Chapter I: Part 1

Transcriber’s Note
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THE

TURNER’S COMPANION:

CONTAINING INSTRUCTIONS IN

CONCENTRIC, ELLIPTIC, AND ECCENTRIC TURNING;

ALSO VARIOUS

Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments:

AND

DIRECTIONS FOR USING THE ECCENTRIC CUTTER, DRILL, VERTICAL
CUTTER, AND CIRCULAR REST;

WITH PATTERNS,

AND INSTRUCTIONS FOR WORKING THEM.

PHILADELPHIA:
HENRY CAREY BAIRD,
INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER,
No. 406 WALNUT STREET.
1868.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Preface 11

History of the Lathe 18

Arc patterns described 105

—— ——, how worked 107

—— ——, observations upon 108

Balls, Chinese 68

Balls, how turned 111

Balls and hollow spheres 68

Black dye for ivory 64

Bleaching ivory 63

Boring collars 53

Boring tools 55

—— ——, how to use properly 56

Bottle 91

Box, how made 44

——, how polished 45

——, lined with orange-peel 124

—— —— —— tortoise-shell 124

Brass wheel 72

Catgut, advantage of 32

Cement for ivory 111

—— for turners 131

Circular rest 86

—— saw 38

Circles, how to begin 73

—— with eccentric chuck 97

Chain 111

Chisels 35

Chucks 39

——, to make in wood 42

——, choice of wood for 42

——, centering wood for 43

——, for work 46

——, traversing 52

——, how to use 53

Copper tools 36

Drill 80

——, shape and uses 80

——, description of tools belonging to 83

Eccentric turning 71

—— cutter described 74

—— ——, its uses 76

—— ——, its tools 76

—— —— patterns 77

—— —— chuck 94

—— —— ——, how to use 97

—— —— —— patterns 98

Eccentric cutter and chuck united 115

—— —— patterns worked with them 115

—— —— pillars 109

Elliptic machine 65

Flowers turned in ivory 69

Glue, to make 39

——, to use 39

Goneometer 85

Gouge 34

Hand saw 38

Handles of tools 37

Holly used for ivory 58

Hook and eye, how to use 32

Impressions of turning patterns 114

Ivory preferable to wood 63

——, how to polish 63

——, proper tools for turning 37

——, to cleanse from grease 64

——, to dye red 64

——, to dye black 65

Lathes 29

——, metallic and wooden 29

——, construction of 30

——, proper situation for 34

Lighter case 90

Lining patterns 73

Lines in ivory filled with ink 114

Mandrel described 31

Mastic, for turning ivory thin 128

——, to cleanse the ivory from 129

Milling tools 47

Moulding tools 37

Needle cases 90, 112

Overhead frame 74

Ornamented stoppers 92

Parallel rest 71

—— ——, how to use 72

—— ——, to move for side work 74

Pen-holder 81

Point tools 36

Polishing soft wood 45

—— hard wood 62

—— tortoise-shell 127

Printing in the lathe 69

Puppet 30

Rest 33

Regulating the chuck wheel 95

Right-side tools 35

Rings, to make 110

Snuff-box, lined with tortoise-shell 126

Saws 38

Scraping tool 36

Screws 48

——, tools for cutting 48

Spiral turning 112

Table of numbers 79

Tap 43

Tenon saw 38

Tools 34

——, proper method to sharpen 63

Tool rack 37

Tortoise-shell 124

Traversing mandrel 49

—— chuck 51

Turned temple 109

Turning patterns 77, 98, 105, 115

Twisted pillar, support for 133

Vertical cutter 88

Vandyke pattern 84

Varnish used in the lathe 129

Woods, English 57

——, foreign 58

——, to imitate mahogany 57

——, to stain red 60

—— —— yellow 61

—— —— black 61

—— —— purple 61

—— —— mahogany 32

PREFACE.

The primary object of the author, in offering THE TURNER’S COMPANION to the notice of the public, is the hope of explaining, in a clear, concise, and intelligible manner, the rudiments of this beautiful art; an art immortalized by the pen of Virgil, practised by the Greeks and Romans, and, as we are told, still existing in those exquisite _chef-d’œuvres_ of former years, so much admired and sought after in our century.

A short treatise on this subject is much wanted, and the author has endeavoured to give such correct and comprehensive information as will, he hopes, render the following pages useful as a book of practical instruction to the beginner, and of reference to those already advanced in the study of this beautiful science. The activity of mind requisite for the attainment of perfect success in all the various branches of Turning, by exercising the inventive and reflective powers, cannot fail of producing a beneficial effect on the character of youth, which must prove a lasting advantage; and the minute accuracy necessary for handling the tools, serves to confirm a steadiness of sight and hand that must, in after years, and in other branches of science, be highly appreciated.

