Chapter II: Foreword

The growing demand for various forms of manual training in the lower elementary grades has led to the publication of this little volume of “problems in elementary bookbinding,” based on the work done in the fifth grade of the Boston public schools, where their practicability has been fully demonstrated. Some of the most valuable suggestions have been obtained from the teachers and are an outgrowth of their classroom experience. Nothing is here presented which is simply theoretical.

To Mr. John C. Brodhead, a deep appreciation of his keen criticism, his helpful suggestions, and his never-failing interest cannot be too strongly expressed. For their valued suggestions, thanks are due the teachers of Boston whose efficient labors have insured the success of the course. Acknowledgment is also made of indebtedness to the Sloyd Training School for material, and to Miss Helen E. Cleaves and Mr. Ludwig Frank for their interest and assistance in the details pertaining to design.

THE AUTHOR.

Among the various materials which lend themselves readily to a manual training course with large classes are those of the bookbinders’ craft. They are inexpensive, easily handled, and require no tools or equipment that cannot be used in an ordinary classroom. The operations necessary in the use of these materials not only give excellent training in manual dexterity, but present remarkable opportunities for the practical application of studies in proportion, space division, color, lettering and applied design. The craft itself is one that comes in touch with everyday life and any skill acquired in the use of these materials is of permanent value.

The lessons to be outlined in the following series presuppose some instruction in paper-folding, cardboard construction, and simple mechanical drawing. Though desirable, this is not essential. While in some ways better suited to the middle grades of the elementary schools, selection may be made from the lessons here outlined which will give excellent training to the upper grades in those schools where the curriculum does not include shop-work, cooking, or sewing.

To secure this flexibility of the course, each problem is outlined in several ways, with varying degrees of difficulty. The selection should depend upon the grade in which it is to be given. Some of the more dexterous pupils may be able to work out a problem in several ways.

In each lesson outlined, there is a chance for the exercise of individuality in the details of the model as to size, shape, decoration, and color. Concerning choice of material, it seems wiser that this should be exercised by the teacher or supervisor rather than by the pupil.

The object of the course is educational, not industrial, therefore, those methods which stimulate inventiveness, ability to plan simple work, and dependence on one’s own initiative are most desirable.

The directions given under each problem have been so worded that they call for the greatest amount of thought and initiative on the part of the worker. The use of such instruction develops power to think, to plan constructive work and to carry it to completion. At first, it may be necessary for the teacher to elaborate some points especially in connection with the working drawings or sketches, but after a little training, each pupil should be able to lay out and cut all parts from his own drawings; as the work progresses, he should depend less and less upon the teacher’s assistance in making his plans.

High standards of work and correct processes should always be set before the pupil, and these are best assured by the teacher becoming thoroughly conversant not only with the general construction of an article to be made, but with the best methods of securing neat and accurate results. Eventually, the pupil’s mental attainments will show in the tangible work of his hands.

Two hours each week for one school year may profitably be devoted to this work. In the upper grades some of the easier problems should be omitted, and more time devoted to actually bookbinding, introducing as much variety as time and materials will allow.

EQUIPMENT

This equipment is sufficient for the whole course and should last for several years. A strong wooden box with compartments insures an orderly arrangement of tools and prevents breakage. Several rooms may use one equipment and by means of the box, transportation is greatly facilitated. Some system of distributing and collecting material should be devised, and not more than five minutes consumed in making preparations for work.

One for each pupil

Rule
Pr. 6-inch Scissors
Pencil, medium
Tapestry Needle, No. 17
Wooden Triangle, 45°, 7-inch

For class use, the number to be governed by the way in which they are to be used, by the amount of money to be expended. For twenty-five pupils, 12 paste-brushes and 5 punches answer very well.

Paste-brushes 1 inch flat
Eyelet Punches

One of each helpful, but not necessary

Paper Cutter, 12 inch to 15 inch
Straight Edge
Large Shears

MATERIALS

The materials necessary for this course may be purchased from any of the large school supply houses, or from dealers in bookbinders’ supplies. Before an order is given, it is recommended that the materials be seen, at least in sample, as names sometimes vary in different commercial houses. The sizes and prices are also liable to variation. In selecting colored papers, avoid brilliant hues, and choose soft colors.

