Chapter XXIII: Appendix: I. the Teaching of English in Elementary Schools (1)

BY FRANKLIN THOMAS BAKER, A.M.

I. Historical View of the Subject

=1.= THE CHOICE OF READING MATTER.

1. The school reader an expression of social ideals.

2. German primers and readers of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries.

3. The “moral tales” of the eighteenth century.

4. The New England Primer.

5. The oratorical and patriotic selections of the early nineteenth
century.

6. The school readers of to-day; their general characteristics.

=2.= METHOD.

1. The alphabetic method in use until modern times.

2. New ideas in the sixteenth century and later. Work of
Ickelsamer, Basedow, Pestalozzi, Comenius, and Jacotot.

3. Gradual ascendency of the analytic over the alphabetic (or
synthetic) method.

4. Recognition of the importance of phonetics, of association of
ideas, etc.

REFERENCES: Kehr, _Geschichte des Lese-Unterrichts in der Volksschule_, Gotha, 1889. Fechner, _Geschichte des Volksschullesebuches_, Gotha, 1889. Ford, _The New England Primer_, New York, 1897. Reeder, _Historical Development of the School Reader_, New York, 1900. Hall, _How to Teach Reading_, New York, 1886. _American Journal of Education, Vol. V._, Hartford and London, 1858. Russell, _German Higher Schools_, New York, 1900. Carpenter, Baker, and Scott, _The Teaching of English_, New York, 1903. Huey, _Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading_, New York, 1908.

II. First Steps in Instruction

=1.= MATERIAL.

1. Material should be (1) interesting, (2) literary, so far as
possible, (3) adapted to the capacities and tastes of children,
(4) of enough difficulty and sufficiently above their own ordinary
thoughts to have value as instruction.

2. The best material (1) folk stuff, such as the classic fairy
tales, Mother Goose, etc., (2) tales of heroism and sacrifice, (3)
poetry of the simpler type, like that of Stevenson and Christina
Rossetti.

3. Much of the language work should be free conversation between
the teacher and the children about their ordinary experiences.

=2.= METHOD.

1. During the first years much of the literary material must be
given orally by the teacher. Oral work is to be held of great
importance.

2. Children to be encouraged to commit good things to memory.

3. All reading aloud by the pupils to be done as naturally as
possible. Importance of reading by phrases and sentences, rather
than word by word.

4. Value of the dramatic element in early work.

5. The conflict between the “word method” and the “sentence method”
over. Modern teaching eclectic in method. If any name can be given
to the best way, it might be, perhaps, “thought method.”

6. Use of script and print: advantages of each as a first form.
Value of printed cards and other devices for drill.

7. Form of type for beginners’ books: not too large; letters to
have all differentiating marks _distinct_. Importance of right kind
of paper, width of columns, etc. Kinds of pictures most serviceable.

8. When shall writing begin? In general not to be forced on
the child in the first year. Arguments for and against this
arrangement. Should there be any fixed standard of accomplishment
for the first year?

9. Phonetic drill. How many words must be known before it begins?
Various plans equally successful. The main thing, perhaps, is to
have drill enough to give the pupils _certainty_ in their work, but
to keep the drill subordinated to their interest in reading.

10. The order of such drill. “Normal words,” chosen for their
meaning, their frequency of occurrence, and their similarity in
form to other words either at their beginning or at their end. Many
words, however, must be learned without relation to such a scheme.

11. “Normal sentences” those that partially help the reader to the
recognition of words; as, “The sun rises in the east, and sets
in the west.” For young children, sentences involving the use of
repetitive phrases must also be regarded as normal, as in “The
House that Jack Built.”

12. In general, both analysis and synthesis to be used in word
drill.

13. Importance of securing good habits as to intelligent reading,
correct spelling, etc., in the early years. Children can usually do
better than they or their elders think they can.

14. Emphasis to be placed upon reading many of the good things over
and over, until they are known in whole and in part.

REFERENCES: Bryant, _How to tell Stories to Children_. Carpenter, Baker, and Scott, _The Teaching of English_. Chubb, _The Teaching of English_. Colby, _Literature in Life and in School_. Hall, _How to teach Reading_. Hinsdale, _Teaching the Language Art_. Huey, _Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading_. Arnold, _Reading, How to teach it_. Laurie, _Language and Linguistic Method_. Dewey, “The Primary Education Fetich,” in _The Forum_, May, 1898. Dewey, _The School and Society_. Dye, _Story-Teller’s Art_.

III. The Teaching of Literature

=1.= GENERAL PROBLEMS.

1. Can literature be _taught_? Or can pupils “be taught through
literature”? Examples of such educational use of literature.

2. Present aims in teaching literature: entertainment, portrayal
of life, acquaintance with the world of thought and feeling as
presented in books, cultivation of imagination and sense of beauty.

3. True interpretation implies grasping the central purpose, idea,
or feeling of the piece.

4. Various types of literature demand various treatment. Necessity
of adapting the treatment to the class.

5. Taste (sense of beauty) developed mainly by contact with good
models. Instruction plays a minor part. The love of good reading
fostered by judicious selection of material, and by example and
influence.

6. How can the habit of good reading be cultivated?

=2.= MATERIAL.

1. The literature chosen must be suitable in its themes, its
action, its feeling, its simplicity.

2. Literary histories and biographies: their limited value in
elementary work.

3. Scientific and historical material in literature. Literary use
of such material not to be confounded with science and history.

4. Pictures and other illustrative material: Sometimes give
intuitive basis for desired concepts; sometimes interfere with the
imagination.

=3.= METHOD.

1. Reading aloud: its value. Means of securing good results;
interest, sense of reality, consciousness of an audience.

2. Analytic study, of content, form, and general literary effects.

_a._ Must be adapted to the pupil’s interest and his stage of
development.

_b._ Must yield results of value appreciable by the pupil.

_c._ Effects of too much or too little such study.

3. Correlation of literature with other work possible in limited
degree. A matter of class treatment rather than of the general
arrangement of the course of study. A problem for the teacher
rather than the principal.

4. Treatment of allusions, historical, literary, etc. The need of
judicious selection.

5. Treatment of figures of speech, verse forms, new words, etc.

6. Lesson plans: their function and value.

_a._ An outline should control and direct the work, yet be
flexible enough to allow freedom on the part of teacher and pupil.

_b._ Introductions: their nature and function. When necessary.

REFERENCES: Carpenter, Baker, and Scott, Laurie, Chubb, Hinsdale, Arnold and Hall, as cited. Scudder, _Literature in Schools_. C. A. McMurry, _Special Method in Reading_. Bates, _Talks on the Study of Literature_. Colby, _Literature in Life and in School_. Adler, _Moral Instruction of Children_.

IV. Study of Certain Typical Books

=1.= NURSERY RHYMES (as _Mother Goose_, Stevenson’s _Child’s Garden of Verses_).

_a._ The nature of their appeal to children in sound, imagery, and
ideas.

_b._ Their value in training the ear, the powers of speech, etc.

=2.= GRIMM’ “FAIRY TALES.”

_a._ Their source and relation to other folklore.

_b._ The marvelous, and its effect on children.

_c._ Action, logical sequence, local color.

_d._ Various types of myth.

_e._ The ideal element, poetic justice, etc. Need the harsher
elements be omitted?

_f._ Typical lessons.

=3.= “ALICE IN WONDERLAND.”

_a._ Its origin and its place in literature.