From a long experience in the endless sources of interest and occupation derivable from this pleasing and salutary employment, the author feels assured that whoever has once patience and perseverance to overcome the first difficulties, will speedily, like himself, become an enthusiast in the art. And why should not our fair countrywomen participate in this amusement? Do they fear it is too masculine and laborious for a female hand? If so, that anxiety is easily removed; the rough work can be executed by any carpenter, and when once prepared, what occupation can be more interesting and elegant than ornamenting wood or ivory in delicate and intricate patterns, and imitating, with the aid of the lathe, the beautiful Chinese carving, so much and so justly admired? Besides, the taper fingers of the fair sex are far better suited than a man’s heavier hand, to produce the requisite lightness and clearness of effect. To our charitable countrywomen, who employ so much of their time in raising funds for the diffusion of Christianity in far distant lands, and for augmenting the comforts of the poor in our own happy land, the lathe will prove a most useful auxiliary, as well as to those who are anxious to bestow beautiful and cherished remembrances on absent friends.

Another very forcible argument in favour of the amusement of Turning being cultivated by the ladies and gentlemen of our free and independent country, and one which will, I am sure, plead most strongly with all parents and guardians, is, that all occupations within doors being usually of a sedentary nature, the exercise attendant upon the use of the lathe must prove highly beneficial to health; and one moment’s reflection will point out the incalculable advantage to be derived from instilling the love of useful employment in every youthful mind; or, when freed from the irksomeness of graver study, may they not seek companions and pursuits to whom they would ever have remained strangers, had their idle hours not hung heavy on their hands?

Should this little work prevail upon any of my readers to commence the study of this truly beautiful science, and should the occupation, as no doubt it must, prove a source of pleasure by adding to their amusement, it will amply repay the labour it has required, and bestow sincere gratification on the Author.

THE LATHE.

“The pride of arts from fair Ambition springs,
And blooms secure beneath her fostering wings,”

Among all the many descriptions of the varied, beautiful, and useful inventions that owe their discovery and perfection to the genius and hand of man, inventions that in so wonderful a degree assist and facilitate the operations of the mechanic, no one has ever written the history of the Lathe. It seems strange that in a land where mechanism is carried to its greatest extent, where science of every kind is fostered and encouraged, the beautiful machinery, the easy management, and wonderful precision obtained by the aid of the Lathe, have never yet, in our language, found a pen willing to describe them. And yet, to the architect, the mathematician, the astronomer, and the natural philosopher, Turning is as useful, nay indispensable, as to the watchmaker, the goldsmith, the joiner, and smith. And it is not by these alone that its powers are appreciated; many of those who by birth, station, and riches are not in a situation to require its aid in their scientific and mechanical operations, still find this art, from its great simplicity, from the perfect ease and accuracy with which the most delicate and intricate workmanship is performed, the agreeable occupation it gives to the mind, and the beauty, elegance, and utility of its products, one of the most interesting and healthful that can be followed.

The treasures of all lands are converted into various and beautiful articles by the aid of the lathe. Gold and silver, brass, iron, and copper,—the magnificent trees that grow in the deep forests of the West, and those that flourish on the burning plains of Africa—the ivory obtained from the tusks of the elephant and hippopotamus,—the coal, jet, alabaster, and marble, dug from the bowels of the earth—are all of the greatest value to the turner. A kind of cocoa nut has also lately been brought from the West Indies, which, being hard, white, and tough, renders it excellent for working in the lathe; when polished, it has the appearance of a substance between ivory and mother-of-pearl.

To the Greeks and Romans (for the exact place of its origin is not known) the invention of this ingenious machine is ascribed; and though, doubtless, in our time it has been greatly improved and perfected, still the ancients, to whom we owe so much, first discovered and used it; and by them its powers were so well appreciated, that we are told it became a proverb among them to say any thing was formed in the lathe to express its justness and accuracy.

The Greek and Latin authors frequently mention it in their writings, but they have not clearly handed down to posterity the name of the first inventor; indeed, on this point there are many and varied opinions. The Sicilian historian, Diodorus Siculus, informs us that the first person who made use of the lathe was a nephew of Dædalus, by some authors named Talus, by others Perdix. This youth, we are told, invented the saw, compasses, and other mechanical instruments; and to him we possibly are indebted for the lathe also, for we are told, in ancient mythological history, so great were his ingenuity and talent for invention, that his genius soon surpassed even that of his uncle, who, enraged at his celebrity, and jealous of his rising fame, scrupled not to sacrifice him to his feelings of rage and hatred: some say he was poisoned; others, that he was precipitated from a high tower in the citadel of Athens; and the same authors assure us he was changed into a partridge.

Pliny, however, (and his words are great authority), ascribes the invention of the lathe to Theodore, of Samos, an artist who discovered the method of melting iron, of which he made statues. The same author also mentions a man of the name of Thericles, who was celebrated for his dexterity in Turning; and Virgil says—

“Lenta quibus torno facili superaddita vitis.”

