Chapter XVIII: Book IV: , 58, and Pereira (Mat. Med. 1101). It has been a question, by the (4)

COMMENTARY. Into the much controverted question regarding the hyssopus of the ancients, it is not our present purpose to enter, and we shall content ourselves in a great measure with giving a brief exposition of its characters and medicinal virtues as delivered by the Greek, Roman, and Arabian authorities. It occurs repeatedly in the Hippocratic treatises, as, for example, at ‘De Diæta’ (ii, 26), where it is said of it that it is hot and purges pituitous matters. Celsus mentions it in various passages; thus he calls it bad for the stomach (p. 83), says it is diuretic (p. 86, 172), rouses the senses (86), is hepatic (86), and useful in coughs (160, ed. Milligan.) The following is an abstract of Dioscorides’s important chapter on the Hyssop. It is a well-known herb, of two kinds, for one is the mountain, and the other the garden; the best is the Cilician. It has an attenuant and heating power; when boiled with figs and water and drunk along with honey and rue, it is useful in pneumonia, asthma, chronic cough, catarrh, and orthopnœa; it is anthelminthic, in a linctus with honey; its decoction brings off thick humours from the bowels when drunk with oxymel; it is eaten along with green figs pounded for moving the bowels; but it purges more strongly when cress, iris, or hedge-mustard is mixed with it; it improves the colour of the skin; it is applied as a cataplasm with figs and natron for affections of the spleen and dropsy, and with wine for inflammations; it discusses suggillations when applied with boiling water; it is a most excellent gargle in cases of quinsy with the decoction of figs; it soothes the pains of toothache when the mouth is rinsed with a decoction of it, and it dissolves flatus about the ears in the form of steam. (iii, 27.) Pliny recommends it in angina, asthma, as an application to sores, and, in a word, he gives it the same characters as Dioscorides does. (H. N. xxvi, 11, et alibi.) Our author and Aëtius copy word for word from Galen. Galen, however, in other of his works prescribes it for various complaints, as a medicine which purges the head and nose (De Cathars.), is useful in the decline of inflammation of the liver (Meth. Med. xiii), for discussing tumours (De Arte Cur. ad Glauc. ii), and for other purposes (Meth. Med. viii.) The Arabians treat of it very fully. See Serapion (c. 270); Avicenna (ii, 2, 256); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 758); Mesue (De Simpl. 16); Ebn Baithar (i, 545); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42.) Avicenna evidently derives his characters of it from Dioscorides; he recommends it as a phlegmagogue, vermifuge, a remedy for asthma, chronic coughs, &c. One of Serapion’s Arabian authorities, Isaac ebn Amram, calls it a herb growing in the mountains, having branches in length a cubit or less, and leaves like marjoram. Another of them recommends it in hardness and frigidity of the womb, kidneys, bladder, and liver, and as a purgative which evacuates crude humours. He also copies from Dioscorides and Galen. Rhases and Ebn Baithar follow nearly or altogether the same authorities as Serapion. Averrhoes states its characters in general terms. Mesue, upon the whole, is the most interesting and original of the Arabian authorities on the hyssop. He says there are two kinds, the garden and the mountain; that the former rises above the ground about half a cubit, and that its leaves are larger than those of thyme, and its flower is purple; the latter has much smaller leaves, and its stem is not so round. He states its medicinal virtues with much precision, recommending it as a phlegmagogue, in asthma, and other affections of the chest, and in nearly all the cases mentioned by Dioscorides; and also, he adds, from personal experience, in epilepsy. Two questions now come to be solved: 1st, Is the hyssop of Mesue the same as that of Dioscorides? We answer this question, with little hesitation, by saying, we think it is; Mesue merely defines his plant better, but the agreement of these authors as to its medicinal virtues convinces us that both treated of the same plant. 2d, Was the hyssop of the ancients, then, the same as our _Hyssopus officinalis_? With much deference to the many eminent scholars who deny this, we hesitatingly answer this question in the affirmative, for the two following reasons: first, the medicinal characters of the ancient hyssop, as given by Dioscorides, Mesue, and the other Greek and Arabian authorities, agree with those of the _Hyssopus officinalis_, as given by modern writers on the Materia Medica. See Platearius (de Simpl. Med.); Tournefort (Mat. Med. 223); Boerhaave (Mat. Med. 148); Alston (Mat. Med. ii, 152); Hill (Mat. Med. 364); Culpeper (Compl. Herbal. 95); Ainslie (Mat. Ind. i, 177); Rutty (Mat. Med. 145); Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. 47.) But, secondly, it is incumbent upon those who deny the identity of the ancient and modern hyssop to show when and how the _H. officinalis_ came to be substituted for a plant, the characters of which it now bears. But, further, no competent judge, we believe, will dispute that the hyssop must have been brought to Britain, and naturalized here by the Romans. Is it likely, then, that they would have brought a plant not described by their learned men at home, and not the one which had the character of being possessed of so many virtues? If, as Sprengel and others have maintained, the _Origanum Ægyptiacum_ be the true hyssopus of the ancients, why was not _it_ introduced into this country and not the _Hyssopus officinalis_? Since then the _H. officinalis_ is what our Roman conquerors brought us for their hyssop, we may be pretty confident that it truly is the ancient plant, the name of which it bears.

Φακόι,

Lentes, Lentils, (?) are desiccants of the second order, being intermediate as to cooling and heating qualities. They have also some astringency. They therefore dry the body and bind the belly; but the decoction loosens it. The first water, therefore, is thrown away when it is taken to restrain the bowels. The _Lens palustris_, _Duck-meat_, moistens and refrigerates in the second order.

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COMMENTARY. See Book I, 79. It is, undoubtedly, the _Cicer Lens_. The Lens palustris is the _Lemna minor_, Angl. Duck-meat. Our author borrows from Dioscorides, who treats of the virtues of the lentil more fully than it would seem to deserve. It is simply a vegetable astringent. (ii, 129.) The other authorities treat of both in the same terms as our author. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 711); Serapion (c. 9.)

