Chapter XII: Book V (3)

Those who have drunk of the buprestis experience a taste resembling fetid natron, which is followed by violent pain of the stomach and bowels; there is swelling of the abdomen, resembling dropsy, and the skin of the whole body is distended, the urine also being suppressed. They are relieved by the same remedies as are given to those who have taken cantharides; but they derive benefit in particular after evacuations by vomiting and by the bowels, from taking dried figs, and drinking the decoction of them with wine or milk, or a mixture of wine and honey, and they may eat all kinds of pears, and take a woman’s milk. When the violence of the disease has subsided they may eat with advantage Theban palm-nuts boiled in wine.

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COMMENTARY. Isidorus says of the buprestis, “animal est in Italiâ parvum, simillimum scarabæo longipedi.” (Orig. xii, 8.) See also Ælian (H. A. vi, 35); Pliny (H. N. xxx. 10.) The symptoms and treatment, as described by the other authorities, are nearly the same as in our author’s description.

Among the remedies recommended by Nicander, the most efficacious are milk and emetics of tepid oil. (Alex. 360.) The Arabians do not treat of this article separately from cantharides, unless it be the stuphe of Alsaharavius. (Pract. xxx, 2, 8.)

We can have no hesitation in holding that the buprestis of the ancients was the _lytta vesicatoria_, or Spanish fly. See Sprengel (Comment. in Dioscor.) and Schneider (ad Nicand.)

SECT. XXXII.—ON THE SALAMANDER.

When a person has taken of salamander, inflammation of the tongue supervenes, with difficulty of speech, trembling, torpor, and ulceration. Certain parts of the body all around become livid, so that often, if the medicine remain, they mortify and drop off. In this case we should do the same things as for cantharides; but more particularly we must administer to them pine-rosin, or that of the pitch tree, or galbanum with honey, or pine-kernels with a decoction of ground-pine, or nettle-leaves boiled along with lilies in oil, the boiled eggs of land or sea tortoise, soup of frogs, having the root of eryngo boiled with them.

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COMMENTARY. The principal symptoms, as detailed by Nicander, are inflammation of the tongue, torpor, tremblings, aberration of mind, vibices, &c. He treats it like narcotic poisons, with stimulants and attenuants, such as pine-rosin, the leaves of ground-pine, nettle-seed mixed with the flour of tares, &c. Dioscorides, Avicenna, and most of the authorities direct us to treat this case of poisoning like that of cantharides; Alsaharavius recommends emetics, draughts containing pine-seed, honey, vinegar, wine, &c., with fat flesh. Oil and milk are recommended by most of the authorities.

Avicenna says the salamander is a species of lizard. Aristotle mentions the fabulous story of its being proof against fire as a circumstance which was related. Pliny (H. N. x, 67), Ælian (H. A. ii, 31), and Phile (c. 17) repeat it confidently. On the other hand, Dioscorides affirms that the story is entirely without foundation (ii, 56.)

It is the _salamandra terrestris_. Sprengel says it emits a cold mucus, which may extinguish a small lire. (Notæ in Dios. l. c.)

SECT. XXXIII.—ON THE PITYOCAMPA, OR PINE-CATERPILLAR.

When pine-caterpillar is drunk, there is straightway pain of the mouth and palate, strong inflammation of the tongue, pain of the stomach and intestines, with a prurient sensation of tension; and there is a fiery heat of the whole body, and anxiety. Such cases are to be relieved in like manner as those who have drunk cantharides; but in their case, instead of plain oil we may substitute the ointment of apples.

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COMMENTARY. Our author, and indeed all the others, only copy from Dioscorides.

Sprengel mentions several species of erucæ which infest pine-trees, such as the leparis monacha, lasiocampa pini, &c. (Notæ in Dioscor.) Virey remarks, that among the Romans there was an express law forbidding the administration of the hairy caterpillar of the pine, as it produces the most serious symptoms, and even loss of life, by its hairs. (Hist. des Mœurs des Anim.)

SECT. XXXIV.—ON THE SEA-HARE.

When the sea-hare has been drunk an ill-savoured taste, like that of a fetid fish, supervenes, and after a time the bowels are pained and the urine becomes obstructed, or if any is discharged it is of a purple colour. They loathe and detest all kinds of fishes, and have fetid perspirations mixed with blood. We must give them therefore asses’ milk or must frequently, or a decoction of the root and leaves of mallows, or the root of hogs-fennel triturated with wine, or dr. j. of black hellebore, or of the juice of scammony in honied water, and the warm blood of a newly-killed goose, and river-crabs alone, if they can be borne, may be given. It is a symptom of recovery when they can eat fish.

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COMMENTARY. Nicander’s description of the symptoms is like our author’s, and his remedies are hellebore, and scammony, asses’ milk, &c. Haly Abbas recommends only emetics at first, and afterwards milk. When there is continued oppression of breathing he directs us to bleed and give the syrup of poppies. (Pract. iv. 49.) Alsaharavius, like Nicander, depends principally upon drastic purgatives, such as scammony and hellebore. (See also Nonnus, 279.) Galen says it produces ulceration of the lungs. (See Ther. ad Pison. and de Med. sec. gen. i.) For an account of the lepus marinus, see Ælian (H. A. ii, 45; ix, 51; xvi, 19); Pliny (H. N. ix, 48; xxxii, 1); Dioscorides (ii, 20; vi, 34,); Philostratus (vi, 32); Phile (93). According to Schneider, it is called _chat marin_ in France. Gorræus says it is a species of lizard, and resembles the land hare only in colour. Sprengel inclines to think that it is the _aplysia depilans_. See also Paris and Fonblanque (Méd. Jurisprud. ii, 141.) Rondelet refers it to the class _mollusca_, and gives a drawing of it. (De Piscibus, xvii.) Bellonius and Gesner give the same account of it, and all agree respecting its poisonous qualities. They describe it as being a mass of nearly unorganized flesh. Virey says it has long appendages like the ears of the hare, but which are its eyes.

SECT. XXXV.—ON THE RED TOAD OR MARSH FROG.

