a case of succession and also to establish clearly and definitely that there is a difference of degree between immediate and postponed interruption. The third starting-point has again a decided disadvantage of influence and exerts no apparent influence in thirty-seven of the fifty-two experiments. The last starting-point exerts the greatest influence.

TABLE XXII. FOUR WORDS SPOKEN

Time--50 seconds.

Characters--same as Table XVII with the addition of ο partial fusion
between first, second, and third with first and second predominating.

(1) Cow--Roof--Fence--Girl
(2) Cathedral--River--Elevator--Newspaper
(3) Cane--Harness--Box--Coat
(4) Book--Snow--Rope--Stone
(5) Wire--Flower--Horse--Paper
(6) Gun--Wharf--Chair--Stove

| - / \ + λ δ η θ ☐ ι ο ε β
M. { 35 3 6 32 0 3 17 0 9 0 0 0 0 0
{ 33.4% 2.8% 5.8% 30.4% 2.8% 16.2% 8.6%

F. { 16 11 1 35 0 3 0 0 1 2 1 0 5 0
{ 21.3% 14.6% 1.4% 46.6% 4.0% 1.4% 2.7% 1.4% 6.6%

H. { 21 38 11 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
{ 20.6% 37.3% 10.8% 29.5% .9% .9%

V. { 16 16 0 36 2 2 9 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
{ 19.3% 19.3% 43.3% 2.4% 2.4% 10.9% 1.2% 1.2%

Bl.{ 36 8 10 19 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
{ 46.8% 10.3% 12.9% 24.8% 5.2%

By.{ 23 30 3 36 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
{24.5% 31.9% 3.3% 38.3% 1.0% 1.0%

Bs.{ 22 14 1 20 1 0 0 7 0 1 0 0 0 0
{33.3% 21.3% 1.6% 30.0% 1.6% 10.6% 1.6%

Ht.{ 9 19 4 31 0 0 0 0 1 14 0 0 0 0
{11.5% 24.3% 5.2% 39.8% 1.3% 17.9%

Ro.{ 26 23 6 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
{36.6% 32.4% 8.4% 22.6%

Totals
{204 162 42 255 4 8 30 7 13 17 2 1 5 1
{27.2% 21.6% 5.4% 33.9% .5% 1.1% 3.9% .9% 1.8% 2.3% .3% .2% .7% .2%

Number of subjects, 9; number of sections, 6; number of experiments,
52; number of associations, 751.

We ask finally how far our results and notes point to a theoretical understanding of the mechanism of associations. Previous work, especially that of James, Cordes, Calkins, and Scripture, as well as the accumulated notes of my subjects, confirm that the transition may be made by means of total, partial, and focal recall, and that in partial and focal recall the prominent persisting elements are surrounded in the formation of a new idea by other new elements.

If a latent idea remains in the margin of consciousness and exerts an influence, which not merely modifies but determines the series of associations, and leads up to the focalisation of the latent idea, we have a case of predetermined association, which, when noted by investigators, has invariably become confused with mediate association. Here there is an element or group of elements, persisting in the margin of consciousness, which is gradually maturing and becoming focalised into groups of elements comprising an idea which ultimately dominates consciousness. In some cases three, four, and five ideas have been named before this takes place, and we have here a reversed form of association. Four subjects noted the experience on different occasions, and it is not to be confused with the common experience of apprehending the present contents of consciousness as part of a larger whole where we are conscious of its existence but not of what it is.

The notes further show that the common conscious elements may be predominantly visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, or kinæsthetic, or a complex or compound of these in character, while to this may be added an indication of the fact that the transition, incipient as it is, may in many cases be reduced to a condition which is in the last analysis one of the motor nervous system. Ht., for instance, finds that the words all pass over into innervations of the organs of speech and "are accompanied by the impulse to make the sound," stating later, "they hang on the tongue." The following is one of the series given which represents rather an extreme case, Taft, taffy, toffy; tough, rough, ruff; buff, bluff, tough; muff, duff, tuff. Br., who also gave a large percentage of verbal associations, finds that "some part of each word seems to linger on the tongue with motor sensations till the next comes." "I am subject," he adds, "more or less frequently to verbal automatism of this auditory incipient motor type." Ro., who has many auditory associations, reports "they are always accompanied by motor images, together with many associations." A changing of orientation is a common accompaniment, with statements of the feeling of the impulse to turn in various directions. For F., who is predominantly of the motor type, we have an example where the rhythmic ticking of a clock fades into the rhythmic watching of a boat rising and falling on the water.

The notes would seem to indicate that there is no idea without a motor fringe, and also that these elements of incipient impulses to movement may accompany the elements of transition, and are observed introspectively by the subjects. They are therefore data for psychology. Do they influence or direct the associations? In short, are they the processes which connect and which determine the associations?