Φαλαρὶς,

Phalaris; the juice, leaves, and seed, when drunk, relieve pains of the bladder. They are also remarkable for some tenuity of parts, and are of a heating nature.

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COMMENTARY. Sibthorp refers it to the _Phalaris Canariensis_. Our author borrows its medicinal character from Dioscorides (iii, 149), and the same is repeated by Galen and all the authorities who treat of it. None of the Arabians, as far as we can discover, have noticed it, except Ebn Baithar, who, in describing it, merely gives extracts from Dioscorides and Galen. It would appear, that in the shops of the apothecaries, it still is kept, and is reputed to be useful in pains of the bladder. See Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. 18.)

Φαλαγγίτις,

Phalangitis, _Spiderwort_, is so named because it is a remedy for the bites of the venomous spiders called phalangia. It also consists of subtile parts, and hence is supposed to prove a remedy in cases of tormina.

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COMMENTARY. According to Sibthorp, it is the _Anthericum Græcum_. Our author, like Galen and the other authorities that treat of it, copies almost word for word from Dioscorides. (iii, 112.) Ebn Baithar, in describing it, merely gives extracts from Dioscorides and Galen. It does not appear to be noticed by the Arabians. It has been scarcely known in modern practice, and yet the _Anthericum Liliastrum_ is still kept in the shops and retains the name of spiderwort, with the reputation of being useful against the bites of scorpions. See Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. 22.)

Φελλὸς.

Suber, _Cork_, and particularly that from wine-vessels, when burnt has very desiccative ashes. This is mixed up especially with dysenteric remedies.

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COMMENTARY. Theophrastus gives an accurate description of the _Quercus Suber_. (H. P. iii, 16.) Cork, as Pliny states, is formed from its bark. He recommends its ashes or charcoal in hemorrhages. (H. N. xxiv, 8.) Q. Serenus recommends it in the same cases. (c. 22.) Dioscorides does not describe this article. Galen also omits it in his list of simples, but briefly notices it in a preliminary book (v), and recommends the burnt cork of a wine-cask as an astringent. (De Comp. med. sec. loc. v.) We have not been able to trace it in the works of the Arabians.

Φιλλυρέα,

Phillyrea, _Mock Privet_; the leaves of the tree are astringent like those of the wild olive. They relieve ulcers in the mouth when chewed, and when the mouth is rinsed with a decoction of them. When drunk they prove diuretic and emmenagogue.

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COMMENTARY. Stackhouse and Sprengel agree that it is the _Phillyrea latifolia_ L. Our author copies its medicinal characters literally from Dioscorides. (i, 125.) None of the other Greek authorities on the Mat. Med. have described it. Neither can we find traces of it in the works of any of the Arabians, except Ebn Baithar, who gives nothing of any moment under this head but a translation of the chapter of Dioscorides referred to above. It certainly is not the _Mahaleb_ of the Arabians, as we shall show in the Appendix.

Φλόμος,

Verbascum, _Petty Mullein_; there are many species, among which is that called Thryalis. The leaves of all the kinds are possessed of desiccative and moderately detergent powers, and especially that with the golden flower. Being sour they suit with all sorts of fluxes. Some also rinse the teeth with them.

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COMMENTARY. It cannot be doubted that the genus is referable to the _Verbascum_, but the species cannot be well determined. See Sibthorp (Flora Græca), and Sprengel (ad Dioscor. iv, 102.) The white female Phlomos would appear to be the _Verbascum Thapsus_, and the black is indisputably the _Verbascum nigrum_. The _Phlomis Lychnitis_ of Dioscorides is probably the _V. Lychnitis_. The other species cannot be determined with any degree of certainty. Our author abridges the medicinal characters given to them by Dioscorides. (l. c.) Galen also, as well as Aëtius and Oribasius, borrow freely from Dioscorides. The mullein occurs in the Hippocratic treatises (Morb. Mulier.), but we do not find it in the works of Celsus. Pliny describes the verbascum in nearly the same terms as Dioscorides. (H. N. xxv, 74.) See also Apuleius (De Herbis, 71.) The Arabians follow Dioscorides in delivering its medicinal properties. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 98); Ebn Baithar (i, 184.) The verbascum held a place in the Dispensatory as late as the time of Lewis. (ii, 417.) The _V. Thapsus_, _nigrum_, and _Lychnitis_, although now rejected from our Dispensatory, are still retained in the shops. See Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. 91.) It is said that the juice of their leaves, which is acrid and bitterish, is used to poison mice and fish. Lindley (Veg. King. 683.) In the modern Greek Pharmacopœia, both the _Verbascum Thapsus_ and _thapsiforme_ stand for the female phlomos. (166.)

Φοῖνιξ,

(Called by some Rhus), is a herb like the _Darnel_. It has astringent powers, and when drunk with austere wine stops all fluxes.

Palma, _the Palm-tree_, has a fruit which, when ripe, is moderately hot, stomachic, and tonic, when taken internally or applied externally. The rest of the palm-tree is sufficiently astringent, and hence is mixed up as an ingredient with stomach and liver remedies. But the most astringent part is the involucrum or cover, as it were, of the fruit while growing.

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COMMENTARY. The herb is undoubtedly the _Lolium perenne_. The tree is the _Phœnix Dactylifera_. We would refer to the ‘Hierobotanicon’ of Olaus Celsius and our own article on this head, in the Appendix to Dunbar’s Greek Lexicon, for the general literature of this interesting subject. We need not dwell particularly on the medicinal virtues of the herb, as all the authorities are agreed that it is applicable in such cases as astringents are indicated. See in particular Dioscorides (iv, 43.) A decoction of different parts of the palm-tree was much used by the ancient physicians as an astringent. Pliny recommends it particularly in discharges from the uterus and bowels. (H. N. xxiii, 53.) He borrows, however, from Dioscorides, who recommends it as an astringent in these and various other cases, such as hemorrhoids and wounds; he adds, however, that they induce headaches, and when eaten in great quantity intoxicate and that the dried dates when eaten are useful in hæmoptysis, stomachic and dysenteric diseases, and complaints of the bladder, when applied in a powder as a cataplasm with the quince and cerate of wild vine-flowers. (i, 148.) Celsus recommends a decoction of dates as an astringent gargle. (v, 22, 9.) Galen has a most interesting article on the palm, which he recommends in general as being possessed of an astringent quality, in hepatic and stomachic affections, both internally and externally. Serapion, Mesue, and Rhases likewise recommend it in such cases. Rhases gives a most copious account of this subject borrowed from various sources. One of his authorities says, dates spoil the teeth and create obstructions in the liver and spleen. Another says they create semen, and are useful in phthisis. (Cont. l. ult. i, 531.) Avicenna recommends them generally as astringents, and particularly in fluxes of the womb and in hemorrhoids. (ii, 2, 87.) Ebn Baithar copies mostly from Rhases under this head. (i, 211, 496.) The composition of palm-oil is described by Dioscorides. (i, 54.) It is the only preparation from the palm which is now retained in the Pharmacopœia.