_b._ The nature of its reality: based upon things in the child’s
world of imagination.

_c._ Its value as humor, as a means of quickening the power of
thought.

_d._ What preparation is needed for the appreciation of it?

_e._ Typical lessons.

=4.= “ROBINSON CRUSOE.”

_a._ Its origin and place in literature.

_b._ Fundamental characteristics as a piece of fiction.

_c._ Elements in it that appeal to children, or fail so to appeal.

_d._ Justification of the abridged editions.

_e._ Its relation (1) to the world of romance, (2) to real life.

_f._ How best presented. Typical lessons.

=5.= LONGFELLOW’S “HIAWATHA.”

_a._ Its origin, form, popularity.

_b._ Its qualities, epic and romantic.

_c._ Its treatment of the myth.

_d._ Its value as school reading; parts best suited for this.

_e._ General value of reading about primitive life.

_f._ Relation to handwork, etc.

=6.= HAWTHORNE’S “WONDER BOOK” AND “TANGLEWOOD TALES.”

_a._ Their origin and general literary qualities.

_b._ Romantic coloring given to classic stories; compare Kingsley’s
_The Heroes_, and Bulfinch’s _Age of Fable_, and other versions of
the myths.

_c._ Different types of myth and fairy story represented.

_d._ Artistic qualities of Hawthorne’s versions; how far can these
be shown in the school?

_e._ The ethical element: how treated?

_f._ Typical lessons.

=7.= WHITTIER’S “SNOW BOUND.”

_a._ Its historical value as a presentation of a type of
civilization: occupation, pleasures, interests, types of character.

_b._ Its literary value as an ideal treatment of its theme.

_c._ The point of view that of an old man’s retrospect. How far is
this appreciable by children?

_d._ The study of this poem involves also attention to structure,
diction, allusions, poetic descriptions, and metrical form.

_e._ Typical passages treated in lessons.

=8.= LONGFELLOW’S “EVANGELINE.”

_a._ The poet’s departure from historical fact; its justification.

_b._ The idyllic element; the descriptions.

_c._ The central theme, and its treatment in the first and second
parts of the poem.

_d._ The different quality of the two parts; predominance of
description and the meditative element in the second.

_e._ Metrical structure.

_f._ What things in the poem can be made especially interesting to
young people?

=9.= SCOTT’S “IVANHOE.”

_a._ Its free treatment of historical fact. The difference between
historic and poetic truth.

_b._ The historical novel: its general relations to history; to be
regarded primarily as literature, not as history.

_c._ The portrayal of ideals and customs of a past age: types of
characters; structure (plot) of the book built in accordance with
this purpose.

_d._ Difficulties of language, allusions, etc.

_e._ Means of arousing interest in romantic literature. Comparisons
with other books commonly read by children.

=10.= SHAKSPERE’S “JULIUS CÆSAR.”

_a._ Historical basis, anachronisms, etc.

_b._ The nature of its appeal to young readers.

_c._ Treatment of verbal difficulties and of the dramatic form.

_d._ The action, the characters, the dramatic motives and
situations.

V. Composition

=1.= OBJECT OF TEACHING COMPOSITION.

1. Shall it be “literary,” or aim merely at adequate expression?

=2.= ELEMENTS INVOLVED IN THE PROBLEM: FORM AND SUBJECT MATTER.

1. Importance of subject matter in giving motive and interest, and
in determining form.

2. Subjects for composition to include topics from school work and
from daily life: to be made _real_, as far as possible. Reality
dependent upon interest and the consciousness of an audience.

3. Preparation for the work. Importance of oral treatment, of the
gathering and ordering of facts and ideas. Originality not to be
expected.

4. Composition units: necessity of training in both sentence and
paragraph. Value of outlines, and of drill in sentences.

5. Criticism of written work.

_a._ General aims.

_b._ Means of making criticism effective.

_c._ The object to make pupils self-critical without checking
spontaneity.

REFERENCES: Laurie, Hinsdale, Chubb and Carpenter, Baker and Scott as cited above.

VI. Grammar

=1.= HISTORICAL REVIEW.

1. Historical changes in the idea of English grammar.

2. Attempt, in the Renaissance period, to Latinize the grammar of
English. Persistence of this point of view.

3. Recent changes due to philological study.

4. What now constitutes English grammar?

5. What problems remain unsolved?

=2.= OBJECTS OF TEACHING GRAMMAR.

1. Various theories: for correctness of expression and for
discipline.

2. Modern notions of authority in usage, and of the province of
grammar.

=3.= AMOUNT OF GRAMMAR TO BE TAUGHT.

1. How much grammar shall be taught in the schools?

2. What things are of most value?

3. Importance of syntax; of study of forms.

=4.= THE ORDER OF TREATMENT.

1. Syntax or etymology first?

2. A study of the methods of development adopted by some of the
representative textbooks.

REFERENCES: Laurie, Hinsdale, Carpenter, Baker and Scott, and Chubb. Liddell, “English Historical Grammar,” _Atlantic Monthly_, Vol. LXXXII. Sweet, _New English Grammar_, Part II. Barbour, _The Teaching of English Grammar_; Goold Brown, _Grammar of Grammars_ (Introduction). Krapp, _Syllabus of English Language and Grammar_ (Columbia University Extension Syllabi, Series A, No. 5).

II. THE TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

BY DAVID EUGENE SMITH, LL.D.

I. The History of the Subject

=1.= ADVANTAGES TO A TEACHER IN STUDYING THE HISTORY OF THE SUBJECT TAUGHT.

=2.= THE EARLY HISTORY OF ARITHMETIC.

=3.= THE GROWTH OF NUMBER SYSTEMS.

=4.= THE DEVELOPMENT OF ARITHMETIC AS KNOWN AT PRESENT.

REFERENCES: Smith, _The Teaching of Arithmetic_, New York, 1909, chap. i; and in general the sections in this syllabus correspond to the chapters in this work. _The Teaching of Elementary Mathematics_, New York, 1900. Ball, _A Primer of the History of Mathematics_, London, 1895, and _A Short Account of the History of Mathematics_, London, 4th edition, 1908. Fink, _History of Mathematics_, translated by Bennan and Smith, Chicago, 1900. Cajori, _History of Elementary Mathematics_, New York, 1896, and _History of Mathematics_, New York, 1893. On Greek Arithmetic see Gow, _History of Greek Mathematics_, Cambridge, 1884.

II. The Reasons for Teaching Arithmetic

=1.= THE ANCIENT POINT OF VIEW.

=2.= CONTENT OF THE PRIMITIVE LOGISTIC, OR ART OF CALCULATION.

_a._ Early counting.

_b._ Early writing of numbers. The development of notations.

_c._ The Influence of the Hindu-Arabic notation.

=3.= CONTENT OF THE EARLY ARITHMETIC, OR THEORY OF NUMBERS.

_a._ Connection with mysticism.

_b._ Contributions of Pythagoras and his school.

_c._ The effect upon modern arithmetic.

=4.= THE REASONS FOR TEACHING IN THE MIDDLE AGES.

_a._ The Church schools.

_b._ The reckoning schools.

_c._ The effect upon modern arithmetic.

=5.= THE REASONS DEVELOPED BY THE RENAISSANCE.

_a._ Influence of commerce.

_b._ Influence of printing. The crystallization of arithmetic.

_c._ The effect upon the subject matter of modern arithmetic.

=6.= THE REASONS OF TO-DAY.