F. states, "There seem to have been waves of motor sensations. Such waves may start with a word and carry one in faint mimicry through the whole succession of bodily sensations that one experienced in that event, and then may come a relapse until other stronger currents appear." Here we are face to face with the dynamics of association, the most fundamental and important problem of brain association. Have these phenomena of ideational images "acquired by contact a kind of magnetism which causes the one to attract the other and have, so to speak, become magnetic?" (Zanotti.) Or are they on the other hand independent of all force and "merely ideas of antecedence and sequence only?" (Mill.) While there is no mention of a magnetic force, the notes and results all show that the ideas are systematically conditioned in a way which cannot be explained by the contiguity of the objects. The motor elements play the deciding role. Ht. emphasises the influence of ideated movement when he writes, "Kinæsthetic. Slow regular tramping on snowshoes brought up the characteristic swing of arms, and therewith the idea (sensations of weight) of the stick (or stock) which I have generally carried on Norwegian snowshoes. Transition from Vermont to the Black Forest by association with snowshoeing in both places. Real sensations in play were free breath, movements in chest (kinæsthetic), fresh air (olfactory), cold (thermal), and emotion of emotional strength." Again, "Looking up at sun suggested general ideas of expansion of attention and with this breath comes the idea, breezes"; another subject adds, "A tendency to imitate the sounds of syllables and this leads on to a train of associations"; another, "A slight feeling of sudden changed impulse"; another, "A sort of motor after-image came back and took the foreground"; and F. goes further when he states, "Ideationally my hand wandered to the upper right-hand corner of the page, then suddenly the auditory image of 47 came up as if whispered to me." All of which indicate that some ideas at least depend for their entrance into consciousness upon motor reactions.

Passing to the more refined reactions expressed in emotions we find that they are not merely accompanying coloring influences, but also often actual determining factors. All of the subjects notice at some time a coloring atmosphere from an emotion, but others find that "the growing word is rather felt emotionally than definitely formulated," and we have "a nameless idea, largely feeling-tone" (Ht.); or the words may "all come as parts of a growing feeling, an indistinct though strong state of mind." (J.) The same subject observed, "The previous word may create a mood or feeling which in the main determines the associations; a group of words is dependent upon strong accompanying feeling--there is a summation and a discharge while the next word has been accumulating force" (J.), and we have a form of summation; or in other words, "a general mood accumulated while several words were in mind at once, then all dropped and another general feeling came to the front with an accumulation of other words." (F.) Here we have a typical example of constellation where all the words and ideas are implicitly present as a total attitude or disposition, the elements of which become successively focalised into a series of associated images. The last subject finds that "the emotional atmosphere often controls the associations." Indeed, it would seem that occasionally for some subjects this strong accompanying undercurrent of undifferentiated emotional feeling is capable of bringing about trains of thought independent of any logical connection. K. finds "the feeling to carry one on"; H. finds the "point of departure the interesting idea"; all find that the words change with the disposition, as may be verified by a study of the lists of associations.

We are forced to conclude that the impulses to movement or other emotional attitudes may act as determining factors in association, which extended to an hypothesis would mean that the mode of transition in the associated series is in the last analysis to be found in delicate incipient motor tendencies to action, the psychic concomitants of which are observable; that psychic states are both as to their unity and organisation consequences of motor reactions which are implicitly present as parts of a total reaction to the present situation. It is these motor tendencies to action which determine what idea shall enter consciousness. Just in so far as they become released they become prolonged, accentuated, and form a nucleus for the new idea. To speak of association independent of motor elements is merely to make an empirical classification of successive states of consciousness.

There remains a psychical phenomenon which must be satisfactorily accounted for before we go farther. An element of an idea, an idea or a series of ideas may occupy consciousness to the exclusion of others. If the second starting-point were not given, the associations would undoubtedly follow the given one. Inhibition must then be one form of "obstructed association," the inhibiting ideas being present to the exclusion of the inhibited. But are we thus forced to say inhibition is the "negative side of the association process," claiming that all ideas not in consciousness are inhibited, and thus being forced to conclude the conscious idea is inhibiting an unconscious idea, which cannot exist (by the very definition and presuppositions of psychology) until it is an object of consciousness. This would mean that content of consciousness and inhibition are identical. On the other hand, the notes and exemplifying facts of the tables show Dr. Breese's fallacious position when he concludes that "because, obeying the laws of association, the train of ideas takes one direction rather than another can hardly be considered sufficient ground to hold that the other possible train of ideas is inhibited."[137] He has overlooked the possibility of two or more trains of associations having been started and the associations of one starting-point are excluded from entering the focus of consciousness by the direction of the given series. Inhibition would then be the negative side of fusion. The explanation must, as has already been demonstrated, be psycho-physical in character. If these impulses to action have actually been observed by the subjects we are justified in concluding that just as in physiological inhibition one action excludes another, so the correlative tendencies to movement of one idea exclude others.

By. observed that the image of the starting-point lingered and inhibited subsequent ideas. The implication here, from our previous reasoning, would be that not the ideational images, as such, but the physiological motor concomitants, persisted and excluded others, and this is why disparate terms give a "shock to the nervous system" (A.), "require different lines of expression" (A.); and "one has more momentum," as so many report. This would explain why the associations of a new starting-point inhibit the associations of a former one; for as the motor nervous impulses tend to work themselves out into action, the reaction of the previous impulse will be suppressed by those of a new impulse which enters, by the conditions of these experiments, an attentive consciousness. Thus the prepotent impulses to action are the conditioning factors in mental inhibition.

