Chapter VI: Part 6

“The establishment of a chair of teaching is a recognition of the truth that the art of education has its correlative science; and that the processes of the school-room can become rational only by developing and teaching the principles that underlie these processes. Systems of public instruction are everywhere on trial, and the final criteria by which they are to stand or fall must be found in a philosophical study of the educating art.

“3. To teach the history of education, and of educational systems and doctrines.

“The supreme right of the school is to grow; and much hurtful interference might be avoided by ascertaining the direction of educational progress and the history of educational thought.

“4. To secure to teaching the rights, prerogatives, and advantages of a profession.

“5. To give a more perfect unity to our State educational system by bringing the secondary schools into closer relations with the University.”

The Teacher’s diploma is given to a student at the time of receiving a Bachelor’s degree, provided he has completed three Courses of study offered by the professor of the Science and Art of Teaching, viz., Courses 1 and 2, and one of Courses 3, 5, 4, 6, or 7, and, also, at least one of the Teachers’ Courses offered by other professors, and by special examination has shown such marked proficiency in the Course chosen as qualifies him to give instruction in the same. The diploma is also given to a graduate student at the time of receiving a Master’s or a Doctor’s degree, provided he has pursued teaching as a major or a minor study, and has also taken a Teacher’s Course in some other department.

By authority of an Act of the State legislature, passed in 1891, the Faculty of this Department give a Teacher’s Certificate to any person who takes a Bachelor’s, Master’s, or Doctor’s degree, and also receives a Teacher’s diploma as provided above. By the terms of the Act, the certificate given by the Faculty “shall serve as a legal certificate of qualification to teach in any of the schools of this State, when a copy thereof shall have been filed or recorded in the office of the legal examining officer or officers of the county township, city, or district.”

To meet these special requirements the following courses have been arranged:--

_First Course_:

1. Practical: the arts of teaching and governing; methods of
instruction and general school-room practice; school hygiene: school
law. Recitations and lectures.

3. History of education: ancient and mediæval. Recitations and
lectures. Text-book: Compayré’s History of Pedagogy.

5. School supervision; embracing general school management, the art
of grading and arranging courses of study, the conduct of institutes,
etc. Recitations and lectures. Text-book; Payne’s chapters on School
Supervision.

_Second Course_:

2. Theoretical and critical; the principles underlying the arts of
teaching and governing. Lectures.

4. History of education; modern. Recitations and lectures. Text-book;
Compayré’s History of Pedagogy.

6. The comparative study of educational systems, domestic and
foreign. Lectures.

7. Seminary. Study and discussion of special topics in the History
and Philosophy of Education.

Special Teachers’ Courses are also arranged for in most subjects, and
attendance at one at least of these is necessary in order to obtain
the Teacher’s diploma.

The University of Illinois has a course in Pedagogy which may count towards a degree. It may count towards most of the degrees granted, but for the degree in philosophy and pedagogy, and which implies a four years’ course, the arrangement is as follows:--

The first and second years of this course may be those of any course in the College of Literature.

THIRD YEAR.

1. Psychology; Chemistry or History; Latin, German or French.

2. Logic; Zoology, or History, Latin, German, or French.

3. Philosophy of Education; Geology, or History; Latin, German or
French.

FOURTH YEAR.

1. History of Education; Educational Psychology; History of
Civilization; English (half course); Elocution.

2. School hygiene; Constitutional History (England); English, (half
course); Elocution.

3. School Supervision; Pedagogical Seminary; Political Economy, or
Constitutional History (U.S.); English, (half course); Elocution.

The University of Indiana possesses a department of pedagogics the courses of which count towards a degree. There are three courses.

I.

(_a_) Educational Psychology (a knowledge of Psychology being
presupposed).
(_b_) The School as an Institution.
(_c_) The General History of Education.

II.

(_a_) The Science of Education.
(_b_) Didactics.
(_c_) City School Systems.
(_d_) School Supervision.

III.

(_a_) Contemporary Education.
(_b_) School System of Indiana.
(_c_) Philosophy of Education.

Special Teachers’ Courses in certain subjects are also given.

The School of Pedagogy in connection with the University of the City of New York, is based upon the idea that a degree should follow successful teaching. It has three professors and a lecturer. Only those are admitted as regular students who are graduates of Colleges, or of the New York State Normal Schools, but others may, at the discretion of the Faculty, be admitted as auditors. It was established in 1890 and has had 134 students.