These testimonies, of ancient poets and historians conjoined, prove it to be an art of the greatest antiquity. Cicero also mentions it; and it is affirmed that, with this machine, the Greeks and Romans turned all kinds of urns and vases, and adorned them with ornaments in basso relievo. If to Turning we really owe those treasures of other days which are found buried among the ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii—treasures so valued by the antiquary as a memorial of former ages; by the lover of the fine arts as beautiful and graceful additions to his cabinet of curiosities; and by the rich and opulent as ornaments superior to any that modern hands can produce;—surely we must confess the workmanship of the lathes of our times is not to be compared with that performed by the more simple machinery of centuries ago. It seems, indeed, almost miraculous, that the beautiful figures and elegant and graceful designs here spoken of should be produced by a potter’s wheel, so was the lathe anciently denominated; but the testimonies of so many learned historians agree in declaring that to its aid we owe those exquisite productions, that it is impossible for even the most skeptical to deny it. Before we quit, what may not unaptly be denominated, the romance of the history of the lathe, we will add, that the saw, which we have already said was invented by Talus, is supposed to have been first made by him in imitation of either the jaw-bone of a snake, or else the back-bone of a fish; and in a painting still preserved among the antiquities of Herculaneum, is a saw exactly resembling our frame saw, with which two genii are dividing a piece of wood.

It is, however, certain, that could these Roman and Grecian artificers see a modern lathe, examine its complex yet beautiful mechanism, and the almost endless additions and improvements it has undergone since the days of Virgil and Pliny, they would hardly recognise it in its more finished state, and would be much puzzled to discover in what manner to manage its machinery. Among the numerous apparatus adjusted to it is a machine, by the aid of which medallions have been executed; and in the British Museum is a profile in basso relievo of Sir Isaac Newton, wholly worked in the lathe; but how different from the turning of the ancients! The medallion machine requires much labour and very expensive apparatus, while the potter’s wheel cannot have possessed much mechanism or great quantities of tools: most of those now in use being unknown in former days.

Having now established the great antiquity of the lathe as a useful and classical employment, we will briefly mention a few of the improvements it has undergone in latter years. The potter’s wheel is, of all lathes, the most simple; it merely consists of an iron beam, or axis, a small wooden wheel placed on the beam, and a larger one fastened to the end of the same beam, which turns by a pivot on an iron stand. With this simple contrivance the workman still forms the body of the vessel of clay, but never attempts to turn the handles, feet, mouldings or ornaments. In latter years, various and important tools and improvements have been made; chucks have been invented, which enable the turner to accomplish with speed and facility an almost innumerable variety of circles, lines, ellipses, and arcs, all so delicate and true in their form and design, that they cannot fail exciting the admiration and wonder of all who contemplate them. The screw also, once a formidable difficulty to the uninitiated, is now rendered perfectly easy of execution by means of the traversing mandrel; those, too, who are very learned in this art, can out of a piece of ivory or mother-of-pearl, produce in the lathe beautiful brooches, ear-rings, and studs, worked in raised flowers; chessmen in imitation of carving, and ornamented vases full of detached flowers; while fluted and spiral columns, delicate mouldings, and fanciful beadings, are of comparatively easy execution.

To form patterns upon wood or ivory, various descriptions of chucks are employed; one lathe serves for all, as they are made to screw on to the nose of the mandrel. By the aid of the concentric or common chuck, every article you turn is circular; the lines forming the circle are enlarged or decreased as the tool approaches or recedes from the axis. The oval chuck, as its name signifies, works designs of an oval or spherical shape; the eccentric turns patterns of a circular form, but its peculiar properties enable the workman to alter the centre of his work at pleasure: the geometric and compound eccentric produce beautiful geometric and carved designs; the oblique and the epicycloidal also turn curious and intricate patterns, and the straight line chuck performs all its work in direct lines. These are the chucks most in use, but many of them are expensive and complicated, and they only execute the ornamental work; the shape and size of the object are accomplished by the lathe, without any aid but that of a common chuck and common tools.

The curious and varied mechanism of the above-mentioned chucks are truly wonderful, and the patterns they perform very beautiful; one of peculiar form, and exceedingly intricate, has been invented for bankers’ checks, to prevent forgery. There are also two rests, which are necessary appendages to them; the sliding rest, that moves in a direct line at any angle, and the circular rest, which enables the turner to ornament balls, spheres, and round objects. We must not omit, too, to mention the eccentric cutter, the drill, and the universal cutter, all exceedingly useful, and enabling the turner to execute a great variety of designs and patterns. The rose engine, also, is much admired for all kinds of ornamental work, but it is very expensive, and new inventions are daily adding to the machinery of the lathe, and rendering its powers more extensive.

The wonderful discovery of voltaic electricity, by which copper-plates, plaster casts, wood engravings, and medals may be copied, can also be applied in various ways to turning, either in wood or ivory. For instance, by its aid a wooden thimble may be changed into the resemblance of gold, or a box take the appearance of silver; thus, while your work retains its first beauty and delicacy, the material is apparently of much value. It would be going beyond the bounds of a work on turning, to give any directions for this transmutation, particularly as there are so many already published on the subject. We must also add, that by a careful and steady management, the drill may be made almost to take the place of the graver; by holding a plate of copper steadily against it, and using various tools, (not letting the lathe go too quick,) portraits and landscapes can be executed for printing.