When the red toad or marsh frog is taken, it brings on swelling of the body, with intense paleness resembling the colour of the box-tree; and dyspnœa supervenes with fœtor of the mouth, hiccough, and sometimes an involuntary emission of semen. They are easily remedied, however, after vomiting, by taking a large draught of undiluted wine, and two drachms of the root of sweet cane, or the same dose of cyperus. We must also compel them to exercise themselves strenuously in walking and running, on account of the torpor which is upon them; and they ought to take the bath every day.

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COMMENTARY. Nicander says the bufo apricans superinduces upon the body difficulty of breathing, fetid breath, and colour like that of the thapsus; he means probably jaundice. His remedies are, the flesh of frogs boiled or roasted, pitch mixed with sweet wine and the spleen of a marsh frog. Pliny says a decoction of marsh frogs in vinegar is an effectual remedy in this case and against salamanders. (H.N. xxxii, 5.) Dioscorides recommends emetics, wine, and active exercise. Avicenna, Rhases, and Haly Abbas recommend nearly the same treatment. Haly approves of friction, especially over the stomach. (Pract. iv. 49.) See a learned dissertation on the Poisonous Ranæ in Schneider’s Notes on Nicander (Alexipharm.); see also Gorræus’ Commentary on the same. Schneider inclines to think that it must have been the _bufo cornutus._

Ælian states that when the blood of the phrynus is given with wine, it proves a very fatal poison. (H. A. xvii, 12.) It would appear from two passages in the Satires of Juvenal that in his time criminal acts of poisoning were generally performed by means of this substance. (See Sat. i, 510, and vi, 659.) Paris and Fonblanque, however, deny that any species of toad is poisonous. See also Pennant, (B. Z. iii, 17.) He calls the Rana rubeta the natter-jack.

SECT. XXXVI.—ON LEECHES.

If leeches have been swallowed with water, and have stuck to a part in deglutition, you may ascertain that this has happened from the mouth of the stomach being, as it were, sucked and bitten, which is a symptom of the leeches having been swallowed. Sometimes florid blood is spit up by hawking when the leeches have fixed to the windpipe. They may be rejected by swallowing brine, or the leaves of beet with vinegar, or by drinking snow with oxycrate. Let gargles of nitre (_soda_) with water be used, and of copperas with vinegar. When they have stuck to the throat, put the patient into a warm hip-bath and give him cold water to hold in his mouth, and they will readily come to the cold. Some give bugs to those who have swallowed leeches. I, says Galen, by using garlic in such cases, have not stood in need of bugs.

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COMMENTARY. Nicander judiciously recommends when leeches have been swallowed to drink vinegar, to take ice or snow, sea-water, fossil salt (sal gemmæ?), or salt prepared from sea-water. Dioscorides treats the case like our author. Celsus merely says, “acetum cum sale bibendum est.” Bugs are recommended by Anatolius. (Geopon. xiii 17.)

Aaron, one of the authorities quoted by Rhases, directs us to lay the patient in the sunshine and examine his throat carefully; and if the leech can be detected to extract it with a forceps. If this cannot be effected he recommends him to gargle the throat with some bitter decoction or to swallow the same, if the leech has descended to the stomach. He also directs him to hold snow in the mouth. (Contin. vii.)

Avicenna recommends nearly the same plan of treatment, and, like our author, mentions the following device in order to get a leech extracted that is fixed in the gullet. The patient is to go into a hot bath and hold cold water in his mouth, which will have the effect of attracting the leech towards it. (iii, 9, 5.)

When a leech has fastened in the throat of a beast of burden and cannot be got at by the hand, Columella directs hot oil to be poured in by means of a pipe, or if it has passed into the stomach, it is to be killed with hot vinegar. (vi, 18.) The vapour from pounded bugs was also a popular remedy in such cases. (Ibid. and Geopon. xiii, 17.)

SECT. XXXVII.—ON THE CHAMÆLEON.

When one has taken the black chamæleon intense gnawing and pain supervene, and tremors with disturbance of the whole body; then convulsions attack, with pituitous and frothy vomiting, and in some cases hiccough with loss of speech, and distortion of the countenance. A fatty decoction of wheat taken hot will be applicable in such cases, and a sweet watery wine also hot, vomits, drinking of milk, emollient clysters, and fomentations by cataplasms. To that kind which occasions suffocation and lividity, a draught of wormwood or of natron with oxymel or of radishes will be proper, and also fomentations to the hypochondrium.

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COMMENTARY. Dioscorides and Aëtius give a similar account of the treatment and symptoms. On the chamæleon, see Apuleius (de Herb. 109.) The black chamæleon treated of in this section is the _carthamus corymbosus._ It is quite a different plant from the white chamæleon which is treated of in the 46th section.

SECT. XXXVIII.—ON HENBANE.

Hyoscyamos when drunk or eaten brings on disorder of mind like that of persons in intoxication; but is easily cured, being remedied by copious draughts of honied water and milk, especially that of asses or, if not, of that of goats or cows, and of the decoction of dried figs. Pine kernels are also serviceable in such cases, and the seed of cucumber taken with must, and salt wine with fresh axunge and must, and nettle-seed in like manner, or natron with water will be proper, also succory, mustard, cresses, radishes, onions, and garlic, each of these being taken with wine. They must then be made to remain in a state of rest in order that, like those who have drunk wine, they may digest what they have taken.

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COMMENTARY. The description of the symptoms in Nicander’s Alexipharmics is imperfect owing to an hiatus in the text. His remedies are milk, fenugreek, nettle-seed, succory, cresses, mustard, the heads of garlic, &c.

This section is taken from Dioscorides. Celsus recommends hot water and milk, especially that of asses.

The description of the symptoms, as given by Aëtius, is somewhat fuller than our author’s, but not otherwise different. He and Scribonius Largus mention lividity of the members. Alsaharavius says, it induces sleep, stupor, and coldness of the extremities. Avicenna and Haly Abbas recommend the theriac and antidote of Mithridates. Rhases speaks highly of milk. (Contin. ult.)

