Chapter III: The Augustan Age (1)

VIRGIL.

(1) LIFE.

Our chief authority for the life of Virgil, apart from his own writings and those of his contemporaries, is Donatus, whose work is probably based on Suetonius' _De Poetis_. Donatus' work, though not free from romance, is much more valuable than the Life by Probus[41] or the metrical account given by Phocas.[42] Some important details are given in the Life wrongly attributed to Servius, and in an account preserved in a Berne MS. of the tenth century.

The poet's name is correctly given as P. Vergilius Maro in all the Lives. The balance of authority is decidedly in favour of the spelling 'Vergilius'; it is always so written in the early MSS. and in inscriptions of the Republic and of the early centuries A.D. The traditional form in modern literature, 'Virgil,' is here retained.

Virgil was born 15th October, B.C. 70, at Andes (identified traditionally with Pietole)[43] near Mantua. Donatus, _vit. Verg._, 'Natus est Cn. Pompeio Magno et M. Licinio Crasso primum coss. iduum Octobrium die, in pago qui Andes dicitur et abest a Mantua non procul.'

He was of humble extraction, his father being originally either a potter or a day-labourer.

Probus, _vit. Verg._, 'Matre Magia Polla, patre rustico.'

Donatus, 'Parentibus modicis fuit ac praecipue patre, quem quidam opificem figulum, plures Magi cuiusdam viatoris initio mercennarium mox ob industriam generum tradiderunt egregieque substantiae silvis coemendis et apibus curandis auxisse reculam.' (Cf. Virgil's treatment of bees in _Georgic_ iv.)

His early years were spent at Cremona, whence in B.C. 55 he went to Mediolanum and then to Rome for his higher education. He studied philosophy, medicine, mathematics, and rhetoric; but his shyness prevented his being a success at the bar, where, we are told, he appeared only once.

Donatus, 'Initia aetatis Cremonae egit usque ad virilem togam, quam xv. anno natali suo accepit isdem illis consulibus iterum duobus quibus erat natus, evenitque ut eo ipso die Lucretius poeta decederet. De Cremona Mediolanum et inde paulo post transiit in urbem ... Inter cetera studia medicinae quoque ac maxime mathematicae[44] operam dedit. Egit et causam apud iudices unam omnino nec amplius quam semel; nam et in sermone tardissimum ac paene indocto similem fuisse Melissus [a freedman of Maecenas] tradidit.'

The Berne MS. above referred to says: 'Ut primum se contulit Romam, studuit apud Epidium oratorem cum Caesare Augusto.'[45] For his studies under the Epicurean Siron cf. _Catal._ 7, 8,

'Nos ad beatos vela mittimus portus,
magni petentes docta dicta Sironis,
vitamque ab omni vindicabimus cura.'

Cf. also _Ecl._ 6, 31-40, where a brief sketch is given of the Epicurean theory of creation.

For a few years we hear nothing of his life, but we may suppose that he continued his studies in literature and philosophy, probably at his farm, if we can draw any inference from the language of _Ecl._ 1, especially l. 19 _sqq._ So far as is known, he took no part in the civil wars. In B.C. 41, when lands were assigned to the troops of Antonius, Virgil was dispossessed of his property. On the recommendation of Asinius Pollio, who was _legatus_ of Gallia Transpadana, he went to Rome and obtained from Octavian the restitution of his land. The poet expresses his gratitude in _Ecl._ 1, 42,

'Hic illum vidi iuvenem, Meliboee, quotannis
bis senos cui nostra dies altaria fumant.
Hic mihi responsum primus dedit ille petenti:
"Pascite ut ante boves, pueri, submittite tauros."'

Cf. also ll. 70-3.

Donatus, 'Ad bucolica transiit maxime ut Asinium Pollionem, Alphenum Varum, et Cornelium Gallum celebraret, quia in distributione agrorum qui post Philippensem victoriam[46] veteranis triumvirorum iussu trans Padum dividebantur, indemnem se praestitissent.'

Virgil was evicted a second time in the following year, after the Bellum Perusinum, by the troops of Octavian. Conflicting accounts are given by the Lives regarding the persons who seized his land.[47]

Servius, _vit. Verg._, 'Postea ortis bellis civilibus inter Antonium et Augustum, Augustus victor Cremonensium agros, quia pro Antonio senserant, dedit militibus suis. Qui cum non sufficerent, his addidit agros Mantuanos, sublatos non propter civium culpam, sed propter vicinitatem Cremonensium: unde ipse in Bucolicis (9, 28), "Mantua vae miserae nimium vicina Cremonae."'

Virgil and his household found refuge on an estate which had once belonged to his old master Siron: _Catal._ 10,

'Villula, quae Sironis eras, et pauper agelle ...
Tu nunc eris illi [patri]
Mantua quod fuerat quodque Cremona prius.'

Whether he recovered his old farm is uncertain: at all events he spent most of his time in the south of Italy. Besides a house in Rome, he seems to have had a country house near Nola, and we know that the _Georgics_ (cf. iv. 563) were written at Naples.

Donatus, 'Habuit domum Romae Esquiliis iuxta hortos Maecenatis, quamquam secessu Campaniae Siciliaeque plurimum uteretur.'

Gell. vi. 20, 1, 'Scriptum in quodam commentario repperi ... Vergilium petivisse a Nolanis, aquam uti duceret in propinquum rus.'

He lived a retired life, seldom visiting Rome, and devoting most of his time to poetical composition, in which he was regular and painstaking.

Tac. _Dial._ 13, 'Securum et quietum Vergilii secessum, in quo tamen neque apud divum Augustum gratia caruit neque apud populum Romanum notitia: testes Augusti epistulae, testis ipse populus, qui auditis in theatro Vergilii versibus surrexit universus et forte praesentem spectantemque Vergilium veneratus est sic quasi Augustum.'

Quint. x. 3, 8, 'Vergilium paucissimos die composuisse versus auctor est Varius.'

Cf. his own expression, quoted by Gell. xvii. 10, 2, 'parere se versus more atque ritu ursino' (alluding to the notion that the bear licked its young into shape).

He was already an influential member of Maecenas' literary circle, to which, in B.C. 39, he introduced Horace. Cf. Hor. _Sat._ i. 6, 54,

'optimus olim
Vergilius, post hunc Varius dixere quid essem.'

By Maecenas he was introduced to Augustus,[48] who treated him with liberality. Cf. Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 246,

'Munera quae multa dantis cum laude tulerunt
dilecti tibi Vergilius Variusque poetae.'

He was on intimate terms with Horace, who addresses _Od._ i. 3 to him on the occasion of a proposed visit to Greece. Cf. ll. 5-8,

'Navis, quae tibi creditum
debes Vergilium, finibus Atticis
reddas incolumem, precor,
et serves animae dimidium meae.'

In B.C. 37 he formed one of the party who travelled with Horace to Brundisium: Hor. _Sat._ i. 5, 40 (see under 'Horace,' p. 167).

For the rest of his life we hear little of Virgil in any public connexion. In B.C. 19 he started on a voyage to Greece and Asia, intending to spend three years on the revision of the _Aeneid_, but returned from Athens in bad health, and died at Brundisium on 21st September. His remains were buried near Naples. The epitaph quoted by Donatus is obviously not by Virgil: 'Anno aetatis lii. impositurus Aeneidi summam manum, statuit in Graeciam et in Asiam secedere triennioque continuo nihil amplius quam emendare, ut reliqua vita tantum philosophiae vacaret: sed cum ingressus iter Athenis occurrisset Augusto ab oriente Romam revertenti destinaretque non absistere atque etiam una redire, dum Megara vicinum oppidum ferventissimo sole cognoscit, languorem nactus est eumque non intermissa navigatione auxit, ita ut gravior aliquanto Brundisium appelleret, ubi diebus paucis obiit xi. Kal. Octobr. Cn. Sentio Q. Lucretio coss. (21st September, B.C. 19). Ossa eius Neapolim translata sunt tumuloque condita ... in quo distichon fecit tale:

"Mantua me genuit, Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc
Parthenope: cecini pascua, rura, duces."'