_a._ The practical value. Whatever pretends to be practical in
arithmetic should really be so.

_b._ The question of “mental discipline.” The rise of this
doctrine. The results of a psychological study of the question. The
tangible part of “mental discipline.”

_c._ The interest in the subject for its own sake. The game element
of mathematics. The historical development of the science of
arithmetic from the primitive game.

REFERENCES: Smith, _The Teaching of Arithmetic_, chap. ii, to the chapters of which no further reference will be made, this syllabus being merely a synopsis of that work. _Teaching of Elementary Mathematics_, pp. 1-70. Young, _The Teaching of Mathematics_, New York, 1907, pp. 41-52, 202-256. On the historical side, consult Fink, _History of Mathematics_, Chicago, 1898. Ball, _Short History of Mathematics_, New York, 1908. Cajori, _History of Elementary Mathematics_, New York. Jackson, _The Educational Significance of Sixteenth Century Arithmetic_, New York, 1906. Branford, _A Study of Mathematical Education_, Oxford, 1908.

III. What Arithmetic should include

=1.= FROM THE PRACTICAL STANDPOINT.

_a._ The utilities of arithmetic overrated. A detailed
consideration of the various topics usually studied.

_b._ The effect of tradition upon the matter of arithmetic.

=2.= FROM THE STANDPOINT OF MENTAL DISCIPLINE. DISCIPLINE A MATTER OF METHOD RATHER THAN ONE OF TOPICS.

=3.= FROM THE STANDPOINT OF INTEREST IN THE SUBJECT FOR ITS OWN SAKE.

REFERENCES: Smith, _Teaching of Elementary Mathematics_, p. 19. Young, pp. 23-242.

IV. The Nature of the Problem

=1.= THE GREAT CHANGE IN RECENT YEARS BROUGHT ABOUT BY TWO CAUSES.

_a._ The study of social needs.

_b._ The study of child psychology.

=2.= THE PECULIAR NEEDS OF AMERICA. THE BEARING OF THESE NEEDS UPON THE TEACHING OF ARITHMETIC.

=3.= CHILD PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PROBLEMS STILL AWAITING SOLUTION.

REFERENCES: Smith, _Teaching of Elementary Mathematics_, p. 21. Young, pp. 97-103, 210-218. Saxelby, _Practical Mathematics_, and similar works.

V. The Arrangement of Material

=1.= RECENT CHANGES BROUGHT ABOUT FROM A CONSIDERATION OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY.

=2.= THE GROWTH OF THE TEXTBOOK.

_a._ The Treviso arithmetic of 1478, and the early arithmetics of
Italy, Germany, France, England, and Holland.

_b._ The two-book series.

_c._ The three-book series.

_d._ The extreme spiral arrangement.

=3.= THE MODERN CURRICULUM IN ARITHMETIC.

_a._ Its origin.

_b._ Its present status.

_c._ Improvements to be considered.

REFERENCES: Young, pp. 178-188.

VI. Method

=1.= THE MEANING OF METHOD.

=2.= HOW THE ANCIENTS PROBABLY TAUGHT CALCULATION.

_a._ Various forms of the abacus.

_b._ The abacus at the time of the Renaissance.

_c._ The effect upon arithmetic of abandoning the abacus in western
Europe.

=3.= CAUSES OF THE RISE OF THE RULE.

=4.= REVIVAL OF OBJECTIVE TEACHING.

Trapp (1780), von Busse (1786), and Pestalozzi (about 1800).

=5.= THE EARLY FOLLOWERS OF PESTALOZZI.

Tillich (1806), Krancke (1819), Grube (1842).

=6.= TYPES OF LATER METHODS.

_a._ Counting.

_b._ Ratio.

_c._ Extreme spiral.

_d._ Pure concrete work as a basis.

_e._ Pure abstract work as a basis.

=7.= THE EASE AND FUTILITY OF CREATING NARROW METHODS.

REFERENCES: Smith, _Teaching of Elementary Mathematics_, pp. 71-97. Seeley, _Grube’s Method of Teaching Arithmetic_, New York, 1888. Soldan, _Grube’s Method of Teaching Arithmetic_, Chicago, 1878. C. A. McMurry, _Special Method in Arithmetic_, New York, 1905. McLellan and Dewey, _The Psychology of Number_, New York, 1895. Young, pp. 53-150.

VII. Mental or Oral Arithmetic

=1.= HISTORICAL STATUS OF ORAL ARITHMETIC.

=2.= REVIVAL UNDER PESTALOZZI’S INFLUENCE. THE WORK OF WARREN COLBURN IN THIS COUNTRY.

=3.= CAUSES OF THE DECLINE OF THIS FORM OF WORK.

=4.= THE CLAIMS OF ORAL ARITHMETIC UPON THE SCHOOL TO-DAY. THE PRACTICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL VIEWS OF THE PROBLEM.

=5.= THE NATURE OF THE ORAL WORK,—ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE.

=6.= THE TIME TO BE ALLOWED TO THE SUBJECT.

REFERENCES: Smith, _Teaching of Elementary Mathematics_, p. 117. _Handbook to Arithmetics_, p. 6. Young, p. 230.

VIII. Written Arithmetic

=1.= WHAT SHOULD BE THE NATURE OF THE WRITTEN ARITHMETIC?

=2.= OBJECT OF THE BUSINESS FORM OF SOLUTION.

=3.= OBJECT OF WRITTEN ANALYSIS.

=4.= NECESSITY OF RECOGNIZING TWO KINDS OF WRITTEN WORK.

=5.= HOW TO MARK PAPERS.

REFERENCES: Smith, _Teaching of Elementary Mathematics_, pp. 121-129.

IX. Children’s Analyses

=1.= THE OBJECT IN REQUIRING ANALYSES.

=2.= WHAT SHOULD BE EXPECTED OF CHILDREN IN THIS RESPECT?

=3.= EXPLANATIONS OF FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS. RELATION TO THE FORMAL RULE.

=4.= EXPLANATION OF APPLIED PROBLEMS.

=5.= RELATION TO THE WORK IN ENGLISH.

=6.= THE LIMIT OF PRIMARY WORK, “TWO-STEP REASONING.”

REFERENCES: Smith, _Handbook to Arithmetics_, p. 9. Young, p. 205.

X. Interest and Effort

=1.= STATUS OF ARITHMETIC FROM THE STANDPOINT OF INTEREST.

=2.= DANGER OF OVEREMPHASIS UPON INTEREST.

=3.= LESSENING OF INTEREST WITH THE LESSENING OF EFFORT.

=4.= SAFE BASIS FOR INCREASE OF INTEREST.

=5.= EFFECT OF A GENUINE, SPONTANEOUS INTEREST UPON INCREASE OF EFFORT AND OF POWER.

XI. Improvements in the Technique of Arithmetic

=1.= HISTORY OF THE IMPROVEMENT IN SYMBOLISM.

=2.= HOW THE PRESENT SEEKS TO CARRY ON THIS IMPROVEMENT.

_a._ The difficulties that are met.

_b._ Dangers of too much symbolism.

_c._ The proper criterion for selection.

=3.= THE EQUATION IN ARITHMETIC.

_a._ Object.

_b._ Dangers to be avoided.

=4.= THE PROCESS OF SUBTRACTION AS A TYPE.

_a._ The various historical methods considered.

_b._ The criterion for a selection.

_c._ The claims of the various processes to-day.

=5.= THE PROCESS OF DIVISION AS A TYPE.