FOR STIFF FOUNDATION

Approximate
size
Newsboard 26” × 38”

Newsboard is in reality a box board, and differs from binders’ board in the quality of the fibre. But for such articles as are described in this course, it is the more satisfactory of the two. Both newsboard and binders’ board are sold in bundles each weighing 50 lbs. The board is numbered according to the number of sheets in the bundle. Thus No. 50 means that the bundle contains 50 sheets. Board of this number is light in weight, easily handled by small children, and is well suited to the articles here described. Most book covers are made of No. 30 (30 sheets to the bundle), which is twice as thick as No. 60. The sheets of newsboard are rather large to be handled conveniently. If desired, they will be cut in quarters by the dealer at slight expense.

FOR COVERING FOUNDATION

Vellum de luxe 38” wide

Vellum de luxe is a sized and tinted cloth of an inexpensive grade of cotton, which is quite suitable for the purposes of this course. If material of a higher grade is desired, art canvas, art vellum, etc., may be purchased. These come in a great variety of colors. It is better to use but one color in the class for economy’s sake, but, if this is not to be considered, different articles may be of different colors. Choose quiet colors such as “old blue,” “dull green,” “deep red.”

Cover Paper (light weight) 22” × 28”

WALL PAPER

By observing a harmony of coloring between paper and vellum some beautiful results may be obtained. If one is fortunate enough to secure a “sample book” there is a chance for great variety. If it must be purchased outright two or three well chosen patterns will suffice.

FOR LINING Approximate
size

Marbled Paper 20” × 25”
Bark wove Paper 24” × 36”

FOR LIMP COVERS

Screenings 24” × 36”
Cover Paper 22” × 36”
Kraft Paper 24” × 36”
Drawing Paper (gray) 9” × 12”
Red Rope manila 24” × 36”
Oak tag stock 9” × 12”
Tough check 22” × 28”

FOR INSIDE

Page Paper 17” × 22”
Page Paper 8½” × 11”
Drawing Paper (white) 9” × 12”
Drawing Paper (gray) 9” × 12”
Drawing Paper (man.) 9” × 12”
Newspaper (white) 6” × 9”

FOR STITCHING AND SEWING

Linen Thread 40 yds. to skein
Silk 4 yds. to skein
Raffia (plain) 4 oz. package
Raffia (colored) 4 oz. package

PASTE

Most of the various pastes on the market serve very well the needs of these problems. A far less expensive and quite as satisfactory a paste may be made from wheat or rice flour provided one has the simplest facilities for boiling. Take two tablespoonfuls of flour and wet with warm water. Over this pour one pint of boiling water and boil three minutes. ½ teaspoonful of powdered alum added to this will keep it sweet for some time. If an extra strong paste is desired a small quantity of glue may be added to the paste while it is still hot. If solid glue is used this should first be dissolved in hot water.

ACCESSORIES

Eyelets 250 in box

Purchase eyelets of the same make as the eyelet punch (see list of equipment), since those of a different make are not always an exact fit.

Macreme cord 8 oz. ball
Tape (white) 4 yds. in a piece
Tape (colored) 10 yds. in a piece
Stay Tape (cloth) ¾” wide
“ “ (paper) ¾” “
“ “ (cloth) 1” “
“ “ (paper) 1” “
“ “ (cloth) 1¼” “
“ “ (paper) 1¼” “
Super 1 yd. wide
Bookbinder’s Twine ½ lb. ball
Head Bands Different widths

Gummed Tissue Roll or Envelope of
5 or 6 yds.

Problem I

BOOKLET

TIME: 4 hours.

MATERIALS: For the inside, any of the paper so listed.
For the cover, any of the paper so listed.
For stitching, any material so listed.

The simplest form of a book consists of a cover and inside sheets in a single fold, sewed through the center. Choose materials from the lists given.

Three definite methods of working out this problem are here outlined, arranged in the order of their difficulty. Other combinations will suggest themselves.

METHOD A. First determine the purpose for which the booklet is to be used, and decide on shape and size of page best suited to this purpose. If for spelling or pocket memoranda, it may be long and narrow; if for language a larger page is desirable; or if for map work, the size and shape of the maps should be considered. Take any sheet of paper and experiment in folding to obtain satisfactory size and proportions.