His personal appearance and character are thus described by Donatus: 'Corpore et statura fuit grandis, aquilo colore, facie rusticana, valetudine varia: nam plerumque a stomacho et a faucibus ac dolore capitis laborabat, sanguinem etiam saepe reiecit.' (Cf. Hor. _Sat._ i. 5, 48,

'Lusum it Maecenas, dormitum ego Vergiliusque;
namque pila lippis inimicum et ludere crudis.')

'Cibi vinique minimi, libidinis pronior ... cetera sane vita et ore et animo tam probum constat, ut Neapoli Parthenias volgo appellatus sit, ac si quando Romae, quo rarissime commeabat, viseretur in publico, sectantes demonstrantesque se suffugeret in proximum tectum.'

(2) WORKS.

MINOR POEMS.--According to Donatus, these were: 'In Balistam ... deinde Catalecton et Priapia et Epigrammata et Diras, item Cirim et Culicem, cum esset annorum xvi.' Servius omits the boyish production 'in Balistam,' and adds the 'Copa.' The 'Aetna,' mentioned with doubt by Donatus, is, of course, not by Virgil. (1) _Catalecta_.-This seems better than _Catalecton_; either would mean "a collection of poems." Some give _Catalepton_ (= "trifles," like Aratus' work +ta kata lepton+). Ribbeck thinks _Catalecta_ originally included the _Priapea_, _Epigrammata_, and _Dirae_, but came to be restricted to the fourteen short pieces given in our MSS. under that title. Some of these, _e.g._ No. 5, are spurious. Quint. viii. 3, 28 vouches for No. 2. Virgil's friends, Tucca and Varius, are addressed in 1 and 9, and 10 (on Siron's villa) refers to an event in Virgil's life. In the vein of Catullus are 3, 4, and 8, the last being an extremely close parody of Catullus, c. 4. (2) _Priapea_, three in number. (3) _Dirae_, spurious. (4) _Ciris_. The writer's reference to himself in l. 2, 'Irritaque expertum fallacis praemia volgi,' shows that Virgil is not the author. (5) _Culex_. That Virgil wrote a poem with this title is attested by Suetonius, Statius, and Martial; _e.g._ Mart. viii. 56, 19,

'Protinus Italiam concepit et arma virumque
qui modo vix Culicem fleverat ore rudi.'

The poem in its present form is accepted by Ribbeck, but it does not correspond exactly to the account given by Donatus of the contents. (6) The _Copa_ Ribbeck accepts as genuine, but other critics find in it characteristics rather of Ovid or of Propertius. (7) The _Moretum_, though found in MSS., is not mentioned by Donatus or Servius, a strong argument against its being genuine.

BUCOLICA.--These ten poems are called in the MSS. _Eclogae_ ("selected pieces"), and were composed B.C. 43-39. Probus, 'Scripsit Bucolica annos natus xxviii., Theocritum secutus.'

Servius, 'Tunc ei proposuit Pollio ut carmen bucolicum scriberet, quod eum constat triennio[49] scripsisse et emendasse.'

They were doubtless published separately as they were written, and afterwards collected into a volume with _Ecl._ 1 (Tityrus) coming first. Cf. _Georg._ iv. 565,

'Carmina qui lusi pastorum, audaxque iuventa,
Tityre, te patulae cecini sub tegmine fagi.'

The present order is certainly not the chronological order.

_Ecl._ 1 was written B.C. 41 as a thanksgiving to Augustus (see p. 150).

_Ecl._ 2 cannot be earlier than the end of 43 when Pollio was made governor of Gallia Transpadana, and possibly should not be put earlier than the summer of 42. The poem is written on his favourite slave Alexis (see Serv. _ad loc._).

_Ecl._ 3 was probably written soon afterwards. Virgil refers in l. 84 to his intimacy with Pollio,

'Pollio amat nostram, quamvis est rustica, Musam.'

_Ecl._ 2 and 3 are earlier than 5. Cf. 5, 86-7,

'Haec nos "Formosum Corydon ardebat Alexim,"
haec eadem docuit "Cuium pecus? an Meliboei?"'

_Ecl._ 4. The date is clear from l. 3,

'Si canimus silvas, silvae sint _consule_ dignae.'

It must have been written in 40, when Pollio was consul. This eclogue, which in the Middle Age was believed to be a prophecy of the Messiah's coming, cannot be satisfactorily explained as referring to Pollio's son Saloninus, or to the expected child of Augustus, Julia.

_Ecl._ 5. Spohn's view is highly probable, that it was written for the first celebration of Caesar's birthday in July, 42.

_Ecl._ 6, to Varus, probably written B.C. 40 from Siron's villa.

_Ecl._ 7 contains no allusion to contemporary events: the tone is purely pastoral.

_Ecl._ 8 was written while Pollio was on his way back to Rome from his victory over the Parthini in Illyricum, for his triumph in B.C. 39. Cf. ll. 6 and 12.

In _Ecl._ 9, written B.C. 40 at Siron's villa, the poet expresses his grief at the second expulsion from his farm.

_Ecl._ 10 entitled 'Gallus' was written B.C. 39. For details see under 'Gallus,' p. 182.[50]

_Sources of the Eclogues._--Several of the Eclogues are modelled on Theocritus (cf. 'Sicelides Musae' 4, 1; 'Syracosius versus' 6, 1), _e.g._ _Ecl._ 8 on Theocr. 2 and 3; and close imitations are found throughout. The poet Euphorion of Chalcis (of third century B.C.) is alluded to in _Ecl._ 10, 50 in connection with Gallus. The names of the shepherds are mostly from Theocritus, as Tityrus, Mopsus, Damoetas. They are 'Arcades' (7, 4, etc.), but, like the scenery, exhibit traits both of Sicily and of North Italy. Thus the scenery never gives an accurate picture of any one locality: _e.g._ _Ecl._ 9, ll. 1-10, 26-7, 36, 59-60, present features of the district around Mantua, while in ll. 39-43 a Sicilian scene is introduced from Theocritus. The lofty mountains, _e.g._ 1, 84, are Sicilian, and so are many of the trees, as chestnut and pine, which are said not to be found near Mantua. For Mantuan scenery cf. _e.g._ 7, 12,

'Hic virides tenera praetexit harundine ripas
Mincius.'

The GEORGICS were written from B.C. 37 to 30 at the suggestion of Maecenas. Cf. i. 1.

Serv. _vit. Verg._ 'Item proposuit Maecenas Georgica, quae scripsit emendavitque septem annis.'

The poem was finished by B.C. 29. Cf. Donatus, 'Georgica reverso post Actiacam victoriam Augusto atque Atellae ... commoranti per continuum quadriduum legit.' It was written at Naples. Cf. iv. 559,

'Haec super arvorum cultu pecorumque canebam ...
Illo Vergilium me tempore dulcis alebat
Parthenope, studiis florentem ignobilis oti.'