_a._ The history of division.

_b._ Present points at issue.

_c._ The probable future.

=6.= PROPORTION AS A TYPE.

_a._ History of proportion and the “Rule of Three.”

_b._ Present symbolism and status.

_c._ Probable future of the subject.

=7.= FUTURE PROBLEMS RELATING TO TECHNIQUE.

XII. Certain Great Principles of Teaching Arithmetic

A summary of the larger principles for the guidance of teachers.

XIII. General Subjects for Experiment

=1.= THE USE OF GAMES.

=2.= CHIEF INTERESTS OF CHILDREN.

=3.= RESULTS OF EMPHASIZING:

_a._ The abstract problem.

_b._ The concrete problem.

=4.= AMOUNT OF TIME TO BE ASSIGNED TO ARITHMETIC.

=5.= RELATIVE AMOUNT OF TIME TO BE DEVOTED TO:

_a._ Oral arithmetic.

_b._ Written arithmetic.

=6.= THE BEST BASIS OF ARRANGEMENT OF AN ARITHMETIC.

XIV. Details for Experiment

Professor Suzzallo’s list of details as set forth in _The Teachers College Record_, January, 1909, p. 43, and in Smith, _The Teaching of Arithmetic_, chap. xiv.

XV. The Work of the First School Year

=1.= ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST NO FORMAL ARITHMETIC IN THIS YEAR.

=2.= THE LEADING MATHEMATICAL FEATURES FOR THE YEAR.

=3.= THE NUMBER SPACE OF THE YEAR.

_a._ For counting.

_b._ For operations.

=4.= THE WORK TO BE ACCOMPLISHED IN ADDITION.

=5.= THE WORK IN THE OTHER OPERATIONS.

=6.= THE FRACTION CONCEPTS TO BE CONSIDERED.

_a._ Part of an object.

_b._ Part of a group.

_c._ The idea of “half as much.”

=7.= DENOMINATE NUMBERS.

=8.= THE QUESTION OF THE USE OF OBJECTS.

=9.= SYMBOLIC WORK AND TECHNICAL EXPRESSIONS.

=10.= NATURE OF THE PROBLEMS OF THIS YEAR.

=11.= THE TIME LIMIT UPON WORK.

REFERENCES: Smith, _The Teaching of Elementary Mathematics_, p. 99. _Handbook to Arithmetics_, p. 11. C. A. McMurry, _Special Method in Arithmetic_.

XVI. The Work of the Second School Year

=1.= THE LEADING MATHEMATICAL FEATURES.

=2.= NUMBER SPACE FOR THE YEAR.

=3.= COUNTING.

_a._ The origin of the “counting method.”

_b._ The extremes to which it may be carried.

_c._ The proper use of counting in teaching.

=4.= THE ADDITION TABLE. RELATION TO COUNTING.

=5.= THE METHOD OF TREATING SUBTRACTION REVIEWED.

=6.= THE MULTIPLICATION TABLE.

_a._ Arguments for and against learning tables.

_b._ Extent of the work for this year.

_c._ Relation to counting.

=7.= DIVISION.

_a._ Relation to multiplication.

_b._ Arrangement of work in short division.

=8.= FRACTIONS.

_a._ Extent of the work.

_b._ Nature of the objective work.

=9.= DENOMINATE NUMBERS.

_a._ Extent of the work.

_b._ Use of the measures. Visualizing the great basal units.

=10.= NATURE OF THE SYMBOLS TO BE CONSIDERED.

=11.= NATURE OF THE PROBLEM WORK.

_a._ Abstract.

_b._ Concrete.

XVII. The Work of the Third School Year

=1.= PECULIAR NECESSITY FOR PREPARATION FOR THIS YEAR’S WORK.

=2.= LEADING MATHEMATICAL FEATURES.

_a._ Beginning of rapid written work.

_b._ Multiplication table completed.

_c._ Most important tables of denominate numbers.

_d._ Work extended to two-figure multipliers and the beginning of
long division.

=3.= NUMBER SPACE MAY EXTEND TO 100,000.

=4.= THE ROMAN NUMERALS.

_a._ Extent to which this work should be carried in various school
years.

_b._ Historical sketch of the system and of its uses.

=5.= THE COUNTING METHOD FURTHER CONSIDERED. ITS VALUES AND ITS DANGERS.

=6.= THE WRITING OF UNITED STATES MONEY. OPERATIONS.

=7.= SQUARE AND CUBIC MEASURE.

_a._ Extent.

_b._ Nature of objective work.

=8.= SUGGESTIONS AS TO FOUR OPERATIONS.

_a._ Addition. Practical value of checks on all operations.

_b._ Subtraction, as discussed in section XI.

_c._ Multiplication. Should the tables extend to 12 × 12? Devices.

_d._ Division. Algorism considered historically and practically.

_e._ Historical note as to the number of operations.

=9.= EXTENT OF WORK WITH FRACTIONS.

=10.= NATURE OF THE PROBLEMS.

REFERENCES: Smith, _Teaching of Arithmetic_, chap. xvii, p. 73. _Handbook to Arithmetics_, p. 29.

XVIII. The Work of the Fourth School Year

=1.= LEADING MATHEMATICAL FEATURES.

=2.= NUMBER SPACE.

=3.= THE FOUR OPERATIONS.

_a._ Nature of the oral work.

_b._ Criteria for judging written work.

_c._ Speed versus accuracy.

=4.= NATURE OF THE WORK IN COMMON FRACTIONS.

_a._ Historical sketch of various fractions.

_b._ Change in the practical uses of common fractions.

=5.= DENOMINATE NUMBERS.

_a._ What tables are of value? Historical sketch of tables.

_b._ Visualizing the basal units.

_c._ Accuracy in reduction.

=6.= NATURE OF THE PROBLEMS.

REFERENCES: Smith, _Handbook to Arithmetics_, p. 43.

XIX. The Work of the Fifth School Year

=1.= LEADING MATHEMATICAL FEATURES.

=2.= NECESSITY FOR AND NATURE OF PRELIMINARY REVIEW.

=3.= NUMBER SPACE. MODERN TENDENCIES IN USING LARGE NUMBERS.

=4.= NATURE OF THE REVIEW OF THE FOUR OPERATIONS.

_a._ Suggestions for rapid addition and subtraction.

_b._ Checks on multiplication and division.

_c._ Twofold nature of division.

=5.= COMMON FRACTIONS.

_a._ Nature of the theoretical explanations.

_b._ What should be expected of children in this regard.

=6.= DENOMINATE NUMBERS.

_a._ Extent of reductions.

_b._ Nature of the operations.

=7.= HOW TO SOLVE PROBLEMS.

=8.= INTRODUCTION TO PERCENTAGE.

=9.= NATURE OF THE PROBLEMS.

REFERENCES: Smith, _Handbook to Arithmetics_, p. 53.

XX. The Work of the Sixth School Year

=1.= LEADING MATHEMATICAL FEATURES.

=2.= THE GENERAL SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS.

_a._ How the world has solved problems.

_b._ Modern improvements.

=3.= PERCENTAGE.

_a._ Nature of the subject.

_b._ History of the subject.

_c._ Suggestions for treatment.

_d._ The most important applications.

=4.= RATIO AND PROPORTION.

_a._ History.

_b._ Present value, and probable future status.

=5.= NATURE OF THE PROBLEMS.

XXI. The Work of the Seventh School Year

=1.= LEADING MATHEMATICAL FEATURES.