A single sheet of paper folded through the center is called a folio. This sheet will be twice the width of a page and of the same length. (Commercially, a folio is made from paper varying from 22 × 16 to 44 × 32. Therefore, books to which this term is applied are generally of large size.)

With pencil and rule draw a plan of the open folio and properly dimension the drawing. (See Plate I.)

If there has been no previous training in simple mechanical drawing, the use of extension and dimension lines, arrow heads, and the proper placing of figures should be explained. If some proficiency in this kind of drawing has been acquired, a freehand sketch may take the place of an accurate drawing. Plate II shows some of the line conventions used in making a working drawing.

In the same manner as for the pages, draw a plan of the cover, which should project beyond the pages from ⅛ to ¼ of an inch. Lay out and cut the cover and one sheet for the inside, keeping carefully on the lines.

Having cut one sheet of the inside, lay the sheet on as many pieces of the paper as are needed, (from three to seven make a booklet of desirable thickness); then make a hole with a pin or needle at each corner, piercing all at one time. On each sheet draw the four sides, using rule and pencil. This is easier than to measure each one. The folded sheets should be placed one inside the other to form the inside of the booklet, and the whole placed inside the folded cover, with the edges of the cover projecting slightly.

With a needle make a hole through the center of the fold, and another near each end of the fold (from one-half an inch to an inch and a half from the end) according to the size of the booklet, as shown in Plate III. With thread or raffia sew through the center hole, from the inside out, back to the inside through an end hole, outside through the center hole, inside through the other end hole, and tie the ends in a square knot (see illustration, Plate IV) near the center of the fold. Other equally satisfactory methods of sewing may be worked out.

B. Determine the purpose of the booklet first and then its size and shape. As in A draw plans of the inside and cover. With rule and pencil lay out parts on materials to be used. Cut and sew as in A.

Simple lettering on the cover adds much to the appearance of the booklet. Choose a title appropriate to its contemplated use, as “NOTES,” “SKETCHES,” etc., which should be executed in rather large Roman capitals. On a separate sheet, mark out an oblong of height and width desired for the title and practise on this. If title is long, make letters narrow, if short, letters may be broadened, to fill up more space. When satisfactory results are obtained, cut out and place on the cover, moving up and down to determine its best position. The base line of the title should be placed below the top at one-fifth to one-quarter of the entire distance from the top to the bottom of the cover. After the position is determined, the title should be transferred either by tracing or copying. The pupil’s name in much smaller capitals should be worked out in the same manner and placed below the center with a somewhat wider margin at the base than at the top. Do not enclose the title in an oblong or other figure. A single or double line as a border around the cover looks well, if carefully done. (See illustration, Plate V.)

C. For the cover use gray drawing paper, tinted, other materials as desired.

Draw plans as in A and B. A larger surface than required for the cover should be tinted before it is marked out, so that any streaking along the edge may be cut off. To mix a wash of the color selected, put two or three tablespoonfuls of water in the water-cup and add a little paint until the desired tone is produced, being quite sure to have enough to cover the whole surface. Try to have the wash clean, not muddy, and beware of too much paint! The colors should be soft, not crude, and somewhat neutralized by the addition of the complementary color. The best results are produced by the use of green, pale yellow, brown, dull orange, and red. Blue is very likely to streak and is seldom satisfactory.

When ready to apply the wash, place the paper on an inclined surface--45° or more from the horizontal. A sheet of heavy cardboard or a book answers this purpose admirably. With a full brush make a horizontal stroke across the top of the paper. The second stroke should be just below this leaving no dry spots between. Being careful to keep the brush full of paint, continue in this manner until the entire surface is covered. The surplus amount of paint which will settle along the lower edge should be taken up with the brush, which has first been squeezed dry between the thumb and finger. When the paper is dry, mark out the cover and cut. Cut out the leaves and sew as in A. The cover may be lettered as in B.

SCRAP BOOK

A. This form of book is excellent for a thin scrap book. The pages may be of any size but if definite ideas are lacking it is advised that the size of an ordinary magazine be taken as a basis. Wrapping paper may be used for both leaves and cover.