The concluding part of Book iv., originally a dirge on Cornelius Gallus, was afterwards altered for the myth of Aristaeus, to please Augustus.

Serv. _ad Ecl._ 10, 1, 'Fuit Cornelius Gallus amicus Vergilii, adeo ut quartus Georgicorum a medio usque ad finem eius laudes teneret, quas postea iubente Augusto in Aristaei fabulam commutavit.'

_Sources of the Georgics._--Besides his own observation, Virgil used the following authorities:

1. Hesiod--mostly in Book i., _e.g._ ll. 276-286 (lucky and unlucky days). Cf. ii. 176,

'Ascraeumque cano Romana per oppida carmen.'

2. Books of the priests; _e.g._ i. 269 _sqq._ (what is lawful on holy days), i. 338 _sqq._ (Ambarvalia).

3. For agriculture and natural history--Greek writers like Aristotle, Theophrastus, Democritus, and Xenophon; and Latin writers like Cato and Varro.

4. Alexandrian writers for science and mythology; _e.g._ Eratosthenes for i. 233, 'quinque tenent caelum zonae,' etc.; i. 351-465, signs of weather, from the +Diosêmeia+ of Aratus; iii. 425 _sqq._, the Calabrian serpent, from the +Thêriaka+ of Nicander, whose writings were also used for the subject of bees in Book iv.

5. Lucretius, to whom Virgil is chiefly indebted, ii. 475 _sqq._, especially 490 _sqq._, 'felix qui potuit,' etc., refers to Lucretius. The idea of Lucretius, cf. v. 206-217, that man has a perpetual struggle with nature, is reflected in Virgil, but modified by his acceptance of the argument from design. Cf. i. 99,

'_Exercet_que frequens tellurem atque _imperat_ arvis,'

and the whole passage i. 118-159. Lucretian science is borrowed in passages like i. 89,

'Seu pluris calor ille vias et caeca relaxat
spiramenta, novas veniat qua sucus in herbas';

l. 415-423 (of the habits of birds); iii. 242 _sqq._ (on the passion of love). Notice also, with Munro, Lucretian phrases like _principio_, _quod superest_, _his animadversis_, _nunc age_, _praeterea_, _nonne vides_, _contemplator_, _genitalia semina_.

_Political purpose of the Georgics._--The political purpose of the Georgics is to help the policy of Augustus, which aimed at checking the depopulation of the country districts. Cf. i. 498-514, and especially ll. 506-7,

'Non ullus aratro
dignus honos: squalent abductis arva colonis.'

The Emperor is introduced throughout as the object of veneration. Cf. i. 24-42.

_Natural scenery._--Virgil dwells on Nature in her softer aspects. Cf. phrases like ii. 470, 'mollesque sub arbore somni,' and the passage ii. 458-540 in praise of a country life. For the praise of Italy see the beautiful passage ii. 136-176, where special districts are mentioned.

AENEID.--Even before the _Eclogues_ were written, Virgil had meditated the composition of an epic, perhaps, as Servius suggests, on the kings of Alba. Cf. _Ecl._ 6, 3,

'Cum canerem reges et proelia, Cynthius aurem
vellit et admonuit: "pastorem, Tityre, pingues
pascere oportet oves, deductum dicere carmen."'

The idea of a poem in honour of Augustus was present to his mind when he wrote _Georg._ iii. 46,

'Mox tamen ardentes accingar dicere pugnas
Caesaris.'

The _Aeneid_ was commenced B.C. 29, and remained unfinished at Virgil's death.

Servius, _vit. Verg._, 'postea ab Augusto Aeneidem propositam scripsit annis undecim, sed nec emendavit nec edidit.'

His method of working at the poem is thus described by Donatus, 'Aeneida prosa prius oratione formatam digestamque in xii. libros particulatim componere instituit, prout liberet quidque et nihil in ordinem arripiens. Ut ne quid impetum moraretur, quaedam imperfecta transmisit, alia levissimis verbis veluti fulsit, quae per iocum pro tibicinibus interponi aiebat ad sustinendum opus donec solidae columnae advenirent.'

In what order the Books were written it is impossible to decide; but Book vi. was not read to Augustus till after the death of the young Marcellus, B.C. 23.

Donatus, 'Cui [Augusto] multo post perfectaque demum materia tres omnino libros recitavit, secundum quartum sextum, sed hunc notabili Octaviae adfectione, quae cum recitationi interesset ad illos de filio suo versus, "Tu Marcellus eris," defecisse fertur atque aegre focillata est.'

Virgil, writing to the emperor, insists on the magnitude of the task he had rashly undertaken.

Macrob. _Saturn._ i. 24, 11, 'Tanta incohata res est, ut paene vitio mentis tantum opus ingressus mihi videar, cum praesertim, ut scis, alia quoque studia ad id opus multoque potiora impertiar.'

Although in his will Virgil left instructions to Varius (and Tucca) to destroy all his unpublished manuscripts, Varius was expressly desired by Augustus to revise and publish the _Aeneid_.

Donatus, 'Egerat cum Vario, priusquam Italia decederet, ut si quid sibi accidisset Aeneida combureret; sed is facturum se pernegarat ... Edidit autem auctore Augusto Varius, sed summatim emendata, ut qui versus etiam imperfectos sicut erant reliquerit.'

This account is corroborated by Pliny the elder, _N.H._ vii. 114, Gellius, and Macrobius.

The rules laid down to the editors by the Emperor were, according to Servius, 'ut superflua demerent, nihil adderent tamen.'

It seems probable that the _Aeneid_ was published B.C. 17, for it is in the _Carmen Saeculare_ of that year that Horace first alludes to the story of Aeneas (cf. l. 50, 'clarus Anchisae Venerisque sanguis'), and in the fourth Book of the _Odes_ (four years later) it is more than once introduced.

The _choice of the subject_ was influenced (1) by the personal desire of the Emperor; (2) by the connexion of the Caesarian house with Venus, through Iulus;[51] cf. the invention of Atys (_Aen._ v. 568) by Virgil to please Augustus, whose mother was Atia; (3) by Virgil's design to write an epic on the greatness of Rome, in the manner of Homer.

_The Aeneas Legend._--Stesichorus of Himera, among other writers, made Aeneas, a Homeric hero (cf. _Il._ xx. 307-8), settle in Italy; and Naevius is said to have adopted the legend in the form given by Timaeus, the Sicilian historian of the third century B.C. The legend probably arose from the worship of Aphrodite on the coasts of Italy, and was disseminated by the Greeks of Cumae to please the Romans. The connexion of Rome with Troy had been officially recognized for two hundred years (cf. Sueton. _Claud._ 25), and, though not a popular belief, had been accepted in literature from the time of Naevius.

_Sources of the Aeneid._--1. Earlier Roman poets as Naevius, Ennius, Pacuvius, Accius, Lucilius, Hostius, Varro Atacinus, Lucretius. For details see under these names.

2. Cato's _Origines_ and Varro's _Antiquitates_, for Italian legends and peoples.

3. _Ius pontificium_ and _ius augurale_, as found in the books of sacred colleges (Macrob. i. 24, 16). Cf. the ritual meaning of _porricio_ (v. 776), _porrigo_ (viii. 274), the habit of praying with veiled head (iii. 405), prayer to Apollo of Soracte (xi. 785).