=2.= REVIEW OF OUR NUMBERS. HISTORICAL NOTES.

=3.= REVIEW OF THE FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS.

=4.= TYPES OF SUBJECTS TREATED.

_a._ Longitude and time. Origin, value, new features.

_b._ Percentage. What cases are the most important?

=5.= INTRODUCTION OF ALGEBRAIC WORK CONSIDERED. NATURE OF MENSURATION.

=6.= NATURE OF THE PROBLEMS.

XXII. The Work of the Eighth School Year

=1.= LEADING MATHEMATICAL FEATURES.

=2.= NATURE OF THE BUSINESS APPLICATIONS.

_a._ Banking. Extent to which the work should be carried.

_b._ Partial payments. Historical view of the value of the subject.

_c._ Partnership. Value of the historical view.

_d._ Simple accounts.

_e._ Exchange. Wherein its value lies.

_f._ Taxes. Insurance.

_g._ Corporations. Arguments for and against the study of
investments.

=3.= THE METRIC SYSTEM.

_a._ Why taught. Historical view.

_b._ Extent of the work.

_c._ Practical suggestions in teaching.

=4.= POWERS AND ROOTS.

_a._ Historical view.

_b._ Present values. Extent of the work.

=5.= MENSURATION.

_a._ Extent to which it should be carried.

_b._ Geometry in the eighth year.

_c._ The formula.

=6.= ALGEBRA IN THE EIGHTH YEAR.

_a._ Historical view. Present values.

_b._ Extent to which it should be carried.

=7.= NATURE OF THE PROBLEM.

=8.= A COMPARISON OF AMERICAN AND FOREIGN SCHOOLS.

III. THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY.

BY RICHARD ELWOOD DODGE, A.M.

I. The Scope and Purpose of School Geography

=1.= SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY A PART OF SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY.

Relation of elementary school work to that in secondary school and
college.

=2.= DEFINITION OF GEOGRAPHY.

Meaning of this and growth of idea.

_A._ “Study of earth in its relation to life.”

_B._ The emphasis of “causal notion” in school geography.

Rational geography.

=3.= SCOPE OF SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY.

_A._ Possible scope as wide as the subject.

Complexity of subject.

_B._ Practical scope determined by abilities and needs of children,
and by necessary sequence of steps in geography study.

_C._ Consequent difficulties for school teachers, even in earlier
years.

=4.= SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY MUST BE:

_A._ Unit in each part and as a whole.

Practical reasons for unity.

_B._ Usable at every step.

Importance of this in early grades.

_C._ Closely related to nature work on one hand, and secondary work
on the other.

_D._ Based on children’s experiences and earlier knowledge.

=5.= PURPOSE OF SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY TEACHING:

_A._ To teach children geography. Interpretation of this.

Relation of subject to children. Approach to adults’ point of view.

_a._ Knowledge of principles of geography.

_b._ Knowledge of facts that make principles clear.

_c._ Knowledge of facts necessary for daily life.

Other facts that must be included.

_B._ Power.

_a._ To use materials and results gained in classroom and
elsewhere.

_b._ To seek out, organize and use new materials.

This suggests method of conducting a portion of class work.

_c._ To think accurately and clearly.

Importance of geography as a means of training in scientific
thinking.

REFERENCES: Dodge, R. E., _The Teaching of Geography_, to which no further references will be made, this syllabus being a synopsis of that work. _Teachers College Record_, March, 1901, pp. 3-9. _Journal of Geography_, November and December, 1904; April, 1905; September, 1906. McMurry, C. A., _Special Method in Geography_, chap. i. Geikie, A., _The Teaching of Geography_, chap. i.

II. The Persons involved in School Geography Teaching

=1.= THE DUTIES OF THE SCIENTIFIC GEOGRAPHER.

_A._ Should help make content sound geographically.

He should be source of geography materials.

_B._ Should ascertain that work will insure good training in
elements of geography.

Adapted to pupils and valuable as foundation for good later work.

_C._ Should outline method in large so as to produce geographic
progress.

_D._ Should assist in substituting good for bad details and help
choose between essentials and non-essentials.

=2.= THE OBLIGATIONS OF THE SUPERVISOR OR SUPERINTENDENT.

_A._ Must recognize goal to be reached from standpoint of good
geography, and relations of school geography to other phases of
geographic education.

_B._ Should accept materials and larger plan of geographer.

Arrange time of schedule.

_C._ Should see that children’s general training is not sacrificed
and special training is secured.

_D._ Should insure that work is practical and usable.

_E._ Must see that relations to other subjects are emphasized.

Causal notion again.

=3.= THE OBLIGATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES OF THE TEACHER.

_A._ Must know more subject matter than he expects to give pupils.

_B._ Must know purposes and scope of course—his part in course as a
whole.

Also must know preparation furnished by earlier year’s work.

_C._ Must know relations to other work in the curriculum as a whole
and in geography particularly.

_D._ Must know ways subject must be organized and presented to his
grade so as best to gain aims desired.

General and special method.

=4.= THE POSITION OF CHILDREN IN REFERENCE TO WORK.

_A._ Meaning of “To teach children geography.”

_B._ The preparation that may be expected in different grades.

_C._ Children’s interest in work.

_D._ Pupils must be trained to work and think.

_E._ Goals are knowledge and power. Importance of rational
repetition, of reviews and map work.

REFERENCE: Dodge, _Journal of Geography_, v, p. 385. _The Opportunity of the Geographer in Promoting School Geography._

III. The Organization of a Course of Study

=1.= COURSE AS A WHOLE.

_A._ Must be capable of being judged as good by geographers.

_B._ Must lead to knowledge and power.

_C._ Must be arranged so as to lead from known to unknown along
lines of least resistance but not least effort.

_D._ Method of approach of mature mind must not always be followed.

=2.= SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS.

_A._ No one course available for all localities.

_B._ Course should start with home geography.

_C._ Should lead next to elementary knowledge of world whole.

_D._ The emphasis to be given to continental work.

Division of work by grades.

_E._ Disadvantages of teaching all continents twice.

The following compromise is suggested as in general workable:

_a._ Twice: North America, United States, Europe, and perhaps
portions of Asia.

_b._ Once: Asia, Africa, Australia, and South America.

Present importance of South America.

_F._ Plan of intermediate work should differ from plan of upper
grades. “Concentric Circles.”

_G._ The place of physical geography in the course of study:

_a._ Home geography: observational side.

Danger of overemphasis, of giving wrong outlook.

_b._ Intermediate grades: give setting to life side.

Larger facts only.

_c._ Upper grade: basis of work.

Not to be taught as a topic by itself but as a means to an end.

_H._ Emphasis of industries and commercial side.

_I._ “Following interests of children,”—best meaning of phrase.
Value and dangers.

Recent interest in industrial education places a renewed obligation
on geography to be practical and to be free from fads.

Developing interest. Temporary and permanent interests.

REFERENCES: _Teachers College Record_, March, 1901, pp. 9-15. McMurry, C. A., _Special Method in Geography_, chap. ii. Redway, J. W., _New Basis of Geography_, chap. x. Bagley, W. C., _Function of Geography in Elementary Schools_, _Journal of Geography_, Vol. III, p. 222. Dodge, Richard E., “Some Suggestions Concerning a Course of Study in Geography,” _Journal of Geography_, vii, pp. 7-14.