Φόρμιον,

Phormium, is possessed of attenuating, detergent, and attractive powers. Its seed, therefore, attenuates leucoma, and extracts sharp-pointed weapons of wood.

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COMMENTARY. Our author’s account of it is taken from Galen. It would appear to be a variety of the ὅρμινον, i. e. _Salvia Horminum_ L., Purple-top Clary, as is stated by Sprengel. (Notæ in Dioscor. iii, 135.) We can find nothing interesting regarding it in the other authorities.

Φοῦ,

Valeriana, _Valerian_, has a root which resembles the nard, but is weaker for most purposes, only it is more diuretic like Celtic.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is the _Valeriana officinalis_, or perhaps the _V. Dioscoridis_. We have mentioned already that the ancient nards were various species of valerian. All the ancient authorities describe it as being diuretic and emmenagogue. See in particular Dioscorides (i, 10.) Galen ascribes to it diuretic powers (De Simpl. viii), and Pliny emmenagogue (H. N. xxi, 80.) The Arabians give it the same characters. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 255); Serapion (De Simpl. 62); Ebn Baithar (ii, 265.) Bergius in like manner states its virtues thus: “Virtus: emmenagoga, abortiens, diuretica, sanguinem amovens.” See also Rutty (Mat. Med.) Recent authorities, however, are not so lavish in its praises. See Pereira (971.)

Φύλλον,

Folium, _Leaf_, the leaf of the Malabathrum, which has been already treated of.

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COMMENTARY. Apicius, in like manner, uniformly calls the leaf of the Malabathrum by the name of _Folium_. We still incline to the opinion which we deliberately formed and expressed some years ago, that it was the leaf of the cassia or wild cinnamon tree. We refer to a learned disquisition on it by Olaus Celsius, in his ‘Hierobotanicon,’ and to Geoffroy (Treatise on Fossil, Veg., and Anim. Subst. 318.) The φ. of Dioscorides is quite a different substance, being the same as the λινόζωστις, which see.

Φῦκος,

Fucus marinus, _Seaweed_, cools and dries in the second order, having also a moderate degree of astringency.

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COMMENTARY. Various species of _Fuci_ are described by Theophrastus and Dioscorides, but so briefly, that it is scarcely possible to determine them exactly. It is deserving of remark, however, that Galen, Aëtius, and Oribasius describe a species of Fucus, under the head of Ceruse, which is therefore supposed to have been a preparation of lead. The article, however, which our author here treats of is unquestionably the vegetable, as is evident from Aëtius. (p. 24, ed. Ald.) Dioscorides says it is possessed of an astringent power, which is efficacious in cataplasms for the cure of gouty affections and inflammations. These plants are to be used in a moist state before they are dried. He adds, that Nicander says the purple fucus is theriacal, and that some persons took its root to be the fucus which women use for painting their face., (iv, 98.) Pliny gives a very similar description of the “Phycos thalassion, id est, Fucus marinus.” (H. N. xxvi, 66.) Galen treats of it in nearly the same language as our author. It would appear to be the Muscus marinus of Avicenna, who borrows the description which he gives of it from Dioscorides, (ii, 2, 452, and 711.) Our old English herbalists, Parkinson and Gerard, repeat the characters given to the fuci by the ancients, but these articles were long omitted from our Dispensatories, until of late some of them were readmitted, when it was ascertained that they contained iodine. We have known old practitioners, who used the _Fucus vesiculosus_, or Sea Wrack, very extensively as an application to scrofulous sores. See further Pereira (562), and Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. 7.) Beckmann gives a very ingenious disquisition on the _Phycos thalassion_ of the ancients, which he makes out to have been our Archil or _Lichen roccella_, a sea-weed which has been extensively used, both in ancient and in modern times for the dyeing of wool. (History of Inventions.) It must be to it that Horace alludes when he speaks of “lana medicata fuco,” in his famous ode on Regulus.

Φυλλιτὴς,

Phyllites, _Hart’s Tongue_, is somewhat sour, and from this quality it naturally proves a remedy for diarrhœa when drunk.

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COMMENTARY. There seems little reason to doubt that it is the _Scolopendrium officinale_, or Spleenwort. It is the _Lingua Cervina_ of Parkinson (Theatre of Plants, 1047.) Both Galen and Dioscorides, like our author, recommend it in fluxes of the bowels, as being possessed of astringent powers. It is not met with in the works either of Hippocrates or Celsus. It was retained in the Dispensatory in the time of Quincy (88, 123), and even at the present day it is not an entire stranger to the shops. See Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. 12.)

Χαλβάνη,

Galbanum, is heating almost in the third degree, and is desiccative almost in the second, being possessed of emollient and discutient powers.