4. Greek sources: (_a_) particularly the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, but also the Homeric Hymns and Cyclic Poems. Thus the games in Book v. = the games in honour of Patroclus in _Il._ xxiii.; the shield of Aeneas (viii. 626-731) = the shield of Achilles in _Il._ xviii.; (_b_) Apollonius Rhodius, for the passion of Dido = that of Medea; (_c_) Greek tragedies, _e.g._ the lost _Laocoon_ of Sophocles for ii. 40 _sqq._

_Religion in the Aeneid._--1. The mythology is mainly from Homer. From Latin myths come Faunus, Saturnus, Janus, Picus. Euhemerism is shown by the last three being represented as originally kings of Rome.

2. The power of the gods is denoted by _fatum_ or _fata_; cf. x. 112-3,

'rex Iuppiter omnibus idem:
fata viam invenient.'

3. The description of the lower world in Book vi. is from the descent into Hades in _Od._ xi., but is modified by Pythagorean ideas (vi. 748-751, metempsychosis), Stoic ideas (vi. 724 _sqq._, pantheism, cf. _Georg._ iv. 219-227) and Platonic myths (_e.g._ in the _Gorgias_, _Phaedo_, and _Republic_), and rendered more definite by the introduction of heroes of the Republic. Note that Virgil emphasizes its mythical nature by dismissing Aeneas through the ivory gate (of false dreams).

4. Other beliefs: (_a_) The golden bough (vi. 203-9) compared to the mistletoe, the symbol of the lower world with many Indo-European peoples; (_b_) Divinities attached to special places, _e.g._ viii. 349-354 of the _religio_ attaching to the Capitol, ii. 351-2 guardian deities: cf. Carmentis, pater Tiberinus, etc.; (_c_) Worship of the dead, and belief in their continued influence on human affairs, iii. 66-8, 301-5.

_Political significance._--1. The pre-eminence of the Julian race and of Augustus himself. Cf. i. 286,

'Nascetur pulchra Troianus origine Caesar,
imperium Oceano, famam qui terminet astris,
Iulius, a magno demissum nomen Iulo.'

So vi. 789 _sqq._

2. The idea of empire: cf. i. 33,

'Tantae molis erat Romanam condere gentem';

and of Rome as the conqueror and civilizer of the world: vi. 851,

'Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento:
hae tibi erunt artes, pacisque imponere morem,
parcere subiectis et debellare superbos.'

3. The unity of Italy with Rome is seen in Aeneas and Turnus, representing respectively the _pietas_ and the martial courage of a past age. This is brought out also by the introduction of local names. Cf. vii. 682-5, 710-7, 797-802.

4. Virgil shows here and there contempt for pure democracy: vi. 815,

'iactantior Ancus
nunc quoque iam nimium gaudens popularibus auris.'

Cf. also i. 148-9.

_Authors influenced by Virgil._--Livy, Tacitus, Ovid, Tibullus, Propertius, Manilius, Lucan, Silius Italicus, Statius, Valerius Flaccus, Martial, Juvenal, the author of _Aetna_. See under each.

HORACE.

(1) LIFE.

Our chief source of information about Horace is his own works, and some important details are added in a life of him by Suetonius.

Horace's full name is Quintus (_Sat._ ii. 6, 37) Horatius (_Od._ iv. 6, 44) Flaccus (_Sat._ ii. 1, 18). He was born 8th December, B.C. 65, at Venusia in Apulia, on the frontier of Lucania.

Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Natus est vi. Id. Decembr. L. Cotta et L. Torquato coss.'

_Ep._ i. 20, 26-8,

'Forte meum siquis te percontabitur aevum,
me quater undenos sciat inplevisse Decembris
collegam Lepidum quo duxit Lollius anno.'

_Sat._ i. 1, 34,

'Lucanus an Appulus anceps:
nam Venusinus arat finem sub utrumque colonus.'

There are a great many references to Apulia in Horace. So _Od._ iii. 4, 9 _sqq._,

'Me fabulosae Volture in Appulo
nutricis extra limina Pulliae' (his nurse's name), etc.

All Roman virtues are attributed to the Apulians, as in _Od._ i. 22, 13; iii. 5, 9; _Epod._ ii. 39-42.

Horace, though free-born (_Sat._ i. 6, 7) was the son of a freedman, who was by profession a collector of debts, or, according to others, a fishmonger. To this last story Horace probably refers with proud humility in _Ep._ ii. 2, 60,

'Bioneis sermonibus et sale nigro.'

Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Patre, ut ipse tradit, libertino et auctionum coactore, ut vero creditum est, salsamentario.'

_Sat._ i. 6, 6,

'Ut me libertino patre natum';

_ibid._ 85,

'Nec timuit, sibi ne vitio quis verteret olim,
si praeco parvas aut, ut fuit ipse, coactor
mercedes sequerer.'

Stories of his childhood are given, _Od._ iii. 4, 9 _sqq._; _Sat._ i. 9, 29 _sqq._; _Sat._ ii. 2, 112 _sqq._

Horace speaks highly of his father, who took him from the village school to Rome for his education. After speaking of his own freedom from vice he says (_Sat._ i. 6, 71 _sqq._),

'Causa fuit pater his, qui macro pauper agello
noluit in Flavi ludum me mittere, ...
sed puerum est ausus Romam portare docendum
artis quas doceat quivis eques atque senator
semet prognatos. Vestem servosque sequentis,
in magno ut populo, si qui vidisset, avita
ex re praeberi sumptus mihi crederet illos.
Ipse mihi custos incorruptissimus omnis
circum doctores aderat.'

He received instruction, both in Latin and Greek, from Orbilius,[52] a teacher of conservative tendencies. _Ep._ ii. 1, 69,

'Non equidem insector delendave carmina Livi
esse reor, memini quae plagosum mihi parvo
Orbilium dictare.'

_Ep._ ii. 2, 41,

'Romae nutriri mihi contigit atque doceri
iratus Graiis quantum nocuisset Achilles.'

His education was continued at Athens. _Ep._ ii. 2, 43,

'Adiecere bonae paulo plus artis Athenae,
scilicet ut vellem curvo dignoscere rectum
atque inter silvas Academi quaerere verum.'

His studies were interrupted by the civil war; he joined Brutus (who came to Athens in August, B.C. 44), was by him appointed _tribunus militum_, and took part in the battle of Philippi, B.C. 42. _Ep._ ii. 2, 46,

'Dura sed emovere loco me tempora grato
civilisque rudem belli tulit aestus in arma
Caesaris Augusti non responsura lacertis.'

_Od._ ii. 7, 9,

'Philippos et celerem fugam
sensi, relicta non bene parmula.'

In _Sat._ i. 7 Horace relates a scene at Clazomenae before Brutus and his staff; and in _Ep._ i. 11 he speaks, as if with personal knowledge, of places in Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean, which he probably visited then. He refers to the hardships of war in _Od._ ii. 6, 7; ii. 7, 1; iii. 4, 26.

After the civil war his paternal property was confiscated, probably in B.C. 41, and his poverty compelled him to seek the post of a clerk in the quaestor's office, and, as he says, to write verses. (Some satires and epodes were then written.)

Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Victis partibus, venia inpetrata, scriptum quaestorium comparavit.'

_Sat._ ii. 6, 36,

'De re communi scribae magna atque nova te
orabant hodie meminisses, Quinte, reverti.'

_Ep._ ii. 2, 49,

'Unde simul primum me dimisere Philippi,
decisis humilem pennis inopemque paterni
et laris et fundi paupertas inpulit, audax
ut versus facerem.'

In the spring of B.C. 38 Horace was introduced to Maecenas[53] by Varius and Virgil, and became intimate with him in the winter of B.C. 38-7.

Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Primo Maecenati, mox Augusto insinuatus non mediocrem in amborum amicitia locum tenuit. Maecenas quanto opere eum dilexerit satis testatur illo epigrammate:

"Ni te visceribus meis, Horati,
plus iam diligo, tu tuum sodalem
Ninnio videas strigosiorem":

sed multo magis extremis iudiciis tali ad Augustum elogio: "Horati Flacci ut mei esto memor!"'

_Sat._ i. 6, 54,

'Optimus olim
Vergilius, post hunc Varius dixere quid essem ...
Abeo, et revocas nono post mense iubesque (l. 61)
esse in amicorum numero.'

In _Sat._ ii. 6, 40-58 Horace describes how intimate he was socially with Maecenas, who, however, did not make him a confidant in political matters. The most noteworthy event of this period is described in _Sat._ i. 5, viz. Horace's journey to Brundisium in the train of Maecenas and Cocceius, who went to arrange some matters between Augustus and Antony. His companions were Virgil, Varius, Plotius, and the Greek rhetorician, Heliodorus. Plotius, Virgil, and Varius are thus referred to (_Sat._ i. 5, 41):

'Animae quales neque candidiores
terra tulit neque quis me sit devinctior alter.'[54]

In B.C. 34 Maecenas gave Horace an estate in the country of the Sabines. The question of its position was settled last century by the abbé Capmartin de Chaupy. The only place that suits Horace's description is east of Tivoli, and in the neighbourhood of Vicovaro, which is the same as the Varia of Horace (_Ep._ i. 14, 3), the market-town of his tenants. Near it is the stream Licenza, the Digentia of Horace, on which stands Bardela (the Mandela of Hor.). _Ep._ i. 18, 104,

'Me quotiens reficit gelidus Digentia rivus,
quem Mandela bibit, rugosus frigore pagus.'

The site of his villa may be pretty closely determined from _Ep._ i. 10, 49,

'Haec tibi dictabam post fanum putre Vacunae.'

Vacuna is a Sabine goddess, identified with Victoria: near the village an inscription has been found which was erected by Vespasian, 'Aedem Victoriae vetustate dilapsam sua impensa restituit,' and the natural inference is that this is the temple mentioned by Horace.[55] Horace stayed a great deal at his country-house, and his works contain many references to it.

Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Vixit plurimum in secessu ruris sui Sabini aut Tiburtini, domusque eius ostenditur circa Tiburni luculum.'

_Sat._ ii. 6, 16,

'Ubi me in mentis et in arcem ex urbe removi.'

Other references are _Ep._ i. 16, 1-14; _Od._ ii. 18, 14.

Augustus having tried unsuccessfully to induce Horace to become his secretary, was not offended at the poet's refusal, but continued to bestow his favour upon him.

Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Augustus epistularum quoque ei officium obtulit, ut hoc ad Maecenatem scripto significat: "Ante ipse sufficiebam scribendis epistulis amicorum, nunc occupatissimus et infirmus Horatium nostrum a te cupio abducere. Veniet ergo ab ista parasitica mensa ad hanc regiam et nos in epistulis scribendis adiuvabit." Ac ne recusanti quidem aut succensuit quicquam aut amicitiam suam ingerere desiit ... unaque et altera liberalitate locupletavit.'

Horace composed for Augustus the _Carmen Saeculare_; _Od._ iv. 4; iv. 14, celebrating the victories of Augustus' step-sons over the Rhaetians and the Vindelici; also _Ep._ ii. 1.

Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Scripta quidem eius usque adeo probavit mansuraque perpetuo opinatus est, ut non modo Saeculare carmen componendum iniunxerit sed et Vindelicam victoriam Tiberii Drusique privignorum suorum eumque coegerit propter hoc tribus carminum libris ex longo intervallo quartum addere; post sermones vero quosdam lectos nullam sui mentionem habitam ita sit questus: "Irasci me tibi scito, quod non in plerisque eius modi scriptis mecum potissimum loquaris; an vereris ne apud posteros infame tibi sit, quod videaris familiaris nobis esse?" expresseritque eclogam ad se, cuius initium est:

"Cum tot sustineas et tanta negotia solus,"' etc. (_Ep._ ii. 1).

Horace died 27th November, B.C. 8, and was buried near Maecenas. He appointed Augustus his heir.

Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Decessit v. Kal. Decembris C. Marcio Censorino et C. Asinio Gallo coss. lvii. aetatis anno, herede Augusto palam nuncupato; ... et conditus est extremis Esquiliis iuxta Maecenatis tumulum.'

In personal appearance Horace was 'brevis atque obesus,' according to Suetonius, who quotes a joke of Augustus on the subject: 'Vereri autem mihi videris ne maiores libelli tui sint, quam ipse es; sed tibi statura deest, corpusculum non deest.' Cf. Hor. _Ep._ i. 20, 24,

'Corporis exigui, praecanum, solibus aptum,
irasci celerem, tamen ut placabilis essem';

_Ep._ i. 4, 15,

'Me pinguem et nitidum bene curata cute vises,
cum ridere voles, Epicuri de grege porcum.'

Cf. also _Ep._ i. 7, 25; _Od._ iii. 14, 25.

(2) WORKS.

_Chronology of the Works._--(1) _Satirae_, in two Books (called _Sermones_ in all the MSS.).

Book i. It is clear from _Sat._ ii. 6, 40 that Horace was introduced to Maecenas in the spring of B.C. 38. Now all the references to Maecenas, with the exception of the prologue in _Sat._ 1 (written last), are in the second half of the book, there being no mention of him in _Sat._ 2; 3; and 4. It is therefore probable that these three Satires were written when Horace knew Varius and Virgil, but not Maecenas, _i.e._ B.C. 40-38. _Sat._ 2 is probably the oldest we have, as is shown by other considerations, and by the number of archaisms it contains. _Sat._ 5 (on the journey to Brundisium) was written shortly after the spring of B.C. 37, when the events recorded took place. The date of the publication of the book cannot be exactly fixed, the only clue we have being the reference in _Sat._ i. 10, 86, to Bibulus, the political agent of Antony, whose presence in Rome B.C. 35 may be referred to. It cannot be proved that _Sat._ i. 1, 114 _sqq._, is imitated from Verg. _Georg._ i. 512 _sqq._, published B.C. 35.

Book ii. and the _Epodes_ were published in B.C. 30 about the same time. We have references to Actium (B.C. 31), as in _Sat._ ii. 5, 63; and _Sat._ ii. 1 (written last) speaks of Augustus (ll. 11-15) as the hero in war, not yet the bringer of peace, and was probably therefore composed before the temple of Janus was shut in the beginning of B.C. 29.

(2) _Epodon liber_, B.C. 30, as above. _Epod._ 9 was written shortly after the battle of Actium, 2nd September, B.C. 31, before it was known whither Antony had fled.

(3) _Carmina_ (Odes) Books i.-iii., published B.C. 23. In _Od._ i. 12, 45,

'Crescit occulto velut arbor aevo
fama Marcellis,'

we have a reference to the marriage in B.C. 25 of Augustus' daughter, Julia, to his nephew, Marcellus. Marcellus died in the autumn of B.C. 23, and the lines must have been written before his death. _Od._ ii. 10 and iii. 19 contain references to Licinius Murena, brother of Terentia, Maecenas' wife. Murena was executed for his share in the conspiracy of Fannius Caepio in the end of B.C. 23, and it is improbable that Horace could have made these references after that event.[56]

(4) _Epistles_, Book i., published B.C. 20. The date is fixed by _Ep._ i. 20, 26-8, already quoted, p. 164.