B. Sometimes it is desirable to take two or three stories from magazines and fasten the pages together, inclosing all in covers. Trim neatly the edges of such leaves where they were torn from the binding and assemble them in proper order. For each pair cut a strip of thin paper of exactly the same length as the page and say one inch to one inch and a half in width. To each of these strips paste two leaves. When all have been pasted and dried assemble again and stitch through the backs as already shown.

Problem II

A HOLDER FOR THE PARTS OF A MODEL

Before proceeding further, some kind of a permanent holder should be provided to keep all together the various pieces of the model. This prevents the confusion and loss of time incident to passing several kinds of materials each by itself.

One lesson might be used for the making of a portfolio for this purpose, cut from screenings or heavy wrapping paper, and patterned after an envelope, from 6” × 9” to 9” × 12” in size. (See Plate VI.) The contents are more securely held by providing some kind of a fastener. The following method is a good one: In the center of one side of the flap plan to punch a hole. This should first be re-enforced by cutting from heavy paper a circle of ³⁄₁₆ to ⅜ radius and pasting it in the correct place. Through both thicknesses punch the hole. Into this insert twine, first looping it in the centre and then passing both ends through the loop. Use this to tie the envelope.

If large pads of paper are used in the schoolroom, their cardboard backs may be utilized. Take two of the same size, punch holes along three sides of each, near the edges and lace them together. If one of the long sides of the resulting holder has been left open, materials can be removed with greater ease than if a short side is so used. A set of holders thus made is very durable.

New paper bags make good holders although less desirable than either of the other two.

Problem III

MOUNTS AND PADS

TIME: 6 hours.

MATERIALS: Newsboard, vellum, and paper for memorandum pad, or calendar, or pad to be mounted.

We shall now begin to deal with materials that are more exclusively employed in bookbinding work. The simple articles considered at first are not books; but because the processes involved and the materials used will be used later in the more difficult work of binding a real book, they are made a part of this course.

The wise teacher will become somewhat familiar with handling the required materials before attempting to give instruction. It is recommended that two or more models from each problem be made by the teacher before selecting one for the class.

The articles described in Problem III (See Plate VII) consist of a foundation of a single piece of newsboard, covered back and front with a bookbinding cloth.

A. MOUNT OF A CALENDAR OR PICTURE

First secure the article to be mounted and then determine the size and shape most desirable for the mount. Never make the mount first and then attempt to find something to fit it.

To determine the size of the mount, place the calendar or picture on a sheet of paper and find the most pleasing margins by laying a pencil on each side of the article. Increase or decrease this margin by moving the pencils back and forth until a satisfactory position is found, as shown in Plate VIII. Indicate this position by a line on each side. In the same manner, establish top and bottom margins. The margin at the top may equal that at the side, or be a trifle wider or narrower;[1] the one at the bottom may equal the side margins or be wider, but never narrower, and always greater than the top margin. Draw lines for top and bottom and the size of the foundation is indicated. A fraction of an inch may be added or subtracted to give even measurements.

[1] In a vertical sheet, wider; in a horizontal sheet, narrower.

Working drawings should now be made of the completed model, showing the location of the calendar, also of the front and back.

Make them either accurately or freehand as described in Problem I. If the latter method is used, some sense of proportion should be observed. That is, do not draw 3 inches as long as 6 inches, nor 4 inches longer than 7 inches. The size of the foundation has already been determined. The front covering should be ½ inch larger on each side than the foundation, to allow for laps which are to fold onto the back of the newsboard. The back covering should be from ¹⁄₁₆ to ⅛ of an inch smaller than the foundation on each side, as the finished product looks much neater if no raw edge is visible from the front.

In Plate IX, the first drawing is of the face of the completed model showing the location of the calendar. This also shows the size of the foundation. The other two drawings show the size of the two pieces of vellum. If the first drawing seems too complicated, omit the location of the calendar, and draw and dimension only the outside rectangle to give the size of the foundation.

The pieces of material given out should be a little larger than the finished size, although unnecessary waste should be avoided. No attempt should be made to cut these pieces carefully or regularly. Each pupil should be led to depend on his own initiative in the use of the rule and triangle. An irregular edge which is not a guide, is more educational than straightedges and right angles which are of considerable assistance.