All this indicates that the basis of habit which has been the universal principle of explanation of associations is inadequate. As Münsterberg has pointed out, contrary to what we mean by habit, either idea may bring to consciousness the other, in a manner independent of the order of the original presentation. Extending our hypothesis to include the formation of associations, the conclusion will be that in order for two ideas to become associated they must be together in consciousness, each as parts of a total experience, a total attitude; the motor reactions of the ideas must be parts of a more comprehensive reaction which includes both as simultaneous correlated motor impulses: when, in future time, the reactions of the one are reëxperienced, there is a sequence of infinitely delicate and complex impulses to movement, and any tendency toward such reaction tends to reproduce the whole of which it is a part, as each reaction is more or less bound up in the integrity of the whole central nervous system.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 133: Cordes, G.: Experimentelle Untersuchung über Association, Phil. Studien, vol. 17, p. 30.]

[Footnote 134: Scripture, E. W.: Elements of Experimental Phonetics, p. 142.]

[Footnote 135: Calkins, M. W.: Memory and Association, Psychol. Rev., vol. 5, p. 451.]

[Footnote 136: Calkins, M. W.: Association, Psy. Monograph, no. 2, p. 46.]

[Footnote 137: Breese, B. B.: On Inhibition, Psy. Rev. Monograph, vol. 3, p. 15.]

DISSOCIATION

BY C. H. TOLL

The purpose of this investigation, of which the following gives a preliminary report, was to compare the tendency to associate by contiguity, with the tendency to associate by similarity.

In every series of stimuli to which one gives attention there is tendency to association by contiguity. But some similarity among certain elements of the series may produce a dissociation of the given elements into two series with some bond of similarity in each. This is a matter of common experience, as when you find you can read your newspaper and listen to your neighbors' conversation at the same time, understanding both, although the actual order in which the several words are perceived would form a meaningless mixture.

We may say dissociation is always accomplished by a tendency to association by similarity overcoming the constant tendency to association by contiguity. Study of the relative efficacy of the two may therefore be called a study of dissociation. The tendency to associate by contiguity might be measured in two ways.

First, when one attempts to learn a series in exactly the given order, the number of errors in the series as recollected may be taken as an inverse indication of the strength of association by contiguity. The three kinds of error possible in nearly all of the experiments were Omissions, Displacements, and Imperfections. All of these three have been tabulated. But the number of elements omitted seems considerably the most reliable as an indication of the degree of inadequacy of the associative tendency. The cases of displaced or imperfect elements are comparatively few: moreover, Displacements and Imperfections are not mutually exclusive categories. A single element may be both imperfectly recollected and wrongly placed in the recollected series. On the whole, it seems that the number of given elements which were omitted in the recalled series is the most positive and reliable of the errors. Our conclusions are based on the Omissions.

Second, when one makes no attempt to learn the series, simply giving attention to each element as it comes, and afterward lets the elements recur spontaneously, the number of cases in which a recollected element is followed by an element given contiguously may be taken as a direct indication of the strength of association by contiguity.

Tendency to association by similarity can evidently be measured in the same two ways, by counting errors when one purposes to learn the series as two groups of similar elements, and by counting sequences of similar elements when one avoids any effort to learn the series and recollection is spontaneous.

In the first seven experiments we used the first method. The errors made when the purpose is to associate by contiguity can then be compared with the errors made when the purpose is to associate by similarity, an equal number of series, given under the same conditions, and of identical character, being given in each case.

In the last four experiments we have used the second method. The number of sequences of elements given contiguously can then be compared with the number of sequences of similar elements.

Five subjects have coöperated in this, but the experiments were strictly individual, one observer being alone in the room with the experimenter. Each test lasted about an hour. As a matter of course, the results have been calculated for each of the five subjects and their agreements and disagreements have been carefully considered. But as this first report is to indicate merely the general tendency, we give here at first only the average of the five persons.

The experiments have varied as to the kind of elements used, the manner of presentation, the time allowed, and the manner of recording the recollected series. But throughout each experiment the series were of one identical type, while the individual elements were altered in each series.

In the experiments where the series were to be learned, some in the given order, some dissociated by similarity, it was found rather confusing to turn from one method to the other; so several consecutive series were learned by one method, and then several by the other, four alternations being made each hour to neutralize any effect of practice or of fatigue.

The series were of course different in kind in the several experiments, but were usually of eight or of ten elements. Half of this number had some distinct characteristic in common, the other half some other characteristic. In some experiments these elements were alternated, in some arranged irregularly.

In the first eight experiments the subject wrote down the elements recalled, as soon as the series had been given. In the last three the subject spoke the elements recalled.

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Harvard Psychological Studies, Volume 2Chapter XXIV: Section IV: , 1. The experiments of Table IX, C, repeat those of A with (4)

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