The general remedies which they all recommend are emetics, vinegar, milk, sweet wine, and at last, vegetable stimulants, such as mustard and onions, and the theriac.

See an account of the different varieties of henbane known to the ancients in Dioscor. (iv, 64.); Galen (Med. Simpl. viii); Pliny (H. N. xxv, 4); and in Schulze (Toxicol. vet. 20.) See also the Seventh Book of this work.

The Arabians, in this place, treat of another narcotic to which they give the name of _Derufitum_ or _Darfion._ See Avicenna (iv, 6, 1, 4); Rhases (xxxix.)

SECT. XXXIX.—ON CORIANDER.

Coriander from its smell cannot be mistaken. When drunk it renders the voice thick, and brings on madness like that from intoxication. Wherefore those who have taken it talk obscenely, and the smell of the coriander is perceptible from the whole body. They are relieved after the removal of the poison by common oil or that of iris (as mentioned above), by undiluted wine with wormwood and drank by itself; by eggs emptied into one vessel and triturated with brine and swallowed; and brine also may be drunk, and salt broth from a hen or a goose, and sweet wine taken with lye.

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COMMENTARY. According to Nicander, the symptoms are violent delirium, and great derangement of the mind, as in intoxication. His remedies are principally emetics and wine, the intention of giving which is quite obvious. Dioscorides gives nearly the same account of the symptoms and treatment. Galen (de Simp. Med. viii) attacks Dioscorides in the most unmeasured terms for saying that the action of coriander is frigorific, while, on the contrary, he maintains that it is calefacient. Avicenna combats the reasoning of Galen and agrees with Dioscorides; as do Apuleius among the Latins, and Alsaharavius and Rhases among the Arabians. Pseudo-Macer calls it a cold austere medicine.

With regard to the treatment, the Arabians recommend oily emetics, with soda, pepper, salt, strong wine, &c. Avicenna (iii, 6, 2, 8); Rhases (Cont. xxi); Alsaharavius (Pract. xxx. 2.)

Schulze is satisfied that the corion or coriandrum of the ancients was the same as our coriander. He appears, however, to have rather overrated its deleterious properties. It is only in particular states of the body that it proves at all injurious. (Toxicol. vet. vii.) Sprengel also is satisfied as to the identity of the ancient and modern coriander. (Comment. in Dios.)

SECT. XL.—ON PSYLLIUM OR FLEAWORT.

Fleawort when drunk occasions coldness of the whole body and torpor, with relaxation and lowness of spirits, which are relieved by the same remedies as those given to persons who have drunk coriander.

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COMMENTARY. All the authorities agree in representing its effects as being similar to those produced by coriander. They treat the case then upon general principles with wine, pepper, and other such stimulants.

Schulze finds some difficulty in acknowledging that the _plantago psyllium_, L. is the true psyllium of the ancients, and yet he admits that no other plant has so good a claim to be identified with it. We see no grounds for scepticism on this point.

SECT. XLI.—ON CONIUM OR HEMLOCK.

Hemlock, when drunk, brings on vertigo and dimness of vision, so that the person can no longer see even to a small distance; there is hiccough, disorder of the mind, and coldness of the extremities, and at last he is suffocated in convulsions, the breath in the arteria aspera being stopped. At first, therefore, as in other cases of poisoning, we must bring it up by vomiting, and afterwards, by means of an injection, evacuate whatever part had passed into the intestines; and then, as our great remedy, we have recourse to undiluted wine, giving it at intervals, during which we must administer the milk of cows or of asses, or wormwood with pepper, wine, and castor; and rue and mint, with wine, and a dram of cardamom or of storax; or of pepper, with nettle-seeds in wine; or the tender leaves of bay tree; and in like manner laserwort, or the juice thereof, with common wine or must; and sweet wine drunk alone answers well.

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COMMENTARY. Theophrastus seems to have been acquainted with the sedative properties of hemlock, for he recommends pepper and rosemary as antidotes to it. (H. P. ix, 24); and Athen. (Deip. ii, 73.) The operation of this poison in the case of Socrates is well described by Plato in his ‘Phædo.’ Socrates, after swallowing the poisoned cup, walked about for a short time as he was directed by the executioner: when he felt a sense of heaviness in his limbs he lay down on his back; his feet and legs first lost their sensibility, and became stiff and cold; and this state gradually extended upwards to the heart, when he died convulsed.

The symptoms, according to Nicander, are dimness of sight, vertigo, a sense of suffocation, coldness of the extremities, impeded respiration, and death. His remedies are emetics of oil, or undiluted wine, clysters of the same, and undiluted wine taken by the mouth, with pepper, nettle, assafœtida, and the like. Dioscorides, and all the other authorities, recommend much the same treatment. Pliny and Aëtius mention lividity, after death, as a symptom of poisoning by cicuta.

Theophrastus (H. P. vi, 2) and Pliny (H. N. xxv, 95) have described the conium. Schulze is satisfied that it is the _conium maculatum_, L., and in this opinion we fully agree with him. He adds, that the ancients have made no mention of the cicuta virosa.

Dioscorides and most of the others enumerate convulsions among the symptoms. It will be remarked, that in the abstract given above of the symptoms of poisoning by hemlock in the case of Socrates, we have stated that the great philosopher died convulsed. This we think the true interpretation of the term used by Plato (ἐκινήθη), although it has not been so understood by most of his interpreters. Dioscorides, in another place, states somnolency, coma, stertor, lividity, torpor, coldness, stupor, insensibility, and pruritus of the whole body, as the common symptoms of poisoning by opium, mandragora, or conium.

Schulze ranks, among ancient mistakes, the assertion of Galen, that narcotic substances may, in some instances, become digested and prove nutritive. But Dr. Christison says, that both vegetable and animal poisons may become digested, of which he gives an interesting example with regard to opium (On Poisons, p. 52.)

SECT. XLII.—ON THE JUICE OF THE POPPY.