Having now finished this short sketch, which we hope will not be unacceptable to our readers, and will perhaps induce them to follow this interesting and healthful occupation, we must beg that those who peruse “The Turner’s Companion,” and follow the directions it contains, will not be daunted by the first difficulties that assail them, but will patiently persevere till experience enables them to overcome and vanquish them, remembering that—

“The wise and active conquer difficulties,
By daring to attempt them. Sloth and folly
Shiver and shrink at sight of toil and hazard,
And make th’ impossibility they fear.”

LIST OF TOOLS NECESSARY FOR TURNING.

Gouges.
Chisels.
Scrapers.
Side tools.
Point tools.
Moulding tools.
Inside tools.
Planes.
Drills.
Hatchet.
Mallet.
Hammer.
Files.
Vice.
Hand Vice.
Gimlets.
Saws.
Screw-driver.
Pincers.
Compasses.
Rule.
Callipers.
T square.
Brace and Bits.
Screw tools.
Milling tools.
Oil-can.
Glue-pot.
Sand Paper.
Chalk.
Glue.
Isinglass.
Pumice Stone.
Nails.

THE

TURNER’S COMPANION.

The machines used for Turning, whether round or oval objects, are called Lathes; they are of various shapes and sizes; some very small, as those generally used by watchmakers; others very large and powerful, for turning iron; and others, the kind I am going to describe, of a middling size, for fashioning wood and ivory. The large lathes, being too heavy to be worked with the foot, are usually turned by a steam-engine, but the foot-lathe is the most convenient for the turner in wood; it may be made of iron or wood: if of the latter, it should be constructed entirely of very hard, well-seasoned oak, or of mahogany. There are various opinions respecting the advantages and disadvantages of metallic and wooden lathes; in the former, it is impossible to obviate an elastic tremor, which is unpleasant and injurious; but then, on the other hand, they are so much more durable and compact; and they enable you to perform your work with so much more accuracy and exactitude, that they are, on the whole, perhaps, to be preferred. The drawing given in Plate 1 will serve as a pattern for either an iron or a wooden lathe; but as the workman could construct the latter for himself, we will suppose the description we are about to give relates to a wooden one.

The bed of the lathe, B B, may be of any length required, and is firmly fastened with bolts to the uprights O O, which form the legs of the lathe, and to which the bed is strongly attached by bolts passing through both; while the nuts that draw them tight, being what is called _countersunk_, are of no inconvenience to the workman. The feet and the two uprights must also be firmly fastened to the legs O O; and to prevent the least unsteadiness or motion, they must be screwed strongly to the floor, and must be of a sufficient size to form a solid support to the lathe.

The left hand puppets, C D, or, as they are sometimes called, the headstock, should be of iron, and cast in one piece. The under part fits tightly into the open space in the bed of the lathe, and is fixed there with screws; while the two cheeks of the puppets rest _on_ the bed itself. The mandrel E, to prevent, as much as you can, any vibration, should be as long as possible; it runs in a metal collar, through the puppets C D, and is of steel, turned perfectly cylindrical; it is kept constantly oiled, by pouring a few drops of oil upon it through holes made in each of the puppets. The screw E, at the end, is called the nose of the spindle, and upon it the chucks intended to receive the work are screwed. The back puppet, G, is used to support long pieces of wood; it is moved backwards and forwards on the bed of the lathe, so as to suit the work upon which you are occupied, by loosening the screw L; within the upper part of G is a steel spindle, J, which screws in and out of the headstock, by turning the screw K. Care must be taken that the point of this spindle be exactly on a line with the nose of the mandrel, E. The point, J, takes out, and another nose, L, can be inserted in its place, to receive the pointed end of any small work, should it be more convenient.

Upon the spindle is a brass or a mahogany wheel, F; it has three grooves in it, and the great wheel, K, has three similar grooves turned in a V, so as more effectually to take hold of the band which moves them round. The three different grooves in this wheel, and in the small one, give different velocities to them. The band which turns them is made of strong catgut, and passes under the lower and over the upper wheel, working in the corresponding grooves of each; it is joined with a hook and eye of iron, that have a screw in them. Slightly taper off with a sharp penknife a little of each end of the catgut, so that it will just enter the hook and eye; then hold the band firmly in a vice with your left hand, and with your right take up the hook or eye in a pair of pincers, and screw it upon the catgut till quite firm. This is a far better means of joining the band than any other that can be employed, as the hooks and eyes seldom give way, and obviate the necessity of knots or joins, which are always clumsy and inconvenient. Cord, too, gives way with the variations of the atmosphere, so that it constantly requires shortening in dry, and lengthening in rainy weather; catgut is so slightly influenced by these changes, that its use is far preferable. The treadle, N, when moved up and down with the foot, gives motion to the two wheels, and thus the spindle, with the wood to be worked screwed upon it, is turned round with a quick or slow movement. The axle of the great wheel, S, works in two screws, Q; the crank, M, is connected at one end with the axle, S, and at the other hooks into the treadle frame, N. Plenty of oil should be given to the axle at Q to enable it to work easily. The rest which supports the tools is represented at Fig. 1, and M; it is made of iron, and consists of three parts; the lower has a forked foot, T, which rests upon the bed of the lathe, and enables it to be drawn backwards and forwards, so as to accommodate the workman; this foot is held in its place by a bolt, O, which, passing through the bed of the lathe, is sufficiently broad to rest upon each side of the foot, T, and is tightened by a screw that passes underneath the lathe, P, through which it passes; the upper part of the rest is a cross piece of iron with a cylindrical stem, that fits into the socket, U, and is moved up and down, to the right or the left, by loosening the screw, H. The workman should have rests of different sizes, to suit various kinds of work, but they must all fit into the same socket.