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COMMENTARY. Dioscorides says of Galbanum, that it is the juice of a Ferula growing in Syria, by some called metopium. Pliny describes it thus: “Quod maxime laudant, cartilaginosum, purum, ad similitudinem Hammoniaci.” Now, in Dr. Duncan’s edition of the Edinburgh Dispensatory (1811), it is said in like manner that “Galbanum agrees in virtue with gum ammoniac;” and from this casual coincidence in the descriptions of the ancient and modern galbanums, we infer their identity. It would appear to be now settled, that galbanum is the product of different umbellifers, the most common of which is the _Opoidia galbanifera_. See the late publications of Royle, Lindley, and Pereira. Dioscorides describes it as being possessed of a heating, fiery, epispastic, and discutient power, in pessaries and fumigations as promoting menstruation and the expulsion of the fœtus; he recommends it externally, for furunculi and other complaints of the skin, and internally for chronic coughs, dyspnœa, asthma, ruptured and sprained parts; its vapour rouses in cases of epilepsy, hysteria, and vertigo, and drives away venomous animals. It is used in toothache for filling the hollow of the teeth. (iii, 87.) Galen and the other Greek authorities treat of it in general terms, like our author. It occurs in the works of Hippocrates, and in those of Celsus, who recommends it in nearly the same cases as Dioscorides, as in furunculus, difficulty of breathing, and so forth. (See v, 18, et pluries.) For the Arabians, see Avicenna (ii, 2, 312); Serapion (c. 320.) They borrow their account of its medicinal virtues from Dioscorides, recommending it as an alexipharmic, an application to tumours, and a remedy in certain diseases of the chest. Avicenna says it is less powerful than sagapenum. The Arabian authorities of Ebn Baithar do not supply anything of much importance in addition to what is furnished by Dioscorides and Galen.

Χαλκίτις,

Chalcitis, is possessed of astringent, acrid, caustic, and escharotic powers. In subtility of particles it is intermediate between misy and sori; but when burnt its parts become still finer.

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COMMENTARY. We will first give an abstract of the information furnished by the ancient authorities themselves regarding this much-disputed article in their Materia Medica, and reserve what we have to say as to the substance itself to the conclusion. Galen is the author who has given the fullest account of the nature and formation of the misy, sori, and chalcitis (see Opera, ed. Basil, T. ii, 127); but as his description of them is lengthy, we prefer giving the abstract of the same furnished by Aëtius. It is to be borne in mind then that what follows is upon the authority of Galen, who visited the copper-mines of Cyprus for the express purpose of ascertaining the nature of the misy, sori, and chalcitis. “At the mine in Cyprus, in the mountains of the Soli, there was a great cave dug in the mountain, at the right side of which, that is to say, on our left hand as we entered, there was a passage into the mine in which I saw certain specimens of the three substances stretched upon one another like zones, the lowest being that of _sori_, upon it _chalcitis_, and then that of _misy_. In process of time the chalcitis changes into misy by degrees, and the sori can change into chalcitis, but requires a much longer space of time. So that it is no wonder that these three substances should be possessed of homogeneous (similar) powers, as differing from one another only in tenuity and density of their parts, the grossest being the sori, and the finest the misy, whereas chalcitis possesses an intermediate power. When burnt they become more attenuant, but less styptic.” (p. 30, ed. Aldi.) Galen (l. c.) states distinctly that the misy is an efflorescence which forms upon the chalcitis, similar to the verdigris which forms upon copper (or bronze), and that the three substances in question are convertible into one another. He also states that a specimen of chalcanthos, when long kept, turns to chalcitis. Pliny gives a very confused account of the misy, sori, and chalcitis, which betrays evident marks of a very imperfect acquaintance with the subject; but it is quite obvious that he meant to describe the very same substances as those which Dioscorides and Galen describe under these names, as is obvious from his ascribing the same medicinal powers as they do to each of these articles. (See H. N. xxxiv, 29, 30, 31, with the notes of Harduin.) Dioscorides gives but a very brief description of these substances, with the origin of which he most probably was not so well acquainted as Galen. He describes the best kind as being like bronze or copper (χαλκοειδῆ), friable, free of stones, not old, and having long and glancing fibres. He says of it that it has styptic, heating, and escharotic powers, and that it clears away impurities about the canthi and eyes; that it is one of the mild septics; is useful in erysipelas, herpes, hemorrhages of the uterus and nose, with the juice of leeks; that when dried it is useful in epulis, spreading sores, and diseases of the tonsils; that when burnt it is more useful in ophthalmic remedies in the form of a powder with honey; that it melts down and cleanses callus and asperity of the eyelids; and removes fistulæ when introduced in the form of a collyrium. (v, 115.) It occurs in one of the Hippocratic treatises (De Ulceribus), but its meaning there is not well defined. By _blue chalcitis_ is probably meant chalcanthos, or blue vitriol. Celsus prescribes it frequently as a caustic and escharotic application. (v. 9, et pluries.) As stated already (see _Misy_), Avicenna gives an account of these substances under the head of “Atramentum sutorium,” the chalcitis being further distinguished by the name of _colcotar_. He refers to Galen’s description of them already given, but either he or his translator evidently misinterprets the original, for he represents Galen as saying that the _atramentum rubeum_ (sori) is formed from the _colcotar_. He says of all the three substances that they are caustic, escharotic, and styptic; and he recommends them in the same instances as Dioscorides and Galen do. (ii, 2, 47.) Serapion, as already stated, describes them under the name of _vitreolum_ or _zeg_, including also the chalcanthos in the same chapter. It may be interesting to our readers to see his version of the passage of Galen given above from Aëtius. “Vidi in mineris tres venas extensas unam super aliam per longum spacium, et vena inferior erat zeg rubeum (_sori?_), et secunda quæ erat super eam erat colcotar (_chalcitis?_), et tertia superior erat zeg viride (_misy?_), et hoc est quod zeg rubeum convertitur et fit colcotar et colcotar fit zeg viride.” He afterwards gives Galen’s account of the medicinal powers of chalcitis, which does not differ materially from our author’s. (De Simpl. 386.) Rhases, under the head of vitreolum, gives, in abridged extracts from Dioscorides and Galen, their descriptions of _sori_, _chalcitis_, and _misy_, which he calls _vitreolum ruffum_, _colcotor_, and _vitreolum viride_. (Contin. l. ult. 747.) Averrhoes quotes Galen’s account of the origin of the three vitriols which he calls _vitreolum rubeum_ (sori?), _v. viride_ (misy?), and _cholcotar_ (chalcitis?). (Collig. v, 43.) And now, respecting the nature of the three metallic substances _misy_, _sori_, and _chalcitis_, we have to state it as our deliberate opinion, that, provided the authority of Galen be held decisive of the question, there can be no hesitation in coming to the conclusion that they were merely varieties of the chalcanthum, arising principally from age or differences in the proportion of the ingredients entering into its composition. (See below.) Probably then the chalcitis was a specimen of pure sulphate of copper which had contracted an efflorescence from age. The misy _or_ zeg viride of the Arabians no doubt owed its colour to a predominance of the sulphate of iron; while in the sori we may suppose that zinc or other impurities gave it its peculiar characters.