The courses of study are as follows:--

1. History of Education.
2. Psychology and Ethics.
3. Institutes of Education.
4. Educational Classics and Æsthetics.
5. Systems of Education.

For the degree of Doctor of Pedagogy a thesis to be known as the “Thesis for the Doctorate in Pedagogy” has to be submitted for approval to the Faculty. This thesis must discuss a subject belonging to the field of one of the courses of study, and must show original treatment, or give evidence of independent research.

Each student who has been a member of the Senior Class for two or more years will be entitled to the degree of Doctor of Pedagogy upon the following conditions:--

1. He must have been credited with attendance upon the required
lectures.

2. He must have been credited with attendance upon the required
seminaria.

3. He must have passed an examination upon each of the five courses.

4. He must have presented the prescribed final thesis, and have
received approval of the same.

5. He must have presented upon entering the School of Pedagogy a
certain certificate showing four years’ successful experience in
school-room work.

Each student of the School who has been a member of the Junior Class for one or more years, and a resident student at least one year, will be entitled to the degree of Master of Pedagogy upon the following conditions:--

1. He must have been credited with attendance upon the required
lectures.

2. He must have passed the examination upon each of the four courses
first named.

3. He must present a certificate showing three years’ successful
experience in school-room work.

The Iowa University was the first to allow pedagogics to count towards a degree. Graduates of the University who have included in their course the year’s course of pedagogy may, after two years of successful teaching, be granted the degree of Bachelor of Didactics.

There is at New York an Institution which appeared to me to be unique in America, but of which the work more nearly resembled the best Secondary Training as carried on in Great Britain than any other which I had the opportunity of studying. It is known as the New York College for the Training of Teachers. It received its charter from the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York in 1889, constituting it a Training College with the power of granting professional degrees. This year, however, it enters on a new phase of its life, having been affiliated with the Columbia College at New York.

Columbia College had already made provision for lectures on the Science and Art of Education, but its connection with the Teachers’ College, will enable it to offer in addition the advantages of training in the practical art of teaching to its students. On the other hand, it is felt to be an advantage to the Teachers’ College to be allied with a College of University rank--Columbia College--which will thus show by example that it is possible to combine both theoretical and practical training in a University Course.

The full course of study leading to the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy occupies two years. All candidates for admission must pass an entrance examination unless they are graduates from Colleges or other specified Institutions.

The ordinary course of study includes the following subjects:--

1. Psychology (pure and applied).

2. History and Principles of Education.

3. Methods of Teaching.

4. Observation and Practice in the School of Observation and Practice.

5. School Organization and Administration in the United States,
England, France and Germany.

6. Theory and Practice of the Kindergarten.

7. Teaching of Natural Science and construction of simple
illustrative Apparatus.

8. Manual Training (this includes Form Study, Drawing, Domestic
Economy, Mechanical Drawing and Wood Working).

All are recommended to take the general Course by special opportunities offered to those who wish to become specialists.

Any teacher of high scholarship and experience may come to the College for one year and take up an advanced elective course.

I. The degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy and the College diploma, respectively, are conferred, upon recommendation of the Faculty, upon such students, being duly qualified candidates for the same, as have completed a course of study covering two years, as follows:--

_Required work in the following Departments_:

Department of History and Institutes of Education.
Department of Science and Art of Teaching.
Department of Kindergarten, Course I.
Department of Form Study and Drawing, Course I.
Department of Physical Training.

_Elective_:

A major course or minor courses.

II. The College Certificate is conferred, upon recommendation of the President, the Dean, and the Professor in charge of any department, upon such qualified candidates as have completed a course of study covering one year, as follows:--

_Required_:

Department of History and Institutes of Education.
Department of Science and Art of Teaching.
Department of Physical Culture.

_Elective_:

In any department, a major course, together with such other minor
courses as will suffice to make up the required amount of work.

III. The Departmental Certificate, Major or Minor, is conferred, upon recommendation of the professors in charge of the departments in which studies leading to this certificate are pursued, upon such qualified candidates as have completed a course of study as follows:--

Department of History and Institutes of Education, Course I.

In any department or departments, either Major or Minor courses.

There is also a two years’ course for the training of Kindergartners, on the completion of which a certificate is granted, and a post-graduate course for those who desire it.

One hundred and twenty-six students were in training when I visited it, and of these only three or four were men.

The whole course of training centres round the School of Observation and Practice. The lecturers on method also teach in the school, and are responsible there for the teaching of their own special subjects. They give lessons on these, which are listened to by the students, and they also criticise lessons given by the latter. A good deal of the time devoted to the study of methods is employed in the learning how to make simple apparatus and illustrations.