With rule, triangle, and pencil, carefully lay out each part from the drawings already made, and cut the coverings with the scissors.[2] The foundation is more successfully cut with the paper cutter, as to cut it with scissors is a very difficult task for little hands and likely to loosen the scissors at the joint. The most desirable way is for each pupil to cut his own newsboard, in which case the ruler fastened to the cutter may be used to insure the correct size without any preliminary measuring. If the cutter is deemed unsafe for the pupils’ use, the proper size may be marked on the newsboard with pencil and the pieces cut by a large boy or by the teacher.

[2] Selvage should never be allowed to remain on a covering of vellum. A “raw edge” pastes down more closely and is, therefore, less apparent. Vellum tears very easily lengthwise, and a torn edge may be allowed if it is to be covered. If not to be covered, all edges should invariably be cut.

When the pieces have all been cut, place the newsboard on the back side of the front piece of vellum, with the margins equal, and draw around it. Cover the surface inside the pencil lines with a thin, even coat of paste.

Much of the success of the work depends on the pasting and rubbing. The paste is of the right consistency when put up by the dealer, and if it dries somewhat after being opened, a little water thoroughly stirred in will make it all right. The brush well filled with paste should be passed over the surface of the covering material with long even strokes. No dry spots should be left, and especial pains should be taken to cover the surface close to the pencil lines. Look across the pasted surface toward the light to see if it is entirely covered; looking directly down upon it does not reveal the dry places. Rub the brush rather heavily over the surface to make the paste sink into the cloth.

While pasting, several sheets of newspaper are invaluable to protect the desk, the model, and the fingers. With a few quick strokes of the card-cutter, cut off the folds of a newspaper, leaving loose sheets the size of half or a quarter page. Each desk should have several sheets, placed one on top of another. When the top sheet has become sticky, discard it. A perfectly clean surface beneath it is ready to be used in the same way. Press the newsboard on the pasted surface, turn it over,[3] and rub it down very hard on the right side of the vellum. When rubbing the vellum on the right side, a small piece of cloth for each pupil prevents finger marks, and enables the pupil to rub harder as the cloth protects the hand.

[3] When turning over any part of the model which has a pasted surface, take hold near the center as far as possible, as handling by the edges or corners is likely to remove paste from the places where it is most needed.

Before pasting projecting parts, the corners should be cut. Two methods are shown in the illustrations. In the first, two adjacent projections are turned onto the back of the foundation. Be careful that they fit very closely to the sides of the newsboard, press down with the fingers, and hold them very firmly. At the corner will be a surplus piece which should be pinched to stand upright. Slanting the scissors very slightly upward, cut from the corner toward the center. (See Plate X). The second method is to make slanting cuts from the outside of the vellum toward the corners of the newsboard. (See Plate XI). Apply paste to the projecting sides, fold over and rub down; treat the ends in the same manner.

If it is desired that the completed mount shall hang on the wall, make a loop of ribbon, tape, or vellum. If tape or ribbon is used, choose the color very carefully; that which matches the vellum is the best choice; but, if a contrast is preferred, choose a soft color which has some quality in harmony with the vellum. Paste this loop to the back of the foundation, allowing it to project above the top. Apply paste to the back covering and rub it down very firmly, being careful that no loose edges are left. Instead of pasting on a loop, a hole may be punched near the top with the eyelet punch, and an eyelet inserted. This should be done after the back is pasted on.

According to plan, paste on the calendar or picture. Dry all under a weight. If several mounts are to be placed under the same weight, it is better that each should be separated from the others by a sheet of blotting paper, or several thicknesses of newspaper. Allow them to stand over night. In the morning they will be found sufficiently pressed.

B. MOUNT FOR MEMORANDUM PAD

Secure a small pad, and plan a mount to extend beyond the pad ⅛ inch or more on each side. Draw plans, work out, and paste as in A. Instead of a loop by which to suspend the pad, make a holder for a pencil to be placed on the right side of the mount. Cut a strip of vellum one-half or three-quarters the length of the mount. At each end of the strip turn about ⅛ inch onto the wrong side to give a finished edge. To secure the correct size, fold the strip over the pencil to be used, and, with the pencil still folded in, paste the two long edges of the strip together, and then to the back of the newsboard, having it placed midway between the top and bottom edges. The pasting of the back covering then follows. Remove the cardboard back from the pad before pasting it to the mount. Dry under weight.