The year referred to is B.C. 21, and the book was therefore composed in B.C. 20, before December of that year.

(5) _Carmen Saeculare_, composed for the _Ludi Saeculares_ of B.C. 17 (see Sueton. quoted above). An inscription commemorating these games was discovered in 1890 on the left bank of the Tiber, and in it Horace is mentioned: 'Sacrificioque perfecto pueri xxvi. quibus denuntiatum erat patrimi et matrimi et puellae totidem carmen cecinerunt eodemque modo in Capitolio. Carmen composuit Q. Horatius Flaccus.'[57]

(6) _Odes_, Book iv., published B.C. 13. _Od._ 4 and 14 celebrate the campaign of Drusus and Tiberius in Rhaetia and Vindelicia B.C. 15. _Od._ 2 and 5 were written just before Augustus' return, B.C. 13, from Gaul, where he had been since B.C. 16.

(7) _Epistles_, Book ii. _Ep._ ii. 1, to Augustus, was written B.C. 14 in response (see the quotation from Suetonius above) to the emperor's request for a poem addressed to himself, after seeing that no mention was made of him in _Ep._ ii. 2 and the _Epistula ad Pisones_. These are the _sermones quidam_ (both, like _Ep._ ii. 1, on literary criticism) referred to by Suetonius, and not Book i. of the Epistles, where Augustus is frequently mentioned. The date is fixed by l. 15, 'praesenti tibi maturos largimur honores,' etc., referring to the worship of the _numen Augusti_, which was legalized B.C. 14, and by the reference in ll. 252 _sqq._ to the victories of Drusus and Tiberius, and their celebration in _Od._ iv. 4; iv. 14. _Ep._ ii. 2 (to Iulius Florus) was written B.C. 18. Horace hints (l. 25, ll. 84-6) that he has not yet returned to lyric poetry; the epistle was therefore written before B.C. 17. The _Epistula ad Pisones_ or _De Arte Poetica_ was probably written B.C. 17 or 16 after the _Carmen Saeculare_, but before Horace had entered on the composition of the fourth Book of the Odes.

The _Satires_ are called _Sermones_ in all the MSS., but as Horace gave this name both to his Satires (_Sat._ i. 4, 42) and to his Epistles (_Ep._ ii. 1, 4; 250) it is convenient to call them _Satirae_, the name which Horace also gives them (_Sat._ ii. 1, 1; 6, 17), and which represent their intended scope. Horace's chief model is Lucilius, whom he wished to adapt to the Augustan age. _Sat._ i. 4, 56,

'his, ego quae nunc,
olim quae scripsit Lucilius.'

So _Sat._ ii. 1, 28 and 74. Lucilius' influence is seen most in _Sat._ i. 2; 5; 7; 8; ii. 2; 3; 4; 8. Horace, after the reception _Sat._ i. 2 met with, did not, like Lucilius, attack individuals; nor did his position as a dependent (_Sat._ ii. 1, 60-79) allow him to do so. We find, therefore, no political satire in Horace, who confines himself to social and literary topics. He does not attack his contemporaries by name, but (_a_) takes some names from Lucilius, as Albucius (_Sat._ ii. 1, 48), Opimius (_Sat._ ii. 3, 142); (_b_) invents 'tell-tale-names,' as Pantolabus (_Sat._ i. 8, 11), Novius (_Sat._ i. 3, 21). In _Sat._ i. 4 and ii. 1 he defines the moral and social aim of his satire. In _Sat._ i. 4, 1-13 he criticizes Lucilius' style; this seems to have given offence, and in _Sat._ i. 10 he gives reasons for his former criticism. Horace's Epicureanism is more pronounced in Book i. than in Book ii. In _Sat._ i. 1 and i. 3 (cf. ll. 99-124) the influence of Lucretius is seen. In i. 3 he takes up an antagonistic position to Stoicism (cf. ll. 124-142). In ii. 3 he shows less hostility to Stoicism though he still criticizes it.[58] In _Sat._ ii. 7, where the slave Davus enunciates the Stoic doctrine, +hoti monos ho sophos eleutheros+, Davus' arguments from l. 75 onwards have been taken by Horace from Cic. _Parad._ 5.

Horace does not pretend that his Satires (or Epistles) are poetry, and makes several statements to that effect. _Sat._ ii. 6, 17,

'Quid prius inlustrem satiris musaque pedestri?'

_Ep._ ii. 1, 250,

'Sermones ... repentes per humum.'

So _Sat._ i. 4, 39-44.

The _Epodes_ are called _Epodi_ in the MSS. +Epôdos+ was the name given to a piece composed of couplets, the first line of which is longer than the second. Horace calls them _iambi_ (_Epod._ 14, 7; _Od._ i. 16, 3). Their style is an imitation of that of Archilochus of Paros. _Ep._ i. 19, 23-5,

'Parios ego primus iambos
ostendi Latio, numeros animosque secutus
Archilochi, non res et agentia verba Lycamben.'

This is seen in the personal attacks made in many of them, as well as in the +aischrologia+ employed, and also in the versification. The dates of several can be fixed. _Epod._ 16 was written B.C. 41, and refers to the Perusian war. Horace takes no part with either side, but advises his countrymen to leave Rome, like the Phocaeans of old. _Epod._ 7 was written B.C. 39; and _Epod._ 1, 9, and 14, about B.C. 31. The order is strictly metrical. Epodes 1-10 are simple iambics (trimeter and dimeter alternately); 11-16 more complicated forms; 17, the last, in iambic trimeters.

The _Odes_ Horace himself calls _carmina_. The metres are nearly all taken from Sappho and Alcaeus, the two poets whose works Horace wished to present to his countrymen in a Roman dress. Cf. _Od._ iii. 30, 13-4,

'Princeps Aeolium carmen ad Italos
deduxisse modos.'

The metrical differences between himself and his originals are due to the difference in the genius of the two languages and to the fact that he adopted the views on metre current in his time. Catullus' metre, on the other hand, was closely modelled on that of the Alexandrian poets. The odes are largely founded on the best Greek lyric poetry, with which Horace was thoroughly familiar; cf. his first intention to write in Greek (_Sat._ i. 10, 31-5). Alexandrian influence is little seen, and his mythological allusions are seldom obscure. Examples of imitation (which is commonest in Book i.) are: _Od._ i. 9, the beginning of which is from Alcaeus (so i. 10; 11; 18); i. 12 (beginning) is from Pindar; i. 27 from Anacreon. Bacchylides is imitated, _e.g._ in ii. 18.

_Subjects of the Odes._--1. Love and wine form the themes of many. _Od._ i. 6, 17,

'Nos convivia, nos proelia virginum
sectis in iuvenes unguibus acrium
cantamus.'

Cf. _Od._ ii. 1, 37-40; iii. 3, 69-72.

The love-poems show no trace of personal passion, and the names of the women whose charms are sung are taken from Greek; thus Pyrrha (a well-known name from Attic comedy) i. 5; Lydia, i. 13, etc.; Lalage, i. 22; ii. 5. Cinara (iv. 1; iv. 13) is probably the only one that represents a real person. Wine is celebrated, _e.g._ in i. 9; 18; 27; ii. 7; iii. 21. A tone of moderation is observed throughout the drinking-songs. It is highly probable[59] that in _Od._ i. 27, 1-4 the unrestrained bacchanalian spirit of Catullus (cf. c. 27) is reproved,

'Natis in usum laetitiae scyphis
pugnare Thracum est. Tollite barbarum
morem verecundumque Bacchum
sanguineis prohibete rixis.'