IV. Home Geography and World Whole

=1.= CERTAIN GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

_A._ Home geography not a subject or a division of geography, but
a method of approach to field as a whole,—cannot have a uniform
course for all places.

_B._ Method of procedure must be from known to unknown through
analysis of experiences of pupils.

_C._ Work should not call for knowledge of distant places.

_D._ Lessons should become more intensive and scope more extensive.

_E._ Topics should be taken up in definite sequence so far as
possible.

_F._ Definitions, if any, to be summaries at close of developed
points and not points of departure.

_G._ Units developed to be good geography units which may be used
as basis for comparison over world. Heat, storms, woods, for
instance, are not good units. Crossroads or city corners good units.

_H._ Local history to be brought in as much as possible.

Should be intimately related to geography and may often be point of
departure.

_I._ Importance of observation of local conditions.

Reasons for giving a certain place to processes of earth change.

=2.= TOPICS IN HOME GEOGRAPHY.

_A._ Social:

_a._ Simple life groups and relations.

(1) Home, village, city, etc. (2) Needs and means of
communication. (3) Need for government. Form not to be
included. (4) Reasons for trade. Simple illustrations. (5)
Industrial features. (6) Universality of similar features
over world.

_B._ Earth:

_a._ Forms of landscape as related to life.

_b._ Forms of drainage as related to life.

_c._ Soils and their use. Classification a minor matter.

_d._ Simpler atmospheric phenomena.

_e._ Direction and distance.

_f._ Maps.

_g._ Gravity.

=3.= TOPICS OFTEN INCLUDED.

_A._ Suitable to few localities: Volcanoes, mountains, ocean.

_B._ Not geographical:

_a._ Name and functions of officers of local government.

_b._ Building of a house or mechanical details of any trade.

_c._ Topics in geology such as formation of coal, marble, etc.

_C._ Beyond powers of pupils.

_a._ Form of earth, relation of bodies in solar system.

_b._ Rotation and revolution of earth.

_c._ Theory of storms.

=4.= SUMMARIES:

_A._ Must be simple and easily drawn from previous work.

_B._ Must be of such a nature that they can be expanded as years go
on without overturning base learned in earlier years.

_C._ Examples of good summaries:

_a._ Wind is air moving horizontally.

_b._ River is a stream of water and detritus flowing through the
land.

_D._ Examples of bad summaries:

_a._ A lake is a body of water surrounded by land.

_b._ Mountains are high elevations of land.

_c._ A divide is the high land which separates two rivers.

_d._ A river is a stream of water which flows into the sea.

_e._ Hollow places in the land filled with water are called lakes.

_f._ A swamp is a tract of land soaked with water.

=5.= SOME SIMPLE UNITS OF HOME GEOGRAPHY TO INDICATE BASIS OF CHOICE OF TOPICS.

_A._ The home:

_a._ Simplest group of individuals which illustrates essentials
of larger groups.

_b._ A unit of government: need of government in home and in any
group.

_c._ Division of labor in home illustrates a world truth as to
relations of individuals and groups.

_B._ Groups of homes.

_a._ Country four corners.

_b._ Village.

_c._ City.

_d._ Location of such cities as Vienna, Constantinople, Chicago.

_C._ Simpler surface features.

_a._ Why important,—travel over, seen as landscape.

_b._ Why emphasize landscape and not forms first?

_c._ Plains,—why most important? Life relation to.

_d._ Rolling lands.—Relations to life.

_e._ Mountain regions.—Relations to life (should, in many
localities, be deferred to later work).

REFERENCES: _Teachers College Record_, March, 1901, pp. 15-17. Davis, W. M., “Home Geography,” _Journal of Geography_, p. 1. Geikie, A., _The Teaching of Geography_, chap. ii. McMurry, C. A., _Excursions and Lessons in Home Geography_.

=6.= FIRST KNOWLEDGE OF WORLD WHOLE.

_A._ Expansion of home geography outward to ocean.

_a._ How to present form of earth—relation to home, necessities
and luxuries.

_b._ Parts of earth that may be related to home in developing
knowledge of world whole, based on experience of pupils.

(1) Northern North America and Europe—furs. (2) Southern
North America—bananas, woods, cacao. (3) Northern South
America—India rubber, coffee, Brazil nuts. (4) Southern
South America—hides, and meat products. (5) West
Central Europe—embroideries, wine, cheese. (6) Southern
Europe—olives, cork. (7) Southeastern Asia—tea, silks,
spices, fire-crackers. (8) Central Africa—ivory, palm oil.
(9) Southern Africa—diamonds. (10) Southwestern Asia—rugs.
(11) Australia—wool.

=7.= HOW TO LEAD UP TO CLIMATE OF WORLD.

_A._ Points to be brought out:

_a._ Direction and distance in time.

_b._ Similarity of purpose of life. Food, clothing, shelter.

_c._ Different ways of doing things amid different conditions.

Homes, dress, travel, kinds of food, natural food, weather
conditions.

_d._ Interrelation of peoples.

_B._ Points which may be neglected:

_a._ Overmuch detail, _i.e._ Details of home life or occupations.
Scenery.

_b._ Curious and unimportant customs. Slanting eyes. Personal
customs.

REFERENCES: Farnham, A. W., “Oswego Geography Course,” _Journal of Geography_, v, p. 109. _Teachers College Record_, March, 1901, pp. 17-20, 24-27.

V. The Point of View and Method of Approach in Intermediate Work

=1.= PURPOSES.

Knowledge of more important Continents and Countries, lives of
people and reasons therefor.

_A._ Knowledge of facts of everyday life. Consequences to
causes,—physical features in the large as points of departure for
giving setting. Follow political divisions because of practical
advantage.

_B._ Industrial interrelations of regions to be brought out.

_C._ Causal location and non-causal location. Picturesque side and
how secured. Permanent location in visual image. Temporary location
for clearness and practice. Memory work in location.

_D._ “Methods” of approach:

_a._ “Concentric”—disadvantages.

_b._ “Journey”—when valuable—disadvantages.

_c._ “Type” method. What this means in a large way.

_d._ “Map drawing” method.

_e._ Value of reversing method in upper grammar grades.

_E._ The place of method.

_a._ Advantages and disadvantages of following a “method,”
centered about a personal point of view.

_b._ Value of subordinating “methods” to method.

REFERENCES: Bagley, W. C., “Geography in Intermediate Grades,” _Journal of Geography_, iv, p. 299. _Teachers College Record_, March, 1901, pp. 29-35.

=2.= THE SO-CALLED TYPE METHOD.

_A._ What is a type? “A type is that individual of a species or
genus which contains the largest number of features which are
characteristic of the species or genus as a whole.”

_B._ Types must be good geographic units, and not mere instances.
The essentials of a good geographic unit.

_C._ A typical instance is not:

_a._ The most involved or striking example.

_b._ The most interesting example.

_D._ Why types cannot easily be selected in geography. Advantages
and difficulties of using types.

_a._ Examples of good types.

_E._ Ways in which teaching by types is actually used in various
texts and courses of study.

_F._ Teaching by “types” does not readily lead to the bringing out
of political features; leads to overmuch detail and overemphasis of
non-essentials.

REFERENCE: McMurry, C. A., _Special Method in Geography_, chap. ix.

VI. Industrial and Commercial Geography

=1.= PRESENT EMPHASIS OF INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY.

_A._ Reasons for that emphasis: practical and educational.

_B._ Industrial geography deals with the geography underlying the
principal human occupations: that is, the reason for the occurrence
of industries in given localities.