When one has drunk of the juice of the poppy drowsiness comes on, with coldness and intense itching, so that often when the medicine takes effect such an itching comes on that the person is roused from sleep thereby. The smell of the medicine too is emitted from the whole body. The remedies in such cases, after rejecting the substance taken by vomiting with oil, and evacuating downwards by a stimulant clyster, are oxymel drank with salts, or honey with warm rose-oil, and much undiluted wine with wormwood and cinnamon, and warm vinegar by itself, and natron with water, and marjoram with lye, the seed of rue and pepper given with castor, and oxymel, savory, or the decoction of marjoram with wine. We must also rouse by aromatics, put the person into a hot bath, and foment on account of the pruritus which supervenes; and after the bath we may use fat broths, with wine or must. Marrow also drunk with oil is useful.

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COMMENTARY. According to Nicander, the symptoms of poisoning by poppy-juice are coldness of the extremities, eyes fixed, heaviness of the eyelids, profuse and fetid perspiration, paleness, swelling of the lip, relaxation of the under jaw, slow respiration, cold breath, and the usual precursors of dissolution, namely, distortion of the nostrils, lividity of the nails, and hollow eyes. His remedies are emetics, such as the oil of iris or of roses, wine and honey; hot drink and rousing the patient by cries, striking his body in different places, and wrapping it in cloths smeared with oil and hot wine, and the hot bath as a restorative.

The symptoms mentioned by Dioscorides are lethargy, violent pruritus, and the perspiration smelling of opium. His remedies are the same as those of our author, namely, emetics at first, then clysters, and afterwards wine and vinegar, with various stimulant and strong-scented things; such as pepper, cinnamon, castor, marjoram, &c. The patient is to be roused as directed by Nicander; and baths and fomentations are to be used to relieve the pruritus.

Galen relates the case of a person reduced to the last stage of coldness, whom he saved by administering freely a strong, light-coloured, and fragrant wine. Yet, he remarks correctly, a small quantity of weak wine operates unfavorably by promoting the distribution of the poison over the system. He, in particular, recommends vomiting at first with wine and oil, and afterwards strong clysters.

Aëtius mentions, among the symptoms, violent pruritus and convulsions. None of the other Greek writers mention convulsions, but, among the Arabians, Avicenna, Rhases, and Alsaharavius, have mentioned them. Modern experience has determined that they are an occasional, but not a frequent symptom produced by the immoderate administration of opium.

Scribonius Largus directs us, after repeated vomiting, to apply embrocations of vinegar and roses to the head, to rub the feet, and to put sinapisms to them and the thighs. Simeon Seth strongly recommends vinegar.

Haly Abbas and Alsaharavius, and, in short, all the Arabians recommend nearly the same treatment; namely, emetics of oil and water, or oil and wine, hot clysters, acrid and strong-scented things, such as castor, assafœtida, savin, &c., and the warm bath, friction, sternutatories, and every means calculated to arouse, and to prevent sleep.

Serapion, Rhases, Avicenna, Haly Abbas, and Alsaharavius, agree in stating that the smallest dose of opium which will prove destructive to human life is two drachms. Modern authors are not agreed as to the smallest quantity which may prove fatal, but surely, as Dr. Christison remarks, Dr. Paris has fixed the minimum dose too low, when he affirms that four grains may be sufficient to produce this effect. On the other hand, we should think that a smaller dose than that mentioned by the Arabians might be sufficient to destroy life. Perhaps the ancient opium may have been weaker than that now in use.

It is worthy of remark, that most of the ancient authorities recommend vinegar in cases of poisoning by opium, but we are inclined to think that none of them administered it at the commencement, nor until the poison had been removed from the bowels. This practice agrees very well with the rule of treatment laid down by Orfila, Paris, and Christison, who state that vinegar is prejudicial, if given at first, by favouring the solution of the poison, but proves useful afterwards by acting as a restorative to the system.

None of the ancient authorities recommend venesection.

In another work we have thus explained the ancient theory of the action of opium upon the human frame. “In order to understand properly the ideas entertained by the ancients respecting the _modus operandi_ of opium, it will be necessary to say a few words in explanation of their opinions upon certain points of physiology. Aristotle taught that the prime cause of all the operations of life is mind, and that the prime instrument by which it performs them is heat, which, therefore, he denominates the _co-cause_ (συνάιτιον). He illustrates his meaning by comparing the mind to the artificer, and heat to the wimble or saw by which he performs his work. Having remarked, no doubt, that the heart is the warmest part of the body, he appears to have considered it as the spring which turns the whole machinery of the animal frame, the brain and nerves deriving their origin and influence from it. (I need scarcely mention how well these ideas accord with the ingenious hypothesis lately advanced by M. Serres.) Many facts, indeed, seem to point out the supreme importance of the heart. It is, as the ancients remarked, the _primum movens et ultimum moriens_; and, along with its accessory organ, the lungs, it is evidently the part which, in the higher classes of animals, renders them independent of the many variations of heat and cold to which they are subjected. It is this wonderful organ which, under the guidance of the principle of life, preserves the heat of the body unaltered in all the different gradations of temperature, from more than 100 degrees above the boiling, to as many below the freezing point of the thermometer. It seems, in fact, a real Prometheus that steals the fire from heaven. The connexion between heat and the vital actions is very apparent also in the inferior animals, who are not provided with such an apparatus for preserving an equability of temperature. Thus the zoophyta, insecta, et vermes, with the loss of heat, lose also sensibility and muscular energy, which they recover again when their heat is restored. In this case it is evident that heat is the cause (or at least the _co-cause_) of the vital actions, and not the vital actions of heat. It has always appeared to me a striking fact, illustrative of the great influence of heat over the vital actions, that the strength of all animals is, bulk to bulk, proportionate to the degree of their animal heat.