Χάλκανθος,

Atramentum Sutorium, _Copperas_ or _Vitriol_, is water concreted in the metal mines of Cyprus, having a very strong astringency with no contemptible degree of heat; and of all substances it is the most effectual for pickling and drying humid flesh. In process of time it changes to chalcitis.

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COMMENTARY. No person who reads the account of this substance given by Dioscorides and Pliny can doubt of its being blue vitriol, or an impure sulphate of copper procured by the evaporation of water found in mines of copper. Pliny’s description of it is quite characteristic: “Color est cœruleus, perquam spectabili nitore vitrumque esse creditur.” He also states that it is the same as the “atramentum sutorium.” (H. N. xxxiv, 32.) Celsus says the same of it, and ranks it with styptics (v, 1); with corrosive substances (v, 6); with caustics (v, 7, 8); with escharotics (vi, 11); and recommends it when strongly heated or roasted to remove callus (v, 28, 12), and for other purposes. Whether the _blue chalcitis_ of Hippocrates (De Ulcer. 13), alluded to in the preceding article, be blue vitriol as some have supposed (Pereira, Mat. Med. 494), we cannot pretend positively to determine, but we think it probable. Galen describes most graphically his visit to the copper mines of Cyprus, where, among other strange sights, he witnessed the process of procuring chalcanthum. He mentions that a specimen of it which he carried with him in the course of twenty years was converted into chalcitis on its surface, while its centre remained chalcanthum, and that he meant to keep it until its centre should change likewise, and until the chalcitis should be converted into misy. Dioscorides describes several varieties of the chalcanthum, one of which is called _pectum_, being procured by natural evaporation; and another _ephthon_ or _coctum_, as being procured by boiling. The best kind, he says, is blue, heavy, compact, and translucent. He says it is astringent, heating, and escharotic; kills the lumbricus latus when taken to the amount of a drachm; that it is emetic, cures those who have swallowed mushrooms when drunk with water, and that it purges the head when a piece of wool smeared with it is introduced into the nostrils. (v, 114.) Oribasius gives a minute description of the chalcanthum, but it is confessedly taken from Dioscorides. (Med. Coll. 13.) Aëtius says distinctly that the water running from the copper mines of Cyprus concretes into chalcanthum, and that it changes into chalcitis. He, in fact, evidently borrows from Galen. Avicenna, as formerly stated by us, gives a description of this substance along with misy, sori, and chalcitis, under the general head of “atramentum sutorium.” (ii, 2, 47.) He also treats of it separately under its proper name, but his account of it is entirely made up from Dioscorides. (166.) Serapion’s, in like manner, is copied from Dioscorides. (c. 386.) Haly Abbas’s chapter on the vitriols is so barbarously translated, that we cannot pretend to unfold his account of this substance. (Pract. ii, 47.) Though, as we have stated above, we think there can be no doubt that the chalcanthos of Dioscorides and Pliny was an impure sulphate of copper procured from the “waters of cementation” issuing from copper mines, it is proper to mention that after mature consideration of the subject, with the assistance of an esteemed authority on the Materia Medica in London, we have arrived at the conclusion that either the term must have been applied loosely to other metallic sulphates, or the ancient sulphate of copper must have contained a very large admixture of the sulphates of iron and of zinc. Probably, then, the term chalcanthos was used anciently in as loose a manner as the terms vitriol and copperas have been in modern times. (See Tournefort’s Mat. Med.) It is further deserving of remark under this head, that the description of the impure sulphate of copper, which is given in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia, corresponds exactly with Dioscorides’s description of the chalcanthos. In the Pharmacopœia it is directed that the sulphate of copper should not contain _much_ of the sulphates of zinc and iron. And now, in conclusion, as this is one of the most important subjects connected with ancient pharmacy, we shall briefly state our reasons for holding, contrary to the opinion of many recent authorities of high reputation, that the chalcanthum either consisted principally of copper, or at least contained a large proportion of that metal in its composition. 1st. The name implies that the Greeks thought it a cupreous substance, and Pliny seems to say that the name had been properly given. (l. c.) 2d. Pliny’s description of it applies exactly to blue vitriol. (l. c.) 3d. Dioscorides’s description of it tallies with the description of the sulphate of copper given in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia. 4th. The chalcanthos was indisputably formed from the evaporation of waters issuing from mines of copper, that is to say, from “waters of cementation.” Compare Galen (l. c.) with Pereira (Mat. Med. 495.) 5th. It was administered as an emetic. See Dioscorides (l. c.) 6th. It was used externally as a powerful escharotic. See Dioscorides, Celsus, and Galen (pluries.) 7th. It was ranked among the poisons. See Cicero (ad Familiares, ix,) and the Arabian authorities on Toxicology.

Χαλκὸς κεκαυμένος,

Æs ustum, _Burnt Copper_, is acrid, with a share of astringency. It therefore is the best of remedies for the cicatrization of ulcers upon dry bodies; but if washed it agrees better with tender bodies.

Χαλκοῦ ἄνθος,

Æris flos, _the Flower of Copper_, is possessed of more subtile powers than burnt copper, or than the squama æris. Wherefore, when added to collyria, it clears away asperities and sycoses of the eyelids.