_C._ Commercial geography deals with the elementary principles
of trade and commerce, and includes a study of geography of
great regions of production and demand, with causes. Emphasizes
interrelation of commercial areas and reasons for same.

_D._ Industrial geography should be emphasized in intermediate
years; commercial geography in the upper grades.

_E._ Industrial geography should include the study of groupings of
peoples according to occupations and lead up to a knowledge of the
simpler reasons therefor. These groups are agriculture, grazing,
lumbering, mining, manufacturing, commerce, and “scenic centers.”

_F._ Geography does not call for study of technique of industries,
and should not include special study of details of industries.
Futility of studying processes. Geographic side includes the
reasons for industry and not the manner of it. Technique is largely
result of human invention and is not geographic except possibly
where some invention has revolutionized an industry and greatly
changed relations of peoples to their geographic surroundings.

_G._ Geography underlying agriculture, grazing, and lumbering as
examples of geographic influences.

_H._ Commercial geography should be based on knowledge of
industrial and physical geography of earlier years, and should
be a part of regional geography—not a special topic. It should
include study of routes of trade, areas of supply and consumption
of _chief_ foods, textiles, manufactured products, raw materials,
etc., and relative status of chief commercial nations, and reasons.

_I._ Difficulties in teaching commercial geography are due
to modernness of subject, constant changes involved, lack of
illustrative materials and to difficulties of securing proper
materials for class study.

_J._ Some recent successes in teaching commercial and industrial
geography. The development and purposes of commercial museums for
schools.

REFERENCE: _Teachers College Record_, March, 1901, pp. 29-35.

VII. The Basis of Work in the Upper Grades

=1.= GEOGRAPHY IN UPPER GRADES SHOULD BE FOUNDED ON GOOD WORKING KNOWLEDGE OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

_A._ These principles should be elaborated summaries or
generalizations of earlier work, and should be developed only so
fully as is necessary for clearness and for future good work.

_B._ Physical geography not as an end, but as a means to an end.

_C._ Life consequences to be made prominent as illustrations at
every step.

=2.= THIS WORK SHOULD INCLUDE:

_A._ Earth’s shape—simple proofs and effects.

_B._ Earth’s motions—results.

_C._ Elements of climate and weather as related to earth’s motions
with effects. Importance of climate.

_D._ Simpler land forms and influence on life. Drainage.

_E._ Simpler features of oceans and oceanic movements as related to
commerce and trade. Tides need not be elaborated.

_F._ Distribution of plants as related to causes, especially
climate.

_G._ Distribution of animals as related to causes. This topic
should be treated briefly.

_H._ Races of men and their distribution as related to climate and
food supply.

_I._ Elements of commerce causally developed.

_J._ Elements of political geography—including meaning of nation,
of boundary, origin of boundaries, exchange of consuls, ministers,
etc.

=3.= TOPICS WHICH MAY BE OMITTED:

_A._ Causes of tides.

_B._ Condition of interior of earth.

_C._ Causes of mountain growth.

_D._ Details of glaciation.

_E._ Geological development of continent.

=4.= METHOD IN LARGE.

_A._ Work should be developed, as far as possible, as result of map
work and personal observations.

_B._ Principles should be illustrated as widely as possible to show
general importance.

_C._ Some topics may readily be studied in association with study
of Africa or Australia, and thus training may be given in working
from causes to consequences, as preliminary to later use of
definite causal order.

REFERENCE: Redway, _New Basis of Geography_, chap. viii.

VIII. The Topical Method in Upper Grades

=1.= GENERAL AGREEMENT IN REFERENCE TO TEACHING CONTINENTS IN UPPER GRADES FROM CAUSES TO CONSEQUENCES.

_A._ Principles should be used as basis of work.

_B._ Work should be largely based on map study, especially maps of
climate, physical features, distribution of trade routes, peoples,
industries, etc.

_C._ Work should not be too stereotyped,—that is, order of
procedure should not always be the same.

_D._ Training should be given in reasoning and in use of reference
books, texts, atlases, etc.

_E._ Topical method means to work from larger, simple, general
features, out to more detailed, special and complex conditions.
Possible modifications and advantages. Using an imaginary continent.

=2.= AN EXAMPLE OF TOPICAL ORDER: THE LARGER FEATURES OF NORTH AMERICA.

_A._ Location:

_a._ By latitude and longitude.

_b._ In reference to ocean.

_c._ In reference to other continents.

_d._ In reference to wind systems.

_B._ Larger surface features:

_a._ Cordilleran Highland.

_b._ Appalachian Highland.

_c._ Atlantic Coastal Plain.

_d._ Great Central Plain.

_e._ Height of Land.

_f._ Influence and extent of glaciation.

_g._ Consequent lines of drainage:

(1) Arctic drainage. (2) Pacific drainage. (3) Atlantic
drainage.

(_i_) Direct. (_ii_) By St. Lawrence. (_iii_) By Gulf of
Mexico.

_C._ Coast line:

_a._ Compare east and west coast as to:

(1) General form. (2) Number of harbors. (3) Availability of
harbors. (4) Nearness to foreign ports.

_D._ Climate:

_a._ Position in reference to wind systems.

_b._ Summer and winter distribution and range of temperatures.

_c._ Relation to ocean and ocean currents.

_d._ Chief modifications due to surface.

_e._ Three climatic divisions: east coastal, west coastal, and
interior.

_f._ Rainfall in each as related to agriculture.

_g._ The growing season conditions in each.

_E._ Vegetation:

_a._ Chief vegetation regions as related to climate and surface.

_b._ Distribution and characteristic features of tundra, forests,
steppes, and deserts.

_c._ Significance of vegetation distribution.

_F._ Animals: Briefly as related to climate and vegetation.

_a._ Domestic.

_b._ Wild.

_G._ Mineral products: As related to surface.

_H._ People: Distribution of people as related to surface, climate,
drainage, coast line, and products. (Follow this by summary of
United States as related to North America, and then by New England,
following order given and extending to occupations and commerce.
Bring out location of leading cities causally.)

_I._ Summarize continents by comparative study of reasons for
commercial development of principal nations and of distribution of
great world products.

REFERENCES: Farnham, A. W., “Oswego Geography Course,” _Journal of Geography_, v, p. 211. Hotchkiss, C. W., _Journal of School Geography_, ii, p. 41. Reudiger, W. C., “Suggestions for Geography Teaching in Upper Grades,” _Journal of Geography_, iv, p. 433.

IX. The Use of Maps and Textbooks

=1.= ADVANTAGES OF A TEXT:

_A._ Outlines a course of study when none better is available.

_B._ Gives clear definitions and summaries.

_C._ Gives second exposition of subject matter of value to pupils
who gain best impression through the eyes.

_D._ Shows relative values of different parts of subject.

_E._ Furnishes text, maps, and illustrations for study.

_F._ Gives chance for training in how to study.

_G._ Gives means of holding children responsible for certain work.

=2.= HOW TO USE TEXT:

_A._ Text should be servant of teacher, and not the teacher a slave
of text.

_B._ Text used _before_ recitation in association with outline
or series of map questions where nature of materials or other
conditions do not permit development. Advantages of assigning
lessons in certain grades.

_C._ Text used _in_ recitation to give training in how to study in
intermediate grades.

_D._ Text used _after_ recitation as means of summary and review
in much of home geography and in certain parts of upper grade
work. Teachers here use materials of book as “texts” or points of
departure.