Having now given a clear description of a lathe, I need only add, that it should be placed opposite a window, so as to have the benefit of as much light as possible; a skylight above the head is also a great advantage. As it is indispensably necessary for the learner to exercise himself in plain turning, that is, in the formation of different articles, so as to be able to turn them perfectly round, oval, or hollow, as required, before attempting more difficult and complicated work, we will now give a list of the most useful tools for this purpose.

For the wood, the gouge, Fig. 1, plate 1, is first to be employed, to reduce the unevenness of your work; its edge is rounded. To use it, place the rest on a level with the axis of the work, and hold the handle of the tool downwards so that its cutting edge is _above_ the axis. These tools are useful for making concave mouldings. In using them, do not push them roughly against the wood till it becomes tolerably even, or you will spoil their edge and chip the work; and hold your hands very steady.

The chisel, Fig. 2, is next used, to give a smooth and polished appearance to the wood. Its cutting edge is oblique. Elevate the rest considerably _above_ the axis of the work, so that, though held with a less inclination than the gouge, the edge of the chisel operates on a higher part of the surface. Use this tool at first with great caution, for it is much more difficult to manage than the gouge; with an inexperienced hand, the point is apt to dig into the wood, quite spoiling its surface, or else, by pressing it too firmly upon the work, it cuts great pieces in an uneven manner. When skillfully used, it should feel almost to work by itself, merely running steadily along the wood, shaving off all its inaccuracies, and making it look quite bright, smooth, and polished. All soft woods are entirely turned with the gouge and chisel, of both of which you must have several sizes.

Fig. 3 is called a right-side tool, and has two cutting edges, a side edge and an end edge: so as at the same time to cut the bottom and side of a cavity. The left-side tool cuts with the opposite side. In using them, hold the bevel which forms the edge downwards.

Fig. 4 is a point tool, useful for making small mouldings, and much employed in finishing the shoulders and flat ends of work.

Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, are inside tools, used to turn out hollows; also to make cups, and various other articles.

Fig. 10 is a parting tool, used to cut off work, and to make incisions.

Fig. 11 is used exclusively for very hard woods, as cocoas and ebony, which chip if attempted to be smoothed with a chisel; also for turning ivory, bone, or jet; one side and the end are sharp. This tool is very strong, and requires some practice to use it well. Be very careful, in sharpening it, to keep the front edge quite straight, or else, in hollowing out boxes, the inner sides will not be turned out evenly; that is, one part will be thinner than another. This tool is held flat upon the rest, which must be on a level with the axis of the work, or sometimes the tool, by raising the handle, may be lowered so as just to scrape the wood. It is frequently called a graver; in turning metals, it is the tool first used. Copper and brass are easy to turn, and in case of necessity, it is useful to have the proper tools, and to know how to manage them.

These tools all are indispensably necessary to the turner, and he should exercise himself constantly in their use; for until he becomes quite master of them, he will injure, spoil, chip, and destroy, whatever he attempts to turn.

Figs. 12 and 13 are very useful to make mouldings of various kinds.

The handles of the tools must be made of very hard wood, and it is a great convenience to have them all of nearly the same size; for the hand, getting accustomed to them, manages them with more facility. Drive the tool firmly into the handle, and hold it there by a broad brass ring, as in No. 1.

To keep the tools in good order, that is, properly ground and sharp, demands great attention. If they become chipped, grind them even on a grindstone, taking care that the BEVELS retain their proper angles. To avoid spoiling their edges, and to enable you to have them always near at hand, a rack perforated with holes, into which they can slip, is very useful. This rack may be fastened against the wall, near the lathe. A screw-driver, two or three different-sized gimlets, and nails of various kinds, must always form part of the turner’s tool-box; also some files, and a hand-vice.