Classes are held on Saturdays for those who are engaged in teaching during the rest of the week.

The college has also undertaken the publication of a series of pamphlets on educational subjects.

The whole work of this college impressed me as being of a very high character, and there was such an atmosphere of life and enthusiasm that it would seem that teachers must go forth from thence inspired with a love for their work and a determination to advance it by every means in their power. It is just this rousing to enthusiasm which seems to lie at the root of training, and the surest means of bringing this about is for those who undertake it to be enthusiastic themselves. I had the opportunity of talking to most of the lecturers, and shall not readily forget the keen interest and pleasure they all seemed to take in their special departments, the readiness, nay eagerness, with which they appeared to welcome new ideas and work them out, and the willingness with which they shared with others the results of their own experience and research.

One of the most interesting of the many institutions which I visited was the Clark University at Worcester. It is entirely devoted to Graduate work, and consists of a group of five departments: 1. Mathematics; 2. Physics; 3. Chemistry; 4. Biology; 5. Psychology (with sub-department of Education).

Two or three years’ work at the University and an original thesis are the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

There is no very clearly marked line between professors and students. Students are often specialists, and as such asked to give short courses in their special subjects, and professors and lecturers attend each other’s courses.

Docents, or those who, having fulfilled certain conditions, desire to undertake research work, are provided with rooms and apparatus for their work.

The President, Dr. Stanley Hall, is especially interested in the department of Education. The following outline of the course is from the University Calendar:--

“EDUCATION.--This has been made a sub-department of the department
of Psychology, and now offers a course which can be taken as a Minor
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Its work is in the closest
connection with the work in psychology and anthropology, and in part
based on these. The work in this department is intended to meet the
needs of the following classes of men:

“_First._--Those intending to teach some other speciality, but
who wish a general survey of the history, present state, methods,
and recent advances in the field of university, professional, and
technical education.

“_Second._--Those who desire to become professors of pedagogy, or
heads or instructors in normal schools, superintendents, or otherwise
to become experts in the work of education.”

The programme of the Educational Department includes courses upon the following subjects:

I. (_a_) Child-Study. (_b_) Educational Psychology. (_c_) School
Hygiene.

II. (_a_) Principles of Education. (_b_) History of Education and
Reforms. (_c_) Methods, Devices, Apparatus, etc.

III. (_a_) Organization of Schools in different countries. (_b_)
Typical Schools and Special Foundations. (_c_) Motor Education,
including manual training, physical education, etc. (_d_) Moral
Education. (_e_) Ideals.

IV. Higher Education, including university work, technical education;
training in law, medicine, and theology; recent progress, present
state and prospects of the most advanced education in different
countries, including our own.

The courses in education for 1893-94 are as follows:--

_Dr. G. Stanley Hall’s Courses_:

(_A_) Present status and problems of Higher Education in this country
and Europe. One hour weekly, half a year.

(_B_) Outline of Systematic Pedagogy. One hour weekly, half a year.

_Dr. Burnham’s Courses_:

(_C_) Organization of schools in Europe, especially the schools of
France, Germany, Sweden, and England. Typical schools described, and
educational principles illustrated by them, expounded and discussed.
References made to important literature, and the work may serve as an
outline for further study. One hour a week, half a year.

(_D_) School Hygiene, following and supplementing his “Outlines of
School Hygiene,” and considering special topics. One hour a week,
half a year.

(_E_) Educational reforms, involving the discussion of a few
fundamental educational principles and the presentation of chapters
in the history of education. One hour a week, half a year.

(_F_) Motor Education of children. This course will endeavour to
elucidate the principles that should govern this side of education,
and will involve the study of writing, drawing, manual training, and
of play and gymnastics as means of motor education. The course may
include also the study of motor training and muscular development
in relation to intellectual ability and moral character. One hour a
week, half a year.

(_G_) The work of the Seminary, once a week throughout the year, will
be, for the most part, adapted to individual students. It is hoped
that each student will select, after conference with President Hall
and Dr. Burnham, a topic for special investigation. The results of
such study may be published.

The courses as announced above may be modified somewhat as the needs of the students or other circumstances may require.

The library of the department is especially rich in foreign educational literature, and a considerable amount of illustrative apparatus has been collected. The Worcester Public Library and the library of the American Antiquarian Society are also accessible to students.

