Chapter XII: Introduction: To Book the Fourth

The Treaty of Paris in 1814 had materially assisted to restore Europe to its condition of a quarter of a century before; but the new spirit of republicanism, inspired by the doctrines of the French Revolution, had in most cases forced upon the restored Sovereigns a growing regard for the comfort and welfare of their subjects.

Spain was an unfortunate exception of this happy state of affairs. Ferdinand, at best little more than a buffoon, celebrated his return to power by renouncing the Constitution of 1812 and persecuting its chief supporters. The Spaniards, blind to everything but their veneration of the name of Monarchy, gave him their entire confidence. This unfortunately was completely misplaced; the state of the people became as it was in the worst period of Charles IV.’s reign, and the country again became a prey to the rapacity of favourites and the extortions of an unscrupulous clergy.

The re-establishment of the Bourbons in France commenced more peacefully, but rumours of serious disaffection were soon rife in Paris. Louis XVIII. had granted a charter on his return, framed on very liberal and enlightened lines, but his weakness in pandering to the emigrants and the clergy created much disaffection, especially in the army.

The Congress held at Vienna had many difficulties with which to contend; and the meetings barely escaped an abrupt termination. A secret combination of England, France, and Austria was formed to resist the designs of Russia and Prussia on Poland and Saxony; but fortunately matters were successfully arranged, and before the chance for further dissension could arise, complete unanimity was restored by the news of the escape of Napoleon from Elba. The deposed Emperor, who had received information of the fact that the people of France were not satisfied with their present rulers, landed near Cannes on February 26, and advanced north. The country rallied to him as one man, and within a month he entered Paris. Any hopes, however, that he may have had of a peaceful retention of France were soon dispelled. The Allied Sovereigns at once renewed their pledges of combined action; Napoleon was proclaimed an outlaw, and steps were concerted to cope with the common danger. Murat took up arms in Italy to assist his former master, but was easily overthrown by the Austrians, and his forces dispersed. Napoleon, preferring to fight outside the borders of France, advanced into Belgium at the head of 129,000 men. The campaign, which lasted less than a week, terminated at Waterloo. Napoleon fled first to Paris, and afterwards to Rochefort, whence he hoped to escape to the United States accompanied by a few faithful adherents. He was, however, unable to carry out his design, and in despair went on board an English man-of-war, throwing himself on the mercy of the Prince Regent. The British Government, determined on this occasion to choose some spot whence there could be no possibility of return, fixed on St. Helena, and Napoleon ended his days there in 1821.

Louis XVIII. was restored to the throne on the re-occupation of Paris by the Allies. The second Treaty of Paris was signed in November, after much discussion as to the terms to be imposed. By the most important clauses, France was to pay indemnities amounting to about £40,000,000, and to defray the cost of an occupation of the northern provinces by an Allied force of 150,000 men for five years. In the meanwhile, the members of the Congress of Vienna had continued and terminated their endeavours to effect a lasting settlement of Europe. The kingdom of Poland was included in the dominions of the Czar; half Saxony and the Duchy of Warsaw were joined to Prussia; the smaller German states were federated; and other international questions, such as the Abolition of the Slave Trade, received serious attention.

The restoration of the Bourbons was the signal for a political reaction throughout France, which in parts of the country developed tendencies reminiscent of the Revolution. Royalist outbreaks took place in the south on the receipt of the news of Napoleon’s overthrow, and continued with violence until forcibly repressed with the assistance of the army of occupation. The election of the Chamber, which took place in August, 1815, resulted in a complete victory for the Ultra-Royalists, to the almost entire exclusion of the Liberal and Republican parties. Fouché and Talleyrand were dismissed, and a new Ministry was formed under the Duc de Richelieu, which at once took in hand the prosecution of those men excepted by name from the Acts of Amnesty. Most of them had been sensible enough to leave the country, but some had remained, and of these Ney and Labedoyère paid the penalty for their temerity. The policy of the new Ministry, whose hands were forced by the violence of their supporters, became more and more advanced, and within two years the _rôles_ of the two parties seemed reversed, the _Ultras_ attempting to weaken the Royal power, and the Liberals to support the monarchy. The allied forces, under the supreme command of Wellington, continued their occupation of the French territories until 1818, when they were withdrawn.