=3.= THE USE OF MAPS.

_A._ Maps fundamental in geography.

_B._ Maps only clear and accurate means of representing certain
classes of facts. Examples of such facts.

_C._ Essential points to be kept in mind in map use.

_a._ Cardinal directions indicated by meridians and parallels.

_b._ Top of map is not necessarily north.

_c._ Scale is necessary for getting ideas of distance and area.

_d._ Each map has special symbols adapted to special purpose of
map.

_e._ First maps studied should be maps of local region shown in a
horizontal position and properly oriented.

_D._ Maps of most service in texts and classroom:

_a._ Political maps in all grades.

_b._ Physical maps of large areas only give relative conditions.
Cannot give exact representation of country. Dangers in physical
and relief maps.

_c._ Climatic maps: annual, seasonal, special. Winds and heat
belts.

_d._ Vegetation maps in upper grades.

_e._ Product and commercial maps as related to vegetation,
climate, and surface.

REFERENCES: Redway, J. W., _New Basis of Geography_, chap. ix. Calkins, R. C., “The Text, the Course of Study and the Teacher,” _Journal of Geography_, iv, p. 164. Brown, Robert M., “Map Reading,” _Journal of Geography_, iv, pp. 273-288.

X. The Relation of Geography to Other Subjects in Curriculum

=1.= PLACE OF GEOGRAPHY.

_A._ Geography is considered by some as fundamental subject in
curriculum, as it gives basis for study of human activities.

_B._ Geography is rather an important subject to be studied in
connection with other subjects so as to produce best results from
curriculum as a whole.

_C._ Coöperation between subjects does not mean parallelism in
teaching or disorganization on one subject because of temporary
possible cross relations to other subjects.

_D._ Unity of course of study as whole in any subject of more value
than temporary mutual relations between subjects.

_E._ Geography closely related, in many ways, to nature study,
history, language, and arithmetic.

_F._ Geography may contribute to and receive help from industrial
subjects.

=2.= GEOGRAPHY AND NATURE STUDY.

_A._ Simpler elements of geography should be included sanely in
nature study of Grades I, II, and III.

_B._ Geography in Grade III and perhaps IV should be based on
nature study of earlier years. Simpler aspects of home geography
should be taught before Grade III.

_C._ Geography contributes to nature study knowledge of conditions
influencing distribution of plants and animals, elements of
weather, soils, slopes, drainage, simple land forms, distance, and
other conditions affecting problems of food, clothing, and shelter.

_D._ Geography gives application to nature study in upper grades,
summarizes distribution of animals and plants, and gives regional
basis to nature study.

_E._ Nature study contributes to geography knowledge of plants
and animals and their ecological relations, physics and chemistry
of soils, water, etc., as related to agriculture, grazing, and
lumbering.

_F._ Topics of doubtful value in nature study or elementary
geography.

_a._ Formation of coal, marble, and rocks, and similar topics.

_b._ Minerals, except in localities where minerals may be found.

_c._ Earth’s motions and similar large topics which cannot be
studied through observation.

=3.= GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO HISTORY.

_A._ Geography finds its best applications in history.

_B._ Geographic influences _vs._ geographic controls in history.

_C._ Geography deals with the relation between physical environment
and life in all its phases. History deals with the interpretation
of human movements.

_D._ Hence history finds its basis largely in geography both in
reference to large facts and smaller details. Examples.

_E._ Suggested order of studying geography and history in the
different grades. History should aid in making political geography
understandable.

=4.= GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO ARITHMETIC.

_A._ Problems in area, distance, time, averages, proportion, etc.,
may well be developed through use of facts of geography.

_B._ Graphic method of representing comparisons in geography should
be developed in arithmetic.

_C._ Latitude and longitude to be developed in geography and
applied in arithmetic.

=5.= GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATION TO LANGUAGE.

_A._ Geography finds much of its material in literature and its
largest means of expression in language.

_B._ Geography should give landscape setting to poetry and prose.

_C._ The study of literature should include material which is
geographically sound.

_D._ Much geography is not expressed in good literary form, and
much literature is geographically unsound.

REFERENCES: McMurry, C. A., _Special Method in Geography_, chap. viii. Allen, L. R., “Correlation of Geography and History,” _Journal of Geography_, ii, p. 404. Woodice, Florence A., and Brown, Robert M., “An Experiment with Geography and History with a Sixth Grade,” _Journal of Geography_, vii, pp. 1-7.

XI. Geography and Expression Work

=1.= EXPRESSION.

_A._ Chief and most important forms of expression are oral and
written expression.

_B._ Danger and unfairness of considering expression work to be
merely handwork.

=2.= CHIEF WAYS IN WHICH HAND WORK CAN BE USED IN GEOGRAPHY.

Through map drawing, map filling, sand or chalk modeling, and
freehand drawing.

_A._ Modeling:

_a._ A means to an end of value if done skillfully and easily.

_b._ Dangers in representing scale and slopes.

_c._ Should involve small area as to details or merely general
features of a large area. First work in modeling should be
devoted to features that children may observe as wholes.

_B._ Map Drawing:

_a._ Too time-consuming as a rule.

_b._ Difficulties of projection and scale.

_c._ Over-refined product should not be called for.

_d._ Children’s maps are a bad basis for visualization.

_C._ Map Filling:

_a._ Makes use of best base map available and same base map for
all.

_b._ Excellent means of review as test of knowledge gained.

_c._ Relative value of flat and relief outline maps.

_D._ Freehand Drawing:

_a._ An accessory to geography work, not a way of making confused
objects or relations clear.

_b._ Value of slope sketching, of simple landscape work, and of
map coloring.

_c._ Hand work may borrow ideas and details from geography but
adds little to value of geography as a subject.

XII. Equipment in Geography Teaching

=1.= NECESSITY OF EQUIPMENT.

Maps, globes, and illustrations. Costly single pieces of apparatus
to be avoided.

_A._ Maps:

_a._ Every schoolroom should contain the following wall maps:

(1) Mercator map of world. (2) Map of North America or United
States. (3) Map of continents to be studied.

_b._ Maps should be chosen for demonstration and recitation work
and not for study.

_c._ Hence should be clear, capable of being seen across the
room, not overcrowded with details: rivers and cities not
overemphasized.

_d._ Upper grades should have physical map of United States and
Europe for use in history and geography.

_e._ The use of United States Geological Survey Topographic Maps.

_f._ Use and means of securing weather maps.

_g._ Blackboard outline maps,—value and use.

_h._ Difficulties of securing certain much desired wall maps.

_B._ Globes:

_a._ One 10 or 12 inch political globe available in every room.

_b._ Globe to be of a size to be easily handled.

_c._ Political globe should be up-to-date; not overcrowded.

_d._ Blackboard globes,—how used.

_e._ Small physical or political globes for individual use.

_f._ The use of relief globes.

_C._ Apparatus:

_a._ Avoid large pieces and geographical diagrams.

_b._ Standard thermometer, barometer, compass, and wind vane to
be available.

_c._ Special pieces available for special purposes.

_D._ Illustrations:

_a._ Includes photographs, cuts from magazines, slides,
stereoscopic views.

_b._ Necessity of scheme for selection, classification, and
storage of materials.

_c._ Value of a few good illustrations as compared with a host of
poor illustrations.

_d._ Relative advantages of pictures, slides and stereoscope for
special purposes.

_e._ Mechanical difficulties incident to class use of
illustrations.