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COMMENTARY. Though there can be no doubt that this term is generally used by the Greek classical authors to signify _bronze_, or a combination of copper and tin in the proportion of from 2 to 14 per cent. of the latter, it is also certain that it was frequently applied to native copper, as it is in general by the authorities on the Materia Medica. The ancients, it may be proper to remark cursorily in this place, were acquainted with the formation of _brass_, which they made by compounding together copper and cadmia. See Watson’s ‘Chemical Essays,’ and Beckmann’s ‘History of Inventions.’ Brass was their aurichalcum _or_ orichalcum. The _Æs ustum_, according to Geoffroy, “is copper reduced to a calx or crocus, either by itself or mixed with sulphur or salt, by a long calcination in a reverberatory furnace.” “The _Squama æris_, or flake of copper,” he adds, “is little different from the Æs ustum, being only the particles of burnt copper which fly off when it is hammered.” He says of the _Flos æris_, “it is nothing but copper reduced to small grains like millet seed, which is done by pouring cold water upon melting copper, which thereupon immediately flies every way into grains.” In short it was fine granulated copper. These preparations of copper are described by all the ancient authorities. See in particular Dioscorides (v, 87, 88), who describes the process of making the flos æris very minutely. He recommends it as a detergent and caustic medicine for various purposes, such as removing dimness of the cornea, wasting polypi in the nostrils, and protuberances about the anus; and also for the cure of deafness when blown into the ear with a syringe in the form of a powder, and in complaints of the gums and tonsils. He also says that given to the amount of three oboli it evacuates thick humours. He also describes several processes for burning the copper, and recommends the æs ustum as a cleansing and detergent medicine for various ulcers, especially those of the eye, and also as an emetic when taken in a draught with hydromel, or in a linctus with honey. None of the other Greek authorities treat so fully of these preparations as Dioscorides. Celsus prescribes them frequently as caustic and corrosive substances. (v, 6, 7, et pluries.) The Arabians used these articles not only as external applications, but as emetics and purgatives. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 231); Serapion (c. 414); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. iii, 48); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 43); Haly Abbas (Pract. ii, 48); Ebn Baithar (ii, 551.) The flowers of copper, and burnt or calcined copper, are noticed in the works of all our earlier writers on medicine, and recommended to be administered both internally and externally. See Platearius (De Simpl. Med.) The process of preparing calcined copper is minutely described by Moses Charras in his ‘Royal Pharmacopœia,’ published at Paris in 1676. They are briefly described by Dr. Hill, who says of the æs ustum that “it was much used externally by the ancients.” (Mat. Med. 32.) Neither of these preparations of copper occurs in the Complete English Dispensatory of Quincy, published in 1763. They are omitted also in Pemberton’s London Dispensatory, published in 1746. They would appear, however, to have been longer retained in use by the Continental physicians, since a formula for preparing the _Calx æris_ is given in Crantz’s Mat. Med. (ii, 91. Vienna, 1765.) He says that the _Flos æris_, and _Squama æris_, were preparations not in use. Rutty ranks them among the obsolete medicines of the ancients. A formula for _Æs ustum_ is given in Gray’s Suppl. to Pharmacop. (p. 242.) It is the same as that of Dioscorides. (v, 37.)

Χαμάιδρυς,

Chamædrys, _Germander_, is heating and drying in the third degree. It therefore melts down enlarged spleens, proves diuretic and emmenagogue, and removes visceral obstructions.

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COMMENTARY. It clearly is the _Teucrium Chamædrys_ L. Theophrastus says that its fruit purges bile. (H. P. ix, 10.) Dioscorides commends it in spasms, scirrhous spleen, dysuria, and incipient dropsy; and as an emmenagogue; and, by the way, Dr. Hill confirms this account of it. Galen and all the other authorities treat of it in nearly the same terms. We have not been able to find it in the works of Hippocrates. For the Arabians, see particularly Serapion (c. 180); Avicenna (ii, 2, 132); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 152.) One of Serapion’s Arabian authorities recommends the syrup in chronic coughs, dyspepsia, and incipient dropsies, and the decoction in black jaundice. Avicenna joins both Dioscorides and Serapion in regard to the virtues which they ascribe to it. Whether or not this be the “trixago” of Celsus (iv, 6) has never been satisfactorily determined. The Arabian translators adopt this name. It has still the reputation of being a pectoral medicine. Lindley (Veg. Kingd. 661.)

Χαμαίκισσος,

Hedera, _Ground Ivy_; the flower being considerably bitter, removes obstructions of the liver. It is also given in ischiatic diseases.

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COMMENTARY. We see no good reason for disputing its identity with _Glechoma hederaceum_, or Ground Ivy, which we believe to have been introduced into this country by the Romans for the _Chamæcissos_. Dioscorides gives it nearly the same characters as our author, that is to say, he recommends it in sciatica and jaundice. (iv, 124.) Galen and the other Greek authorities treat of it in nearly the same terms as our author. The Arabians notice it under the same head with the other species of ivy. See Serapion (De Simpl. 41); Avicenna (ii, 2, 169); Rhases (Contin. 190.) The ground-ivy maintained a place in the Dispensatory with a high reputation as a hepatic, splenitic, diuretic, and nephritic medicine in the days of Quincy. (117.) In the modern Greek Pharmacopœia the glechoma hederaceum stands for the χαμαίκισσος. (75.)

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Χαμαικέρασος. This occurs in the “Euporiston” generally ascribed to Dioscorides. It is referred by Sprengel to the _Convallaria majalis_, or Lily of the valley.

Χαμαιλέυκη,

Chamæleuce, _Ground Poplar_, is calefacient in the third order and desiccative in the first.

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COMMENTARY. Sprengel maintains that we should read χαμαιπέυκη, and refers it to _Stachelina Chamæpeuce_ L. In Dioscor. (iv, 125.) Dioscorides merely recommends it in lumbago. All the other authorities assign it the same general characters.

Χαμαιλέων,

Chamæleon; the root of the black chamæleon is calefacient and desiccative in nearly the third order. It is also a detergent application to the skin, and a discutient and emollient one to indurated tumours. When applied in a cataplasm it cures phagedænic ulcers. But when taken internally it is poisonous. The root of the white chamæleon is like that of the black, but more bitter. When drunk with austere wine to the amount of an acetabulum, it kills the broad intestinal worms. It is also useful in dropsical complaints.