Before we leave the description of turning tools, we will mention the saw, which is an indispensable addition to the tool-box. There are many kinds, but the most useful are the hand-saw, the tenon saw, and the circular saw. The first is about twenty-six inches long, and is generally made with four teeth to an inch. It is used for cutting wood across, and in the direction of its fibres. The teeth at the lower end are smaller than the upper ones, by which means the wood is not so much torn as if the teeth were all of an equal size. The tenon saw is used for cutting across the fibres of wood; the smallest saw of this kind is about fourteen inches long, the largest about twenty inches. Circular saws are of all sizes; they are easily fitted up with a spindle, which, being screwed on to the nose of the mandrel, and supported at the other end by the back puppet, enables the workman to turn them by the wheel of the lathe, while at the same time he holds the wood or ivory firmly against them. Should a larger circular saw be required, it is more advisable to fit it up separately from the lathe, with a frame-work and wheel to itself.

Glue, which is very necessary for turners, requires some little care in preparing; it must first be steeped for several hours in cold water to soften it; if it swells without melting, it is good, and must then be dissolved in water; the proper quantities are, a quart of water to half a pound of glue. The heat should be just enough to melt it, and the pan in which it is contained must be placed in a larger copper vessel, filled with water; by this means, when the water in the outer pan boils, the glue will be dissolved without any fear of its burning, which would immediately spoil it. When you are going to glue a piece of wood to a chuck, put very little glue thinly and evenly over the surface of the latter, then press the wood upon it firmly, and place a lead weight upon them to unite them perfectly.

CHUCKS.

The chucks, upon which the material to be turned, whether of wood, ivory, or metal, is always fixed, next demand our attention. They are of every variety of size and form, and are all screwed upon the mandrel of the lathe. Many are made of brass; others (the most numerous, because the turner can make them for himself), are of wood; but these latter should be used soon after they are made; for if not constructed of very dry, hard wood, any great variation in the weather will cause them to shrink, and thus the screw becomes slightly altered, and will not fit tightly to the neck of the mandrel. To avoid the expense of having many brass chucks, which would be very great, if we procured them of the size and shape requisite for all kinds of work, it is a good plan to have several brass plates made about the size of half-a-crown, plate 2, A, with a screw in them, to fit upon the mandrel, and four screw-nails with which to fasten them to wooden chucks of any form. Thus, when these chucks are worn out, unscrew the brass plates and screw them on to others. In plate 2 are the drawings of several chucks, which are useful for various purposes; they are all made of brass, with a screw that fits upon the mandrel. B is a brass plate, about two inches in diameter; from the middle projects a tapering screw, about half an inch long. This is used to hold any thing that is flat, as a stand, or candlestick base, or, with the aid of the back puppet, to support a long piece of wood, while turning down to fit a stronger chuck. For this purpose, bore a hole in the wood, and screw it on to the chuck. C is the same shape, but has five iron points projecting from its surface; upon them the wood must be firmly fixed by hammering it on. It is better to use the back puppet, as the wood is apt to become loosened by a sudden jar, or any unevenness in the surface.

D is universally useful, either for large or small pieces of work. The wood or ivory may be turned to the proper size to fit, on the chuck B, and then driven firmly into the hollow cup with a wooden mallet; or a piece of common wood may be made to fit it tightly, and a hole turned in it to hold the object you intend to turn.

E is called a ring chuck, and is made of box wood. Drill a hole through the centre, and then saw it across in six parts. By its being turned smaller at one end than at the other, this chuck opens at the _sawgates_; you then drive on to it, with a hammer, a ring of metal, and the wood inserted in the hole will remain immovable.

F is called a square hole chuck, the hole in the middle having several drills and bits to use with it, as in 3, 4, 5, 6. G is called a die chuck: it is the same in shape as the cup chuck, only not so deep, and it has several screws passing through its sides at equal distances, and meeting in the centre, by which the work is held, so that it serves equally for a large or a small object.

H is exactly the same in shape as G; with the addition of an _arm_, No. 1, the use of which is as follows. If this chuck does not turn the wood round properly, fasten to the latter what is called a _carrier_, No. 2, the end of which, projecting further than the chuck, rests upon the arm, 1, and causes all to turn together.

These appear to us to be the chucks most universally in use for concentric turning; the ordinary ones the turner may make of wood, and those for ornamental work we shall mention hereafter.