“This doctrine of the supreme authority of the heart, as being the focus of heat, thus maintained by Aristotle, was eagerly defended by the great Arabian commentator, Averrhoes, and by his countryman, Avenzoar, who keenly attacked Galen for having questioned its truth, and taught, as they represent, that the brain is the leading organ in the animal frame. After having, however, carefully ransacked every part of Galen’s works, in which I could suppose it likely to meet with any allusion to this doctrine, I am led to believe that these Arabians, in the heat of controversy, have misrepresented the real opinion of their master’s rival. Galen appears decidedly to have maintained with Hippocrates—‘that there is in the body no one beginning, but that all parts are alike, beginning and end: for a circle has no beginning.’ Agreeably to this idea, Galen remarks, that the brain cannot properly be said to derive its powers from the heart, since an animal will run, breathe, and cry after its heart has been taken out; nor can the heart be said properly to derive its powers from the brain, since it will palpitate and contract, after all communication with the brain is cut off, nay, after it has been removed from the body. In so far, then, the functions of the brain and the heart are independent of one another. But the brain is dependent upon the heart and its appendages for vital heat, without which it would be unable to continue its functions; and the heart, on the other hand, is dependent upon the brain for imparting nervous influence to the respiratory organs, without which it could not preserve its vital heat unaltered. Hence the mutual connexion and sympathy of important organs—a doctrine much insisted upon by ancient authors, and which bears some resemblance to the theory lately advanced by Mr. Morgan and Dr. Addison.

“We shall now have no difficulty in understanding the ideas of the ancients regarding the operation of opium. Galen and Avicenna believed that the poison exerts its primary influence upon the heart, and impairs its vital heat. Of course they considered its operation on the brain as secondary. They called the action of narcotics frigorific or congealing, no doubt because they remarked that it was attended with a diminution of vital heat, and to this they attributed the loss of sensibility and muscular energy. I leave it to the reader to judge whether this theory or the modification of it lately proposed by Messrs. Morgan and Addison be the more plausible.” (Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, No. 103.)

But although the ancient physiologists maintained that the prime organs of the animal frame suffer sympathetically in cases of poisoning, they did not hold, it will be remarked, that all poisons exert their primary action on the nervous system. This is the hypothesis lately advocated by Messrs. Morgan and Addison, but which is, in fact, only a revival of that maintained by Schulze in his ‘Toxicologia Veterum.’ He thus states his theory of the action of poisons,—“Omnia symptomata et lethales venenorum effectus hoc unum quam luculentissimè demonstrant, _ab omnibus venenis nervos ipsos graviter affligi._ Nervea igitur vis seu vitalis, a veneni stimulis commota, aut majori impetu agit, aut prævalente veneni vehementia prorsus silet, nexusque omnes sensorii communis cum reliquis nervis turbantur, vitâ animali aut graviter periclitante, aut prorsus interiturâ.” (Toxic. Vet. vii.) Dr. Mead also, in his last edition of his work on Poisons, advocates this hypothesis.

It appears to us, however, that this theory, although very simple and plausible, is somewhat too exclusive. And that there are other modes by which poisons operate than through the brain and nerves appears to be demonstrated by the fact now clearly established, that poisons act upon vegetables as well as upon animals. (V. Annales de Chimie, t. xxix.) Now as vegetables are possessed of neither sensibility nor motion, it seems preposterous to suppose that they have any nervous system.

Perhaps, then, we cannot do better than revert to the old doctrine delivered by Alsaharavius. Sometimes, he says, poisons act upon the heart, and thereby prove instantly fatal; sometimes upon the liver, producing jaundice and phthisis; sometimes upon the brain, when they occasion delirium; and sometimes their action is local, giving rise to corruption and lividity of the part. (Pract. xxx. 2, 18.)

That the primary action of narcotics is upon the heart appears to us, upon the whole, the most probable theory hitherto advanced upon the subject.

SECT. XLIII—ON THE JUICE OF THE CARPESIA.

When the juice of carpesia is drunk it brings on heavy sleep and acute suffocation. These are relieved by the same remedies as those given to persons who have drunk hemlock.

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COMMENTARY. This section is taken, almost word for word, from Dioscorides. Matthiolus confesses that he was quite unable to determine what substance it was. (Comment. in Dioscor. vi, 13.) It is doubtful whether the καρπήσιον of Galen and the κάρπασον of Dioscorides be the same substance, and whether either be the same as the ὀποκάρπασον. Sprengel can arrive at no certain conclusion respecting it. Valerius Cordus supposed it to be the _piper longum._

SECT. XLIV.—ON MANDRAGORA OR MANDRAKE.

When mandragora has been drunk, stupor immediately comes on, with loss of strength, and a strong inclination to sleep, so that the affection differs in nothing from that which is called lethargy. Before any of these symptoms come on, vomiting will be proper in this case; and afterwards honied water, or natron and wormwood with must, or taken in a dulcified wine, embrocations to the head with rose-oil and vinegar, rousing by shaking the body, and by strong-smelling things, pepper, mustard, castor, and rue pounded with vinegar, liquid pitch, and the wicks of lamps lighted and extinguished, will be proper. When they are difficult to rouse we may also apply sternutatories, and have recourse to the general remedies in such cases.

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COMMENTARY. Our author, as usual, follows Dioscorides. Matthiolus, by the way, in his commentary, questions the propriety of applying rose-oil and vinegar to the head, as these things are of a cold nature, whereas stimulants and calefacients are indicated. Perhaps these things, when poured from a height upon the head, might prove restorative and stimulant. The other Greek authorities however, as, for example, Aëtius and Actuarius, approve of the practice. Alsaharavius recommends emetics, and also directs us to pour vinegar and rose-oil on the head, and to take vinegar in which hyssop and the like have been boiled.

Rhases recommends vomiting by means of water, honey, and fossil salt; after which sweet wine is to be given, and vinegar and rose-oil poured upon the head; castor, pepper, and rue are to be administered, along with sternutatories. He mentions, however, that he knew an old medical man who cured a young woman, who had fallen into a state of syncope, with flushing of the face, after swallowing the apples of mandragora, by the affusion of snow-water on her head. Avicenna properly directs everything to be done to prevent sleep.