2. In _Od._ i. 24 we have the beautiful dirge on the death of Quintilius Varus.

3. _On political subjects._--The chief of these are as follows: i. 2 (towards the end of B.C. 28); i. 12; i. 14; i. 35 (in B.C. 26); i. 37 (in B.C. 30); ii. 1. The most important, however, are _Od._ iii. 1-6, which form one whole, and are written on the new name of Augustus, and the ideas therewith connected. They were all written about B.C. 27.[60]

In iii. 1, which is general, the rising generation is addressed by the prophet of the empire; ll. 3, 4,

'Musarum sacerdos
virginibus puerisque canto.'

The lesson of the ode is 'A moderate life is the best. Lucky is the man who is spared the trouble of managing the State.'

iii. 2 praises courage and honesty, but with special reference to two institutions of Augustus: (1) the professional soldier as opposed to the citizen-soldier of the republic. The officers were taken from the two privileged classes, and there was no promotion from the ranks. This is the explanation of ll. 1-4,

'Angustam amice pauperiem pati
robustus acri militia puer
condiscat et Parthos ferocis
vexet eques,'

lines which also refer to the resuscitation by Augustus of the citizen-cavalry. The soldier is not to trouble about politics (ll. 17-20), and must not fear death (l. 13). (2) The new imperial administrative officers, employed not only in collecting taxes, but in administrative business of every kind. Speaking of them, Horace pays a tribute to loyal silence, and emphasizes the curse that clings to breach of faith; l. 25,

'Est et fideli tuta silentio
merces';

l. 31,

'Raro antecedentem scelestum
deseruit pede Poena claudo.'

iii. 3 touches intimately the political questions of the day. Pointed reference is made to Cleopatra; she is the _mulier peregrina_ (l. 20), the _Lacaena adultera_ (l. 25), who brought Troy low, and would bring Rome low, if she and her _famosus hospes_ (l. 26) could raise Troy again. The reference here is to a report current about Antony, that he intended to make Troy the capital. It is certain that he intended to restore to Cleopatra her kingdom with extended frontiers, and to make himself ruler of the Eastern empire. This, which would have meant the subjection of Rome to the Greeks and half-Greeks, was prevented by the 'iustum et tenacem propositi virum' (l. i), who for his services is honoured as one of the gods; ll. 11-12,

'Quos inter Augustus recumbens
purpureo bibit ore nectar.'

In iii. 4 the poet's personality comes out strongest. He describes his protection by the Muses in his early years, and this leads him to speak of one of the monarch's chief works of peace, his encouragement of literature; ll. 37-40,

'Vos Caesarem altum, militia simul
fessas cohortes abdidit oppidis,
finire quaerentem labores
Pierio recreatis antro.'

iii. 5 is a defence of Augustus' foreign policy. Publicly he kept up Caesar's war policy, hence ll. 2-5,

'Praesens divus habebitur
Augustus adiectis Britannis
imperio gravibusque Persis';

but that this concealed his real policy of non-intervention is shown by his action regarding Parthia. Hence Horace, by a speech put into the mouth of Regulus (l. 18 _sqq._) warns the Romans against trying to rescue the survivors of Crassus' army, who, by becoming captives, had ceased to be citizens. That some of the Senate wished to interfere in this matter is probably shown by ll. 45-6,

'Donec labantis consilio patres
firmaret auctor numquam alias dato.'

iii. 6 refers (ll. 1-8) to Augustus' policy in restoring the ancient religion, as is seen by the fact that he rebuilt 82 temples. Lines 21-32 refer to a law of Augustus on adultery, the date of which is unknown.

In Book iv., Odes 2, 4, 5, 6, 14, 15, are political. They show traces of adulation, and sing the praises rather of the imperial family than of the nation. Cf. iv. 2, 37 (of Augustus),

'Quo nihil maius meliusve terris
fata donavere bonique divi,' etc.

The _Epistles_.--_Sermones_ is the name given them by Horace; they are also called _Epistulae_ in the MSS. Social, ethical, and literary questions are treated of, and the style is much more careful than that of the Satires. The motto, one might say, of the book is _Ep._ i. 1, 10.

'Nunc itaque et versus et cetera ludicra pono:
quid verum atque decens, curo et rogo et omnis in hoc sum.'

The dates of _Ep._ ii. 1, 2, have already been mentioned. Both treat of literary criticism, and the first deals particularly with that of the drama. Iulius Florus, to whom _Ep._ ii. 2 is addressed, was the representative of the younger literary school at Rome. The _Epistula ad Pisones_ or _De Arte Poetica_ is an essay in verse on literary criticism, specially pointing out how necessary art is to composition. In it, according to Porphyrion, Horace 'congessit praecepta Neoptolemi +tou Parianou+[61] de arte poetica, non quidem omnia, sed eminentissima.' Horace probably was also indebted to Aristotle's _Poetics_. Porphyrion says that Horace wrote the _Ars Poetica_ 'ad L. Pisonem qui postea urbis custos fuit eiusque liberos.' This does not fit in with the probable date, B.C. 17 or 16, as L. Piso was born B.C. 49, and his sons could not have been old enough for the letter to be addressed to them. It is probable that Porphyrion is wrong, and that the _A.P._ was addressed to Cn. Piso, who served with Horace under Brutus, and his two sons.

_Horace and nature._--Besides references to his Sabine villa, Horace refers to natural scenery in many passages. Such are _Epod._ 2; _Od._ i. 7, 10; ii. 6, 13; iii. 13, 9; _Sat._ ii. 6, 1 _sqq._; _Ep._ i. 10, 6 _sqq._, i. 16, 1 _sqq._[62] Horace is fond of comparing dangers to the plague of floods,[63] a plague from which Italy has always suffered. Cf. _Od._ i. 31, 7,

'rura quae Liris quieta
mordet aqua taciturnus amnis.'

So _Od._ iii. 29, 32 _sqq._, and many other passages.

_Popularity of Horace._--Horace's prediction that his works would become school-books, _Ep._ i. 20, 17,

'Hoc quoque te manet, ut pueros elementa docentem
occupet extremis in vicis balba senectus,'

was early fulfilled. Cf. Iuv. 7, 226,

'Quot stabant pueri, cum totus decolor esset
Flaccus et haereret nigro fuligo Maroni.'

CONTEMPORARY POETS:

The following writers were friends of Horace:

(_a_) _C. Valgius Rufus_, consul suffectus B.C. 12, belonged to the circle of Maecenas (Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 82).

Valgius' works, of which only a few lines are extant, included (1) Elegiae. Cf. Hor. _Od._ ii. 9, 9-12,

'Tu semper urges flebilibus modis
Mysten ademptum, nec tibi Vespero
surgente decedunt amores
nec rapidum fugiente solem.'

(2) Epigrammata, (3) Miscellanies, (4) A translation of Apollodorus' +technê+. (See Quint. iii. 1, 18.) (5) A book on herbs. (Pliny, _N.H._ xxv. 4.) An epic was also expected of him, but whether written is unknown. Tibull. iv. 1, 179,

'Est tibi, qui possit magnis se adcingere rebus,
Valgius; aeterno propior non alter Homero.'

(_b_) _M. Aristius Fuscus_, a poet and grammarian (Porphyr. _ad Sat._ i. 9, 60); _Od._ i. 22, and _Ep._ i. 10, are addressed to him.

(_c_) The _Visci_. Comm. Cruq. _ad Sat._ i. 10, 83, 'Visci duo fratres fuerunt optimi poetae et iudices critici.'