The _Pedagogical Seminary_ is published by this department, and offers facilities for printing digests, reviews, and more valuable papers prepared by the members of the department.

This department has the twofold aim of (1) preparing professors, superintendents and teachers for their future work, and (2) making contributions to the Science of Education. The second of these aims is being vigorously taken up, research of some kind being expected from every one. The fact that there is no school of observation in connection with the University is of course a drawback to the complete carrying out of both of the above aims. Visits, for purposes of observation, are however made to schools in the neighbourhood, the records now numbering some fifteen thousand made by the students of the Worcester Normal School, in connection with the study of children, are available for reference, and a scheme for establishing a University School is even now under consideration. Should this scheme become a reality, we might look forward hopefully to getting fresh light on many school problems. One especially, to which Dr. Hall drew my attention, might well have its solution attempted in such a school. It concerns the duty of teachers toward the bright, quick-working children in a school. In every class some will be found who work quicker and have more intellectual power than the others, and at the same time some who are dull and slow-witted. Now the power of detecting and directing one’s teaching to the latter is often made the test of a good teacher, and in a very true sense it may be said to be so. But there is another side to the question, and those of us who have taught cannot fail to have often been conscious that while the needed attention and explanations are being given to the dull ones, the time of the quick-working children is being practically wasted. As Dr. Hall points out, we have perhaps not yet realized how much power is lost to the world in consequence. It would be an interesting experiment to select such bright, quick-witted children, and putting them into a class by themselves, in charge of an able teacher, to note the results of thus allowing them to work at their own rate.

The Clark University is unfortunately not open to women, if the summer school (to which they are admitted) be not considered.

Students are expected to possess a reading knowledge of the French and German languages, and a knowledge of Elementary Psychology is also considered desirable.

There are many other Universities which have opened more or less complete pedagogical departments; but these which have been described will suffice to give a general idea of the courses offered in them. On the whole it appeared to me that while in America excellent provision is made in many of the States for the training of teachers for the Primary Schools on the one hand, and for the positions of professors, lecturers, superintendents on the other, far too little attention is given to the training of teachers for the High, Collegiate and Private Schools. High School teachers are mainly those who have worked their way up through the grades (salaries tend to increase with the grade, which brings about that inexperienced teachers are too often put to the lower classes), while the teachers in Collegiate and Private Schools have usually taken up the work straight from college without any special preparation at all. England and Wales have, I think, made much better provision for the training of such teachers, but I think we have a good deal to learn from America in providing for the training of lecturers, school inspectors, etc., etc., and perhaps also in the matter of setting the seal of University approval upon training, by the bestowal of educational degrees.

_TEACHERS’ INSTITUTES._

Teachers’ Institutes form an integral part of most state and city systems of education. They have been defined as “normal schools with a very short course,” and this definition is substantially correct. The work done by them is of much the same character as that done in the Normal Schools, and they have the same end in view--that of making teachers more fit for their profession. They, however, vary somewhat in character, and it will be perhaps well to distinguish between--

1. Those which are held on Saturdays for teachers in the city or
district, and which are usually conducted by the superintendent,
who gives lectures on the Science and Art of Teaching, discusses
educational problems and methods, or follows out with them a
course of reading. Attendance at these institutes is often made
compulsory, and loss of part of salary is sometimes made the penalty
for non-attendance. By the statistics returned from ninety-six
cities holding institutes, it appears that forty-four thus enforce
attendance.

2. Those lasting for about six to ten days, having short courses in
certain subjects, and especially on the theory of teaching. These are
usually those organized by the State Superintendent, who has however
the power of delegating the conduct of these institutes to other
persons whom he may deem qualified. Again, attendance at many of
these is made compulsory.

3. Such institutes as are held at some country or sea-side place
for a length of time, varying from a fortnight to six weeks. These,
however, are mostly started by private agencies, and have little
besides the name to distinguish them from Summer Schools. The summer
meeting of teachers at Martha’s Vineyard is known as an Institute,
and is of this class. The Teachers’ Institutes do not aim at
supplying a complete course of Training, but rather at supplementing
the work of the Normal Schools and Colleges.

_SUMMER SCHOOLS AND COURSES._

A Summer School seems to differ from an Institute mainly in relation to the amount of professional work undertaken. It is usually open for from four to six weeks, and has a great variety of courses. I was able to attend several of these, and was kindly allowed to hear some of the lectures given and to observe the work.