Schulze is satisfied that it is the _atropa mandragora_ of Linnæus. There seems no doubt, however, that the mandragora of Theophrastus is the _atropa belladonna_; while the mandragora mas of Dioscorides is the _mandragora vernalis_, Bertol.; and the M. femina of the same, the _mandragora autumnalis._

Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Galen, Athenæus, Aëtius, Suidas, Hesychius, Apuleius, Pollux, and Frontinus, have made mention of the hypnotic property of mandragora. It is singular that it should now have fallen into neglect. It appears to have been used as a medicine in the days of Shakespeare. Iago says:

“Not poppy nor mandragora
Nor all the drowsy syrups of the world,
Shall ever medicine thee to that sweet sleep
Which thou owed’st yesterday.”

_Othello._

We will have occasion to treat of it in the Seventh Book.

SECT. XLV.—ON ACONITUM OR WOLFSBANE.

Wolfsbane immediately after being drunk occasions a sensation of sweetness on the tongue, with a little astringency; vertigo supervenes, more especially when the person attempts to rise up, and it brings on a watering of the eyes; there is heaviness of the chest and abdomen, with eructation of much flatus. In these cases the medicine must be brought up by vomits, and the contents of the bowels evacuated by a clyster. We must also give draughts from marjoram and rue, or from horehound with wine, or from wormwood, or from rocket, or from southernwood, or mezereon, or ground-pine. Opobalsam, too, taken to the amount of one drachm, with wine, will likewise answer with them; also the rennet of a kid, or of a hare, or of a fawn, with vinegar, and the dross of iron, or iron itself, or gold, or silver, may be dissolved in wine, and the liquid taken, and lye with wine, and the broth of a boiled cock, or the broth of fat flesh taken with wine. The ground-pine, which is said to be a specific in Heraclea of Pontus, where wolfsbane grows, is called holocleron, but ionia in Athens, and sideritis in Eubœa.

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COMMENTARY. The symptoms, as described by Nicander, are astringency of the lips, palate, and gums, gnawing pains at the stomach, singultus, flatulence, running from the eyes, double vision, as from intoxication. His remedies seem to have been principally emetics and calefacients. Thus he recommends a handful of quicklime to be drunk with a hemina of wine, also southernwood, spurge, ground-pine, marjoram, opobalsam, the metallic preparations mentioned by our author, and the like. The accounts of the treatment given by Dioscorides, Aëtius, and Actuarius agree exactly with our author’s. Avicenna, Rhases, and Haly Abbas, in like manner, recommend emetics, clysters, and calefacient medicines internally.

Diogenes Laertius states, upon the authority of Eumelus the historian, that Aristotle the philosopher despatched himself with a draught of aconite. (Vita Aristot.) Pliny relates that this poison proves fatal when applied to the genital organs of women. (H. N. xxvii, 2.)

The ancients have described several varieties of aconite. See Theophrastus (H. P. ix, 19); Pliny (H. N. xxv, 75); Schulze (Toxicol, vet.); Schneider (in Nicand. Alexiphar.); and Sprengel (Rei. Herb. Hist.) These modern authors in general are disposed to think that it was the _iris tuberosa_. Sprengel, however, in the notes to his edition of Dioscorides, is decided that the second species of Dioscorides (Mat. Med. iv, 78) is the _aconitum napellus_; but respecting the first species, he is in great doubts. All agree that the aconitum of Theophrastus is different from the A. of Dioscorides and the other toxicologists. We may be permitted to add, that the symptoms of poisoning by aconitum, as given by Nicander, agree so well with those reported lately of cases of poisoning by the _aconitum napellus_, that we cannot doubt their identity.

SECT. XLVI.—ON IXIA.

Ixia, which is also called ulophonon, when drunk has some resemblance both in taste and smell to basil-royal. It brings on strong inflammation of the tongue, and disorder of the mind; it suppresses all the secretions, occasioning borborygmi and rumbling, with deliquium animi; but there are no alvine evacuations. After the greater part of the poison has been brought up by vomiting, or evacuated by the bowels, they will experience relief from drinking the decoction of wormwood, with much wine, vinegar, or oxymel, or the seed of wild rue, or the root of laserwort, and in the like manner the decoction of tragoriganum with some of the aforementioned, or with milk; or of turpentine, of nard, of castor, of laserwort, of each an obolus in wine. The fruit also of the walnut triturated with wine will be proper; or of rosin, of castor, and of rue, of each dr. j; and in like manner of mezereon, dr. ij; of the juice of thapsia, dr. ij, with honied water; and hot vinegar may be drunk by itself.

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COMMENTARY. Nicander’s description of the symptoms is very similar to that given by our author, and his treatment seems to have been conducted upon the same principles; namely, by administering emetics and purgatives at first, and, afterwards, discutient and detergent medicines, to overcome the viscid nature of the poison. Our author’s plan of treatment differs in no material respect from that recommended by Dioscorides, Aëtius, Actuarius, Avicenna, and Alsaharavius. Avicenna described it by the name of _aldabach_; Alsaharavius, by those of _alfos_, _aldolia_, i. e. arbor risi.

Apuleius make ixias, ulophonon, chamæleon, ocymoides, and various cardui synonymes (109.) The ixias, according to Gorræus, is a species of chamæleon, but what species cannot be determined. (See, also, Schneider’s note on Nicander.) Matthiolus calls it a glutinous substance, found in the root of the chamæleon, or carline thistle. Schulze is decided that it was a species of carlina (Toxicol. vet., 22.) See Harduin’s note on Pliny (H. N. xxii, 21.) After mature consideration, we have no difficulty in referring it to the _carlina acaulis_, or carline thistle.

SECT. XLVII.—ON EPHEMERON, OR MEADOW SAFFRON.