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COMMENTARY. We stated in the Fifth Book, Sections 37, 46, that we were inclined to refer the black chamæleon to the _Carthamus corymbosus_, and the white to the _Carlina acaulis_, and we see no good reason for changing this opinion. Some good authorities, however, prefer the _C. gummifera_. See Lindley (Veg. Kingd. 708.) The virtues, however, which Dr. Lindley ascribes to the _C. acaulis_, agree very well with those of the ixia, or white chamæleon, as stated by the ancient authorities; whether, however, it produces the gum resembling mastich, as the white chamæleon is described by Dioscorides as doing, we are not so sure. Parkinson says it produces such a gum “sometimes, and in some places.” (Theatre of Plants, 968.) See also Gerard (1157.) Dioscorides recommends its root as a vermifuge; in dropsy and dysuria when taken in wine. (iii, 8.) The root of the black chamæleon he recommends with other articles for the cure of lichen, for toothache, and various other purposes. (9.) Our author borrows mostly from Galen under this head. Aëtius remarks that the root of the black species is poisonous, and hence is to be applied only externally in scabies, lichen, leprosy, and the like. This species is noticed in the Hippocratic works. (De Ulcer.) The other occurs in the works of Celsus, who prescribes it as an ingredient in a malagma for gout. (v, 18, 33.) The Arabians treat elaborately of both species. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 197, 455); Serapion (c. 274, 275); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. ii, 208); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42.) Upon the whole their characters of them agree with those by Dioscorides and Galen.

Χαμάιμηλον ἢ Ἄνθεμις,

Chamæmelum, or Anthemis, _Chamomile_, heats and dries in the first order. It is also attenuant, discutient, relaxant, and aromatic.

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COMMENTARY. It certainly applies to the _Anthemis nobilis_, but probably is not restricted to it. It appears to be the ἄνθεμον of Theophrastus. (H. P. vii, 8, 14.) It is the ἄνθεμις of Dioscorides, who describes three species, which it has been found very difficult to distinguish and identify. He says the roots, the flowers, and the stem are calefacient and attenuant, that both when drunk and in a hip-bath they promote the evacuation of the menses, fœtus, calculi, and urine; that they are drunk for tympanitis and ileus; cure jaundice and diseases of the liver; and that the decoction is used in a fomentation for complaints about the bladder. He says the chamomiles cure fistula lachrymalis in a cataplasm, and aphthæ as a masticatory, and that the oil prepared in a manner described by him, is useful in intermittent fevers when the body is rubbed with it. (iii, 143.) Aëtius strongly recommends the whole body to be rubbed with oil of chamomile in such cases to promote perspiration. According to Galen this is the ἐυάνθεμον of Hippocrates. (Morb. Mulier., i, 625.) We cannot find it in Celsus. Galen, in the preliminary dissertation to his ‘Mat. Med.,’ strongly eulogises the oil of chamomile as being calculated to soothe pain, relieve contracted parts, soften hardened, and to dispel fevers not accompanied with visceral inflammation. (iii, 133, ed. Basil.) The Arabians appear to have been very partial to this plant, of which they treat at great length. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 118); Serapion (De Simpl. 22); Rhases (Contin. l. ult. ii, 154, i, 156); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42); Haly Abbas (Pract. ii, 34.) In a word, they entirely concur in the characters given to the chamomiles by Dioscorides and Galen.

Χαμαιπίτυς,

Chamæpitys, _Ground Pine_, heats in the second order, but dries in the third. It is therefore a cathartic and detergent of the viscera, especially of the liver. It is diuretic and emmenagogue, agglutinates large wounds, and cures putrid ulcers. It also discusses scirrhous swellings, and the decoction of it is useful in ischiatic diseases.

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COMMENTARY. It appears probable that our author’s plant is _Ajuga chamæpitys_, but here commentators are by no means agreed. It is briefly mentioned by Nicander (Alex. 65), and by Celsus as a medicine which opens the pores or mouths of vessels (v, 4), but it does not occur, we believe, in the Hippocratic treatises. Of the three species described by Dioscorides, the first is probably this plant, the second is a species of _teucrium_, and the third _ajuga iva_. His characters of the first agree in the main with those given to it by our author, who, as well as Galen, Aëtius, and Oribasius, evidently copy from him. The other two species, he says, are possessed of similar powers. All the Arabians concur in representing it as being diuretic, emmenagogue, a medicine that expels the fœtus, and a laxative. See Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 153); Avicenna (ii, 2,131); Serapion (c. 179); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 32.) Avicenna in particular recommends it for the cure of sciatica and gout, and for this virtue it was celebrated as long as it retained a place in our Dispensatory. See Quincy (116.) It was an ingredient in the famous Portland powder. It is still to be found in the shops, where it bears the names of _Iva arthritica_ and _Teucrium chamæpitys_. See Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. 49.)

Χαμάιδρωψ,

Chamædrops; some call this plant Chamædrys, and some Teucrium, being possessed of similar powers to the Chamædrys.

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COMMENTARY. According to Dioscorides it is the same as the Χαμάιδρυς.

Χαμαισύκη,

Chamæsyce, _Ground Fig_, has detergent and acrid powers, so that the twigs and juice of it remove myrmecia and acrochordones. They therefore clear away thick cicatrices in the eyes with honey, and cure dimness of vision and incipient suffusions.

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COMMENTARY. From the place assigned to it by Dioscorides it was evidently a spurge. It is acknowledged to be the _Euphorbia chamæcyce_. Our author appears to have borrowed the characters which he gives it from Dioscorides. (iv, 167.) Galen and the others do the same. It does not occur in the works either of Hippocrates or Celsus, nor have we been able to find it in those of the Arabians. We are not aware of its having been used by modern authorities.

Χαμέλαια,

Chamelæa, _Mezereon_, or _Spurge Olive_, is possessed of detergent powers. It therefore cleanses foul ulcers and eschars with honey.