It may, however, be as well to describe the method of making the wood chucks:—Select a piece of close-grained dry wood—box is the best; having taken off the corners and made it tolerably round with a chisel, or a small hatchet, you must then find the centre of the two ends. To do this, lay the piece of wood on a bench; open a pair of compasses to nearly half the diameter of the piece; fix one point of the compasses firmly in the middle, and with the other draw a circle as near the edge of the wood as you can. If you find the circle is not exact, but further from the edge on one side than the other, alter the position of the compasses, till they become right. Bore a hole in the centre, when found, and screw the wood on to the chuck, B. Place your rest _facing_ the work, and cut in the centre of it a hole, the depth and NEARLY the size of the screw on the nose of the mandrel. This done, take the piece of wood off the brass chuck, and fasten it firmly in a vice; then screw into the hole a TAP, which has been made on purpose to fit the screw of the mandrel. This tap cuts a thread as you turn it round in the hole, so that when you unscrew it, you have only to screw the wood to the nose of the mandrel, taking care to make it fit quite close to the shoulder; it must then be turned quite round and smooth with the gouge and chisel, and the face of it also perfectly flat, which is seen by holding against it the flat part of the T square, plate 1, R. If the square touches all the face of the chuck, it is ready to receive the wood; but if you can in any part see the light between them, take the chisel and smooth it over again. The chuck being ready, cut a piece of wood, we will say for a box, round it with a chisel, take some thin glue, and fasten the wood to the chuck with it. When quite hard and dry, begin to turn the sides even, then cut down the groove to receive the lid, which should be glued on to another chuck. To hollow out the box, turn the rest to the face of the work and use the gouge. When of a sufficient depth, take the _callipers_, plate 1, K, push the small ends down the box to the bottom, stretch them out as far as they will, and set the screw, then pull them slowly out, so as to measure the size of the top of the inside of the box; if not exactly the same, turn out a little more of the bottom. Now begin to smooth the outside and hollow out the lid, taking great care to make it fit exactly the groove made in the bottom of the box; for this purpose the callipers must be set, so that the forked end stretches to the width of the circumference of the groove; you will then find that the other end will be exactly the same width, and keep trying them to the inside of the lid, till they enter it very tightly; then try the lid on the bottom, and it will fit. By thus using the callipers, you are saved much trouble in taking the work on and off the lathe, to fit the parts together.

You must now cut the lid off the chuck, either with the parting tool, or with a saw, and having it firmly placed on the bottom, smooth and finish off the sides so that they look quite even, and as if there was no separation between them. This done, move the rest to the front of the lid, and finish it up the same, taking care not to leave the slightest scratch or unevenness on the surface; then rub the whole of the work well with sand paper, making the lathe turn very rapidly, first one way, then the other, and finish by rubbing it over with a drop of olive oil on a piece of rag, and the shavings of the wood. The great beauty of turning consists in all the parts being exact, shining, well finished off, and not too thick; to attain this latter perfection, experience is necessary, and I should advise constant practice in turning box-wood and holly, till the learner is able to make his boxes fit properly, and also look neat and light. The lid being finished, lay it aside, and saw off the bottom; then turn its own chuck to a proper size to receive it, while you smooth and polish the outer part. It is requisite to be very particular in the manner of chucking work, such as boxes, thimbles, or any thing that has been hollowed out; and remember always to make a chuck to fit INTO THEM, instead of putting THEM into one. It is also better to leave a shoulder that the work can rest against,—you are then sure that it is supported evenly; if not, you may find that the slightest inclination to one side or the other will cause you to turn one side much thinner than the other; and if you are working, we will say the top of a box, it will always look crooked, and if the bottom, it will never stand steady. Should the box feel loose and fall off the chuck before it is finished, a little chalk may be rubbed upon the former, which will give it a firmer hold, and prevent the slipperiness consequent on the friction of two pieces of wood; and sometimes a thin piece of paper inserted between them is useful in the same way; for although the work should fit close and firm on the chuck, if the chuck be _too large_, so that you have to use force to make them unite, you will most probably split your work all to pieces. Great care also is requisite to get it off the chuck; insert one of the small chisels between it and the shoulder of the chuck, and move it slightly, first on one side, then on the other. Many neat ornaments may be made on boxes with the smaller chisels, such as lines and mouldings; and there are several useful and ornamental tools, called _milling tools_, (see plate 5, Nos. 1, 2, 3), which are not expensive, and give much effect to the work. They consist of small wheels, upon which the pattern is cut. Place the rest so that there is space for the wheel to turn between it and the work, push it close up to the wood, hold the handle very firmly with both hands, so that the tool cannot slip, and with a few quick turns of the wheel of the lathe, the pattern will be clearly impressed upon the wood. With these simple tools innumerable beautiful articles may be finished; and though they require neither the application nor talent that can be displayed in performing other ornamental work with the eccentric chuck, cutter, and drill, still they possess two great advantages—cheapness, and facility of management, and are easily procured.

By a little attention and ingenuity, a great variety of elegant and useful articles may be made on the lathe, with the assistance of but a limited collection of tools,—such as thimbles, boxes, cups, rings, stands, small vases, stilettos, pen-handles, pin-cushions, needle-cases, and vinaigrettes.

THE SCREW.

We now come to the most difficult operation in turning, that of cutting a screw; to perform it well and easily is a proof of the workman’s skill and proficiency in the art. There are many ways of doing it; we shall therefore give the best and least expensive. The screw tools, figures 14 and 15, plate 1, must fit exactly one into the other. Fig. 15 is an outside, Fig. 14 an inside tool. As the threads may be required to be cut coarse or fine, according to the work you are engaged upon, the small grooves in the tools are made to suit. Having turned your box quite round, and hollowed it out, cut the groove upon which the lid is to fit; place the rest at a convenient distance, turn the wheel, not too fast, and move the outside screw-tool along the rest with a regular horizontal motion, and it will cut a screw, the threads of which will fill up the space between the teeth of the tool. But care must be taken to jerk the tool off when at the end of the space intended for the screw; or if it be allowed to remain stationary, cutting the wood, the threads will be destroyed, and become useless. When this is well done, turn out the lid of the box till it nearly fits the bottom, and in the same manner press the inside screw tool against the side of the cavity, draw it out horizontally as the work moves round, and if carefully managed, it will soon be made to fit upon the outside screw. As, however, to accomplish this well, and with precision, great practice is requisite, an invention, called a traversing mandrel, is frequently used, particularly by beginners: we will endeavour to give a description of its form and use.