The final termination of a war which had increased the English National Debt by over £550,000,000, raised hopes in the breasts of the people of England, which unfortunately proved to be fallacious. The nation expected that an alleviation of the grievous burden of taxation from which it had been suffering would be accompanied by a revival of trade. The year 1815 certainly seemed to foretell happier times, but the following year witnessed a reaction which plunged the poorer portion of the population in the direst distress. The propertied and influential classes, terrified at the excesses of the French Revolution, strained every nerve to discount all popular movements. A Corn Law, passed in 1815, forbidding the importation of corn until the price reached 80_s._ a quarter, as well as the repeal of the Property Tax, increased the destitution of the agricultural labourers and dwellers in the manufacturing towns. The discontent and agitation were encouraged by William Cobbett’s paper, _The Weekly Register_, which advocated universal suffrage and annual parliaments. The Regent, on his return from the House of Lords in 1816, was assailed by stones, while riots and seditious meetings were common throughout the country. Lord Sidmouth, the Home Secretary, covering the weakness of Government with a specious appearance of power, carried the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act, and originated other arbitrary forms of repression. These, however, were insufficient to quell the disturbances. Meetings were held in all parts of England, and the celebrated riot near Manchester in 1819, known as the “Massacre of Peterloo,” raised a storm of protests against the stringent enactments carried by Lord Liverpool’s Administration. The laws, however, in restraint of sedition, termed “The Six Acts,” which were passed during the same year, had their effect; and a revival of trade in 1820 caused a momentary lull in the radical campaign for reform.

Many deaths occurred in the Royal Family during 1817 and the three succeeding years. In 1817 Princess Charlotte, the Prince Regent’s only child, who had married Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg during the preceding year, died in childbirth; and a year later occurred the death of Queen Charlotte. Early in January, 1820, the Duke of Kent died, leaving an only daughter, destined to succeed to the throne as Queen Victoria; and before the end of the month George III. terminated his miserable and sorely afflicted existence.

The accession of the Prince Regent again brought into public notice the unhappy dissensions between him and his wife. He entirely refused to allow her name to be inserted in the Prayer Book; and on her return to England to assert her rights as Queen Consort, he compelled the Government to bring the matter forward in Parliament. Lord Liverpool, realising that the measure would increase George IV.’s unpopularity with his subjects, implored him to be content with moderate counsels; but the King, firm in his resolve, refused to be satisfied with anything less than a divorce. Queen Caroline’s arrival in London was little less than a triumphal procession, and demonstrated clearly the sympathy of the country with her cause. After a secret Committee had reported on the case, a bill was brought forward against her in the House of Lords, in the summer of 1820, but was dropped for good and all in October, when the Government majority, on the third reading, dwindled to nine. The unhappy lady did not long survive, for she died of internal inflammation early in August, 1821, after a fruitless attempt, not three weeks before, to take her place at her husband’s Coronation.

The five years which succeeded the termination of the war on the Continent passed without any striking incident; but in 1820 movements were set on foot in several of the Mediterranean States, notably Spain, Italy, and Greece, to obtain more liberal forms of government. In Spain the restoration of the Constitution of 1812, withdrawn by the arbitrary decree of Ferdinand VII. in 1814, was successfully demanded, and the movement spread with like results to Portugal.

The insurgents at Naples were not equally fortunate in their attempts to diminish the tyrannical powers of their King, Ferdinand IV. The question was discussed by a Congress of European Sovereigns at Laybach, who decided that Ferdinand should be allowed to retain his arbitrary powers uncurtailed, and that an Austrian army should be sent to enforce their resolution. Great Britain took no part in this despotic action of the Powers; and the exemption of Spain from external interference was chiefly due to a protest from the English Government against the right of the Allied Powers to intervene in the internal affairs and government of other States.