(_d_) _C. Fundanius_, wrote comedies (Porphyr. _ad Sat._ i. 10, 40).

(_e_) _Servius Sulpicius_, a love poet (Ovid, _Trist._ ii. 441; Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 86).

(_f_) _Iulius Florus_ was 'saturarum scriptor' (Porphyr. _ad Hor. Ep._ i. 3, 1). Hor. _Ep._ i. 3 and ii. 2, are addressed to him.

(_g_) _Titius_ wrote Pindaric odes, and tragedies, Hor. _Ep._ i. 3, 9-14.

(_h_) _Albinovanus Celsus_. See Hor. _Ep._ i. 3, 15-7.

(_i_) _C. Iullus Antonius_, B.C. 44-B.C. 2, was a son of the triumvir M. Antonius. The Schol. on Hor. _Od._ iv. 2, 2, says of him, "Heroico metro Diomedeam scripsit et nonnulla alia soluta oratione."

(_k_) _Furnius_, an orator; died B.C. 37. He is mentioned by Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 86.

Other poets contemporary with Virgil and Horace are:

(_a_) _L. Varius Rufus_ (cf. Verg. _Ecl._ 9, 35). His works were:

(1) Epics (_a_) on the death of Julius Caesar (Macrob. _Saturn._ vi. 1, 39), (_b_) in praise of Augustus. Hor. _Ep._ i. 16, 27-29 is a quotation from this poem (Acron _ad loc._), and it is probably referred to in _Od._ i. 6, 1 (to Agrippa),

'Scriberis Vario fortis et hostium
victor Maeonii carminis aliti,
quam rem cumque ferox navibus aut equis
miles te duce gesserit.'

(2) A tragedy, _Thyestes_, praised by Quint. x. 1, 98, 'iam Varii Thyestes cuilibet Graecarum comparari potest.'

(3) Elegies: Porphyr. ad Hor. _Od._ i. 6, 1, 'fuit L. Varius et ipse carminis et tragoediarum et elegiorum auctor.'

(_b_) _Aemilius Macer_ was a native of Verona, and died B.C. 16: Jerome yr. Abr. 2001, 'Aemilius Macer Veronensis poeta in Asia moritur.' He was a friend of Virgil, and was the 'Mopsus' of _Ecl._ 5, according to Serv. _ad loc._ Ovid in his youth enjoyed his acquaintance; cf. _Tr._ iv. 10, 43, where three didactic poems are referred to: (1) _Ornithogonia_, on birds; (2) _Theriaca_, on venomous serpents; (3) _De Herbis_, on plants.

For his obligations to Nicander, see under 'Virgil,' p. 158. Quintilian calls him 'humilis' (x. 1, 87).

(_c_) _C. Cornelius Gallus_ was born at Forum Iulii B.C. 70, and died by his own hand B.C. 27. Jerome yr. Abr. 1990, 'Cornelius Gallus Foroiuliensis poeta ... xliii. aetatis suae anno propria se manu interficit.' Having commanded a division in the war against Antony, he was appointed by Octavian the first prefect of Egypt, B.C. 30, but incurred his anger and was banished from Caesar's house and provinces (Sueton. _Aug._ 66). The cause of his downfall was indiscreet language about Augustus, according to Ovid, _Tr._ ii. 445,

'Non fuit opprobrio celebrasse Lycorida Gallo,
sed linguam nimio non tenuisse mero';

and _Am._ iii. 9, 63,

'Tu quoque, si falsum est temerati crimen amici,
sanguinis atque animae prodige, Galle, tuae.'

The tenth eclogue of Virgil is a testimony to his friendship for Gallus, l. 2,

'Pauca meo Gallo, sed quae legat ipsa Lycoris,
carmina sunt dicenda; neget quis carmina Gallo?'

Lines 44-49 are said by Servius, _ad loc._, to be quoted from Gallus ('de ipsius translati carminibus'). For the tribute to Gallus in the original draft of _Georgic_ iv. see under 'Virgil,' p. 157.

He wrote four Books of love-poems to Cytheris, the _liberta_ who afterwards deserted him for Antony: Serv. _ad Ecl._ x. 1, 'amorum suorum de Cytheride scripsit libros iv.' According to Servius he also translated the poems of Euphorion of Chalcis. Cf. Verg. _Ecl._ x. 50,

'Ibo et Chalcidico quae sunt mihi condita versu
carmina pastoris Siculi modulabor avena.'

Compared with Tibullus and Propertius, he was 'durior' (Quint. x. 1, 93).

(_d_) _Codrus_, mentioned by Virgil, _Ecl._ 7, 22 and 26; 5, 11, was a contemporary poet (Serv. _ad Ecl._ 7), and was praised by Valgius (Schol. Veron. _ad loc._), but nothing is known of his writings. The name is not Roman, and is probably a disguised form of Cordus. He is sometimes identified with the Iarbitas of Hor. _Ep._ i. 19, 15.

(_e_) _Bavius_ and _Mevius_ were enemies of Virgil and Horace. Verg. _Ecl._ 3, 90,

'Qui Bavium non odit, amet tua carmina, Mevi.'

Horace, _Epod._ 10, prays for the shipwreck of Mevius. He wrote about the prodigal son of the actor Aesopus (Porphyr. ad Hor. _Sat._ ii. 3, 239). Bavius died B.C. 35, according to Jerome.

(_f_) _Anser_ wrote a poem in praise of Antony, and was rewarded with a grant of land (Serv. _ad Ecl._ 9, 36; Cic. _Phil._ xiii. 11). He is mentioned by Ovid, _Tr._ ii. 435,

'Cinna quoque his comes est, Cinnaque procacior Anser.'

Servius sees an allusion to him in _Ecl._ 9, 36,

'Argutos inter strepere anser olores.'

(_g_) _Domitius Marsus_. His epigram on Tibullus (see p. 186) shows that he was alive in B.C. 19; he was, however, dead when Ovid was exiled in A.D. 8.

Ovid, _Ex Pont._ iv. 16, 3,

'Famaque post cineres maior venit; et mihi nomen
tunc quoque, cum vivis adnumerarer, erat,
cum foret et Marsus, magnique Rabirius oris,
Iliacusque Macer sidereusque Pedo.'

He was a member of Augustus' literary circle. Mart. viii. 56, 21,

'Quid Varios Marsosque loquar, ditataque vatum
nomina, magnus erit quos numerare labor?'

His works were:

1. _Cicuta_, a collection of epigrams, often referred to by Martial. Cf. ii. 71, 3,

'aut Marsi recitas aut scripta Catulli.'

2. _Amazonis_, an epic poem.[64] Mart. iv. 29, 7,

'Saepius in libro memoratur Persius uno
quam levis in tota Marsus Amazonide.'

3. _Amores_ or _Elegiae_. Mart. vii. 29, 7,

'Et Maecenati, Maro cum cantaret Alexin,
nota tamen Marsi fusca Melaenis erat.'

4. _Fabellae_.

5. _De Urbanitate_ (in prose). Quint. vi. 3, 102, 'Domitius Marsus, qui de urbanitate diligentissime scripsit.'

(_h_) _Pupius_, a tragedian, sneered at by Hor. _Ep._ i. 1, 67, 'lacrimosa poemata Pupi.'

(_i_) _C. Melissus_, a freedman of Maecenas, invented the _trabeata_, a variety of the _togata_.

Sueton. _Gramm._ 21, 'Fecit et novum genus togatarum inscripsitque trabeatas.'

TIBULLUS.

(1) LIFE.