When one swallows ephemeron (which some call colchicum, because it grows in Colchis, or bulbus silvestris), pruritus takes place over the whole body, as if stung by nettle or squill; there is a gnawing pain within, and great heat of the stomach, with considerable heaviness; but when the affection gains strength, blood is discharged from the bowels, mixed with the scrapings thereof. The same remedies are to be applied as to those who have drunk salamander, in vomits and clysters. But before the medicine gain ground we must give a decoction of oak-leaves, or of acorns, or of the rind of pomegranate, or of wild thyme with milk, or the juice of bloodwort, or of vine-tops, or of brambles, or of the medulla of fennel-giant, or of myrtle berries, with wine; and when levigated myrtles themselves are pounded and macerated in water, the liquor thereof may be taken with advantage. And, in like manner, the middle pellicle of the chesnuts, called Sardian, may be taken with the aforesaid juices, and marjoram may be drunk with lye. Those affected are manifestly relieved by drinking hot cow’s milk, and retaining it in the mouth, so that they who have plenty of it do not stand in need of any other remedy.

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COMMENTARY. Our author’s detail of the symptoms is taken entirely from Nicander, and his treatment also is mostly derived from the same source. They seem to have depended principally upon vegetable astringents, such as oak-bark, pomegranate-rind, and chesnuts, for checking the hypercatharsis. Pliny, like our author, strongly commends milk (H. N. xxvii, 33.) Dioscorides recommends emetics, clysters, vegetable astringents, and demulcents. Alsaharavius says, that hermodactylus occasions pruritus of the whole body, swelling of the palate, pains of the stomach, and the like. He recommends emetics, clysters, cows’ milk, and vegetable astringents, such as acorns with wine. This, it will be remarked, is similar to the account which the Greeks give of the symptoms and treatment of ephemeron, which is undoubtedly the _colchicum autumnale_; and this circumstance tends strongly to prove the identity of the ephemeron and the hermodactylus. We agree with Schulze, Prosper Alpinus, and Humelbergius, that they were unquestionably the same plant, notwithstanding that Sprengel, Matthiolus, and Dr. Murray are of a different opinion. Dr. Paris considers that there is no doubt of their identity. (See a learned dissertation on the Ephemeron in a note by Schneider, on Nicander’s Alexipharmics.) We shall only further add, in this place, that the learned Ardoyn, in his elaborate work on Poisons, contends, that there is no doubt of the identity of the colchicum and the hermodactylus. We, in fact, are surprised that this should have been ever questioned.

SECT. XLVIII.—ON THE SMILAX OR YEW.

The tree called smilax is named thymium by some, and taxus by the Romans. When drunk it brings on coldness of the whole body, suffocation, and speedy death; the remedies for which are all those things which are given to those who have drunk of hemlock.

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COMMENTARY. The description of the symptoms and the plan of treatment are borrowed from Nicander, or, rather, copied direct from Dioscorides.

Different opinions have been entertained respecting the poisonous nature of the yew. Haller, Bulliard, and others, deny that it is poisonous; while Berkley, Ray, Matthiolus, and others, affirm that it is. Orfila holds it to be a narcotic poison (chap. iv, cl. 4.) We have known instances of its proving fatal to cattle. The newspapers lately contained a melancholy case of a boy poisoned by yew-berries at Winchester. Matthiolus is not pleased with Dioscorides for making it to be a frigorific medicine; but Orfila, it appears, gives it the same character; that is to say, he holds it to be narcotic. Virgil alludes to its poisonous qualities:

Sic tua Cyrnæas fugiant examina taxos.

See, also, Theophrastus (H. P. i, 5, and iii, 9); and Schulze (Tox. vet. 17).

SECT. XLIX.—ON THE STRYCHNOS FURIOSA, CALLED DORYCNIUM, BY SOME.

When one drinks of dorycnium, which some call strychnos furiosa, there follows a sensation, as it were, of milk to the taste; constant hiccough, watering of the tongue, and frequent ejection of blood; and there are mucous discharges by the bowels, as in dysenterical cases. They are to be remedied before any of these symptoms supervene, by those things which are taken for ephemeron, I mean emetics and clysters, and whatever else can evacuate the substance which had been taken. Honied water is a particularly good remedy; or the milk of asses or of goats and sweet wine, in a tepid state, may be drunk with a small quantity of anise. Bitter almonds also are proper, the boiled breasts of fowls, all the shell-fish eaten raw and boiled, crabs and crawfish, and the broth of them when drunk.

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COMMENTARY. Our author’s detail of symptoms is taken mostly from Nicander, or, perhaps, direct from Dioscorides. The poet’s plan of treatment seems to have been much the same as that of Paulus. He omits, indeed, to make mention of emetics and purgatives as being general remedies in all cases of poisoning; but he recommends milk, must, and the crustacea, such as the pinna, echinus, &c. The other authorities supply nothing additional. Avicenna treats of it under the name of uva vulpis stupefactiva mala; he copies from Dioscorides (iv, 6; i, 7.)

There is considerable difficulty about the nature of the dorycnium. Our author, Aëtius and Apuleius, make it to be the same as the strychnos furiosa, which is generally held to be either the solanum sodomeum, or the atropa belladonna. On this subject, see Galen (de Med. sec. loc. x, 3); Pliny (H. N. xxi, 105); Apuleius (de Herb., 22). Schulze affirms, that none of the ancient poisons is so little known as the dorycnium. He is undecided as to its nature, except that it belonged to the diadelphous or leguminous plants, and he is inclined to think that it was an astragalus. (Toxicol. Veterum, 2.) Sprengel inclines either to the convolvulus cneorus, L., or the con. dorycnium, L. But as far as we can see, the most probable conjecture that can be made regarding it is, that it was either the _solanum sodomeum_, or _atropa belladonna_.

SECT. L.—ON THE SARDONIAN HERB.

The herb called the Sardonian is a species of ranunculus, when drunk, or eaten, it brings on disorder of the intellect, and convulsions with contraction of the lips, so as to exhibit the appearance of laughter. From this affection that ill-omened expression, the Sardonian laugh, took its rise. In these cases, therefore, after vomiting, it will be proper to give honied water and milk, with embrocations and lubrications of the whole body, by calefacient remedies; and to have recourse to hot-baths of hot oil and water, and to anoint properly and rub them after the baths; and, upon the whole, to conduct the treatment as for convulsions.