One of these held at Benton Harbour, Michigan, was chiefly attended by those district teachers who wished to prepare for the teachers’ examinations. It was really a private Normal School, which used its buildings in July for a Summer School. The subjects given were mainly those necessary for the teachers’ certificates, with some classes on Methods, and School Management and Drill and Elocution.

Of quite a different kind was that held at the Cook County Normal School. This was almost entirely professional, and held on much the same lines as the ordinary work of the school.

The Summer Assembly at Chautauqua includes a Summer School, which again may be said to include a special course for teachers, called the Teachers’ Retreat.

In addition to the Summer Schools, there are summer courses provided for teachers at many universities. Cornell University makes special provision for such a course, of which the following is an announcement.

“In the summer of 1892, courses of instruction were offered by professors and instructors of this University in Botany, Chemistry, Mathematics, Philosophy, Physics, English, French, German, Drawing, and Physical Training. The Summer School has now been made an integral part of the University, and for the summer of 1893, courses are offered in the following subjects:

Greek,
Latin,
German,
French,
English,
Elocution,
Philosophy,
Pedagogy,
History,
Political and Social Science,
Mathematics,
Physics,
Chemistry,
Botany,
Drawing and Art,
Mechanical Drawing,
Physical Training.

Without excluding others qualified to take up the work, these courses are offered for the special benefit of teachers. They afford a practical scheme of university extension, by which the teachers themselves are taught under university instructors, by university methods, and with access to university libraries, museums, and laboratories.

The courses are open to women as well as to men, and the same facilities for work are extended to these students as to the regular students of the university. The amount of work implied in these courses is so great that students are advised to confine their attention to one or two subjects. Every opportunity will be given for original research under the guidance and with the assistance of members of the instructing corps.”

In 1892 a summer course in Psychology and Pedagogy was held for two weeks at the Clark University. All the resources of the University--books, apparatus, etc.--were placed at the disposal of the students. About seventy men and women attended. Other universities arrange for similar courses, but these two suffice to indicate the lines of work.

The Prang system, which aims at the complete organization of Form Study, Drawing and Colour teaching in the schools, demands also the training of its teachers. The system is being introduced into an ever-increasing number of schools, and necessitates some preparation on the part of the teacher in order that its principles shall be rightly understood and effectively carried out. This preparation is being carried on by correspondence. The courses of study are definitely arranged, and the student chooses the one she desires. The text-books and materials are sent to her; she works lessons at home, and forwards to the instructors the results of such work--clay modelling, paper-folding, drawing, etc., written observation exercises describing the appearance of models placed in prescribed positions, written outlines for various class exercises, together with any questions she desires to ask. This work is examined and returned to the student with full criticisms. At the end of the course a certificate is awarded to those who have successfully completed it. This plan of training appears to answer well, and will ensure the success of the system.

MILLICENT HUGHES.

Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] This is, of course, not the ordinary deaf-and-dumb language,--for which sight would be required,--but a special variety in which the thoughts of the speaker are conveyed by means of varying pressure on different parts of the hand of the one spoken to.

[2] The term “Commencement” is always used in America to indicate the ceremony which takes place at the _end_ of a School or College course. The idea appears to be that the close of the College career really marks the beginning of life in the world.

[3] The word “_recitation_” is always used in the United States to signify lesson, class or lecture. Its use in this extended sense may be explained by the fact that in early days of American education (and the practice still survives to a greater extent than is desirable) _teaching_ a class merely implied the hearing of lessons learnt by heart from a text-book.

[4] _i.e._, specialist in the subject of physical exercise.

[5] The Connecticut School Law provides for the establishment and maintenance of such schools for the benefit of the students.

[6] _i.e._, allowance to cover railway or other fares.

[7] It should be noted that although the _design_ of these schools is professional, yet in all of them academic studies are pursued.

[8] The idea of making special provision for a supply of teachers to act as substitutes in case of emergency is almost universal in the States. In many cities a certain number of teachers receiving regular salary are set apart for this work alone, while in some places students in a Normal School or Training Classes undertake such work by special arrangement.

[9] The University of Iowa had, however, in 1873 made pedagogics a sub-department of general philosophy. As early as 1860 a course of lectures on the Science and Art of Teaching had been given by the State Superintendent, Dr. Gregory, in the University of Michigan.

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:

Italicized text is surrounded by underscores: _italics_.

Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.

Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been standardized.

Archaic or variant spelling has been retained.

The table on page 167 has been reformatted from the original to better
fit a narrow screen.

The cover image for this eBook was created by the transcriber and is
entered into the public domain.