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COMMENTARY. Notwithstanding the difference of opinion which has prevailed among the commentators regarding this plant, we see no good grounds for doubting that it was the _Daphne Mezereon_, which we believe to have been naturalized in this country by the Romans for its medicinal uses. Dioscorides says of its leaves that they are like to those of the olive, but more slender and thick, biting to the taste and scarifying the trachea. Its leaves, he adds, purge phlegm and bile downwards, especially if taken in a pill with double the quantity of southernwood mixed with one part of the chamelæa; let it be taken in water or honey as a pill; but it is insoluble, for it is evacuated as it was taken; the powdered leaves mixed up with honey cleanse foul ulcers, and such as are covered with eschars. (iv, 169.) We do not meet with it in the works of Hippocrates nor of Celsus. Galen and the other Greek authorities treat of it in very general terms like our author. Beyond all doubt is this the _mezereon_ of Serapion, who commences his chapter on it by giving extracts from the descriptions of the _chamelæa_ given by Dioscorides, Galen, and our author. He then gives a very lengthy account of it from Arabian authorities, first from Alcanzi and next from Aben Mesuai, which we regret that our necessary limits prevent us from giving a proper abstract of. He says that persons of a gross constitution, and more especially old men, bear this medicine best, and he recommends us to administer it with myrobalans, or tamarinds, or prunes. He further directs it to be given in water that has been boiled. Altogether there is not a more important chapter in Serapion than the one on Mezereon. (c. 373.) Mesue also gives a very interesting account of the mezereon, which he illustrates with extracts from Dioscorides and Galen on the chamelæa. He assigns to it powers to purge yellow and black bile, and says that its greatest use is in dropsy. It is also, he says, anthelminthic. He recommends tents smeared with it for fistulæ and sinuous ulcers. (De Simpl. 22.) Haly Abbas also gives an excellent account of it, representing it as a medicine which purges phlegm, yellow and black bile. (Pract. 2, 54, 564.) Rhases describes the two chamæleons and the chamelæa together under the head of _Laureola_. He quotes “the Book of Poisons” as stating that in the dose of two drachms it proves fatal. He gives quotations from Dioscorides, Galen, and our author. (Cont. l. ult. i, 413.) Avicenna, in like manner, describes the two chamæleons and the chamelæa under the head of mezereon, but evidently recognised the distinction between the last and the first two. He commends the mezereon particularly in dropsy. (ii, 2, 455.) The above sketch, it will be remarked, clearly proves the identity of the χαμέλαια of the Greeks, and the Mezereon of the Arabians. We admit, however, that it does not prove their identity with the _Daphne Mezereon_. To us it appears, however, that the physiological effects of the mezereon, as described by our best authorities of the present day, correspond very well with the effects of the chamelæa or mezereon as described by Dioscorides and Serapion. In particular compare Pereira (805) with Serapion (l. c.) It is proper to mention, however, that Sibthorp held the χ. to be _Daphne oleoides_. Both the _Daphne Mezereon_, and _D. Gnidium_ are retained in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia. (108.)

Χελιδόνιον,

Chelidonium, _Columbine_ or _Celandine_; the great is calefacient in the third order, and powerfully detergent. The juice of it contributes to acuteness of sight. The root when drunk with anise removes icteric obstructions, and also when taken with wine. When masticated it cures toothache. The smaller species, which belongs to the fourth order of calefacients, is more acrid, so as to ulcerate the skin in a cataplasm. It also removes leprous nails. The juice of it purges by the nose.

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COMMENTARY. That the first species is the _Chelidonium majus_ L. admits of no dispute. The other would seem to be the _Ranunculus Ficaria_, or Fig-wort. Pliny praises it as an application to strumous tumours, and a remedy for impairment of sight. From the experiments of Orfila, it appears that the _C. magus_ acts as a very acrid poison. Dioscorides describes the great celandine very minutely, and recommends it in jaundice and toothache. (ii, 201.) He gives the same character of the less as our author. (ii, 212.) Galen and Aëtius treat of them like our author. Neither of them is to be found in the works of Hippocrates. Celsus prescribes the juice of the “chelidonia” as an application to enlarged tonsils. (vi, 14.) Both species are distinctly treated of by the Arabians. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 295, 727); Serapion (c. 196); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 200.) They all recommend the juice of the greater celandine in jaundice, in toothache, and in affections of the eyes. It long held a place in our Dispensatory, retaining its character for curing jaundice and removing films from the eyes. See Quincy (117.) Even at the present day rustic farriers use the acrid juice of the celandine for removing films from the eyes of cattle. The chelidonium majus occurs in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia. (46.)

Χελιδόνες,

Hirundines, _Swallows_; when burnt their ashes, if rubbed in with honey, cure inflammatory cynanche. They also contribute to acuteness of sight.

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COMMENTARY. It is the _Hirundo rustica_. Celsus also recommends the ashes of swallows in cases of cynanche and diseases of the eyes. (iv, 4.) Dioscorides speaks of their use in these and in other cases. (ii, 6.) Galen gives the same account of them as our author. The Arabians repeat the descriptions given by Dioscorides and Galen. See Serapion (c. 443); Avicenna (ii, 2, 347); Rhases (Contin. l. ult. i, 741); Ebn Baithar (i, 375.)

Χολὴ,

Fel, _Bile_, or _Gall_, is the hottest of all animal juices, but differs according to the colour, for the yellow is hotter than the pale, and the violet-coloured than the yellow; and also according to the difference of the animals which produce it; forasmuch as that of swine is the weakest of all, so that it agrees with ulcers in the ears, and does not prove pungent; but that of sheep is more acrid, and still more that of goats, to which the galls of bears and oxen are allied. But the gall of bulls is stronger, and still more so that of the hyæna, next that of the fish called callionymus, and that of the scorpion which answers in suffusions, dimness of vision, and leucomata, and likewise that of the sea-tortoise. The gall of the wild goat is believed to cure nyctolopia. The gall of all fowls is more acrid and desiccative than the gall of quadrupeds. But of them the best is the gall of cocks and partridges. Those of hawks and eagles are in so far more acrid and corrosive, and of a violet colour, but sometimes black.

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