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COMMENTARY. Dioscorides and our author are perfectly agreed as to the symptoms and treatment. Aëtius recommends, likewise, castor with sweet wine. Solinus, like our author, says that it brings on contractions of the muscles, and the risus Sardonicus. Avicenna acknowledges his ignorance of the nature and proper treatment of this herb, but supposes that it belongs to the class of acute poisons. There seems, however, no reason to doubt that it was a species of ranunculus. Schulze makes it the _ranunculus sceleratus_, L., which bears the English name of celery-leaved crowfoot; and we are clearly of the same opinion, although Avicenna seems to make a distinction between the Sardonian herb and the _kebekengi_, or apium risus, which is the βατράχιον of Dioscorides. See Alsaharavius (Pract. xxx, i, 39.)

SECT. LI.—ON THE HORNED POPPY.

Seeing that the species of poppy called the horned, when eaten or drunk, brings on the same symptoms as the juice of poppy, it is to be treated by the same remedies.

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COMMENTARY. Miller says that the glaucium is called horned poppy because it is a species of poppy having husks resembling horns. See some account of it in Apuleius (53.) Schulze remarks that Dioscorides has described several varieties of the poppy. 1, Papaver hortense; 2, P. opiiferum; 3, P. agreste; 4, P. rhæas; 5, P. ceratites sive corniculatum; 6, Hypecoum. The fifth of these, or horned poppy, is the glaucium luteum, Scop. Dioscorides gives a distinct description, but treats of it as a medicine rather than as a poison. (M. M. iv, 66.) None of the Arabians treat of it separate from opium.

SECT. LII.—ON PHARICUM.

The substance called pharicum in taste completely resembles nard, and when drunk it brings on paralysis, with disorder of the mind and convulsion. After evacuation by vomiting, we must give the patient to drink, along with wine, some wormwood, cinnamon, myrrh, or Celtic nard (which some call saliunca), or of spikenard, dr. ij, or two oboli of myrrh mixed with must or iris, and the flower of saffron with wine. The head is to be shaven, and a cataplasm consisting of barley-flour, with levigated rue and vinegar, is to be applied.

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COMMENTARY. Nicander, like our author, compares its taste to that of spikenard, and says that it proves fatal in one day, inducing delirium. He recommends the same internal medicines, and also makes mention of applying a stimulant cataplasm to the head, evidently with a view of relieving the phrenitis. The other authorities recommend similar treatment.

There is great disagreement among the ancient writers on toxicology respecting the nature of the pharicum. (See the notes of Gorræus and Schneider on Nicander.) The former remarks that many suppose it a species of nard. Dioscorides (Præf. vi) and Galen (Antidot. ii) make it to be a herb. Scribonius Largus, and Hesychius consider it to have been a compound medicine. After balancing all the statements Schneider comes to the conclusion, that most probably it was a composition from agaric. Schulze is wholly undecided as to its nature. (Toxic. Vet. 21.) Sprengel, in like manner, can come to no certain conclusion respecting it. (Notæ in Dioscor. l. c.)

SECT. LIII.—ON TOXICUM.

The toxicum seems to be so called because the barbarians anointed their darts (τοξεύματα) with it. When a person has drunk of it, inflammation of the lips and tongue comes on, also irrestrainable madness leading to various fantasies, so that in the treatment of them they are difficult to cure, and it is rare that any of those who have drunk of it can be saved. However, they are to be forcibly bound with ligatures, and compelled to drink sweet wine with rose-oil, and to vomit. Turnip seed, also, drunk with wine will be proper for them, and the root of cinquefoil, the blood of a he or she-goat when taken, oak bark, that of the beech or ilex triturated with milk; also quinces when eaten, or triturated with pennyroyal and drunk in water; and ammomum, and the fruit of balsam with wine. But if any escape the danger they remain for a long time confined to bed, and when they get out of it they spend the rest of their lives in a state of timidity.

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COMMENTARY. The symptoms detailed by Nicander are much the same as those enumerated by our author, namely, swelling of the mouth and throat, with violent internal pains. His remedies likewise are much the same, namely, forcing the patient, after he is well secured, to drink wine until he vomit, and making him take bruised apples, rose-oil, oil of iris, &c. He says, that certain savage nations upon the Euphrates poisoned their arrows with it, which rendered their wounds immedicable, occasioning lividity and putrefaction. Dioscorides, Aëtius, Actuarius, and, in short, all the ancient authorities, copy his account.

It is very difficult to determine the nature of the toxicum. Theophrastus describes a species of calamus by the name of toxicus. (H. P. iii, 12.) Avicenna, however, admits that he was wholly unacquainted with its nature. (iv, 6; i, 29.) Some have supposed, with considerable probability, that it was a preparation from the rhus toxicodendron. Schulze is only decided that it was a vegetable poison. (Tox. Vet. 19.) But it even seems doubtful whether it was a simple or compound medicine, and whether of an animal or vegetable nature. (See Schneider’s note on Nicander’s Alexiph. 248.) Sprengel inclines to the opinion that it was collected from the venom of serpents. (Notæ in Dioscor.) All, however, is mere conjecture on this subject.

SECT. LIV.—ON MUSHROOMS.

Of mushrooms, some prove deleterious from their general nature, and some by the quantity taken. They all bring on suffocation resembling choking. The general remedy which is to be instantly applied is to compel the persons affected to vomit by means of oil. They are also wonderfully relieved by drinking of the lye from vine-shoots, or from the wood of the wild pear with oxycrate, salts, or natron. And wild pears or their leaves, if boiled with mushrooms, take away their suffocative quality, and if eaten they prove beneficial. Hen’s dung, drunk in oxycrate, proves beneficial to them; likewise a drachm of birthwort, or of wormwood with wine, and honey when licked or drunk with water; and baum with natron, or the root and fruit of all-heal with wine, the burnt lees of wine with water, and copperas with vinegar, radish, mustard, or cresses when eaten. And since certain mushrooms having been tasted of by venomous animals occasion not only suffocation but also ulceration of the intestines, we must give in such cases plenty of wormwood, and the decoction of figs, and of marjoram, and honied water. Emetics, the hot hip-bath, and raw barley-flour when applied to the hypochondria, will also be proper.

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