At the end of the mandrel A, pl. 4, is a brass cylinder, I, which fits upon the end, and is kept in its place by a nut, 2, which screws firmly into it. Below this, fixed to a brass plate that rises and lowers at pleasure by turning the screw-key, B, is attached the screw-guide; (a brass plate cut into grooves of various sizes to suit the thread you wish to cut, fig. 3;) this guide moves round on a pin. To use this machine, unscrew the nut B, pull off the brass cylinder, and in its place put on the guide, C, and screw the nut in again; turn the other guide, 3, to the groove which corresponds with it, and which is usually numbered, to avoid mistakes; turn the key B till the lower guide meets the one you have just put on the mandrel, and slips easily into it. You will now find that by only allowing the fly-wheel to move _half round_ and back again, the mandrel will run backwards and forwards, and thus have the exact motion requisite for cutting a screw. Fix your rest, and hold your tool (which must have the same sized thread as the guide then on the mandrel) quite steady upon the rest, against the revolving wood, and in a few minutes the screw will be produced. The inside screw is made in the same manner, with the inside tool, by turning the rest in front of the work. Do not press the tool too hard to the wood at first, till the threads are slightly cut, so that the teeth may enter always in the same place. About six different-sized screw guides and tools to fit will be quite sufficient for an amateur turner. There is also another way of cutting screws, by means of a traversing chuck. On the mandrel, R, pl. 4, is screwed the chuck B, to which are screwed the chucks of the lathe, R. On the outside of B is turned a screw, fitted to an inside screw worked in the block C, from which extends an arm, D, sufficiently long to allow the arm E to slide up and down it; a piece of iron should be screwed to the circular block, C, of such a length as to be capable of moving in a groove that may be cut in the collar; it is intended to prevent the block C from turning quite round. The rest, G, must not stand, as usual, parallel to the work in cutting the outside screw, but at right angles, as when an inside screw is to be cut, in order that the further arm of the rest, F, may be joined to the end of the second arm, G. It is necessary that the second arm, E, shall be capable of fastening firmly the first arm, D, to any part of the rest, G, F, as also to have a joint at each end, to admit in a horizontal plane its free action. Thus, as the lathe turns to or from us, the arms must traverse forwards or backwards, which gives a similar motion to the tool, H, that is screwed firm to the further arm, F, of the rest, and thus you can cut a screw with a single point tool. Of course any unsteadiness would spoil the screw. If you draw the centre of the rest nearer to you, and thus bring the tool nearer to the arm, E, a screw of a much larger-sized thread will be cut; for as the rest, turning in its socket, moves on a centre, the further the tool is from the centre, the greater will be the radius of the circle described, and _vice versâ_.

It may, perhaps, be feared that a piece of wood so far from the collar, K, may be apt to spring; but this is easily avoided, by not making use of the chuck, B, till the screw is to be turned. Another disadvantage would seem to arise from the impossibility of cutting screws when the puppet head is made use of. But this may also be obviated by lengthening the arm, E, to the part where the screw is to be cut, and thus we have the same screw as the traversing one. The socket, S, slides on the rest, and may be fastened to it by a screw, the upper part that turns on a pivot admits the arm, E, to slide through it, which arm is held firm with a screw.

At the commencement of the work, the rest stands at right angles with the wood on which the screw must be cut; then, by bringing it back to its original angle, and sliding forwards the tool to the last thread of the screw that was just cut, we proceed to any length required. When two or three threads are cut, the most unskillful turner will be able to continue the screw with a common screw tool.

BORING COLLAR.

Fig. D, plate 4, is a boring collar, used to support any long slender body which is required to be turned hollow. Without a support of this kind it would be impossible to keep the wood in its place; and it would either incline from the centre, thus causing the hollow to be drilled out quite crooked, or it would spring from the chuck. To obviate these two inconveniences, the two collars, figs. C and D, plate 4, are employed. In the former one, which is made of iron or brass, the holes are conical, and their centres are all precisely at the same distance from the axis of the collar. In using it, remove the right hand puppet, and provide a much lower one. Through it drill a hole, the same size as that in the centre of the boring collar. The centre of this hole must be in the same line with the centre of the mandrel. The collar, when attached to it, faces the mandrel, and is held firm by a screw. When fixed, the centre hole is opposite the axis of the mandrel; and when the largest hole is used, it clears the top of the headstock to which it is affixed. The end of the work to be bored being placed in the hole which fits it, the tool is held upon the rest against its centre, and the boring is easily and accurately performed.