Chapter XLVII: The Far East

[Sidenote: Asiatic Characteristics]

An account, in this chapter, of the principal articles dealing with the history of India, China and Japan, will sufficiently indicate to the student the plan adopted in the Britannica’s treatment of all the countries in the far East. But before turning to these three groups of articles, he should read ASIA (Vol. 2, p. 734), which defines the social and economic position of the Orient in general, and gives a survey of the field covered by articles on Eastern countries other than the three dealt with in this chapter. This article, equivalent in length to 65 pages of this Guide, is by Sir Richard Strachey, the famous Indian administrator; Sir Charles Eliot, of the British diplomatic service Sir T. H. Holdich, of the Indian Frontier Survey; and Philip Lake, the Oriental geologist. The general survey of Asiatic characteristics, as revealed by history, with which the historical section (p. 749) of the article begins, is noteworthy in connection with current political questions:

The words “Asiatic” and “oriental” are often used as if they denoted a
definite and homogeneous type, but Russians resemble Asiatics in many
ways, and Turks, Hindus, Chinese, etc., differ in so many important
points that the common substratum is small. It amounts to this, that
Asiatics have not the same sentiment of independence and freedom as
Europeans. Individuals are thought of as members of a family, state or
religion, rather than as entities with a destiny and rights of their
own. This leads to autocracy in politics, fatalism in religion, and
conservatism in both.

All three of these are certainly conspicuous in the history of the first Eastern country dealt with in this chapter.

INDIA

In the article INDIA (Vol. 14, p. 375), (equivalent to 140 pages of this Guide) there is much of value to the historical student besides the chapter on _History_ (p. 395), which is written by Sir William Wilson Hunter, administrative head of the statistical survey of India and one of the editors of _The Imperial Gazetteer of India_, and by James Sutherland Cotton, editor of this same Gazetteer. Particularly important are the sections, _The People_ (p. 382), _Administration_ (p. 385), and _Indian Costume_ (p. 417), illustrated from pen-and-ink drawings by J. Lockwood Kipling, known to many as the illustrator of his son’s book _Kim_. And the student of Oriental history will find it possible to gain a little comprehension—at least—of Oriental ways of thought, Eastern setting and colour, by reading in the Britannica such articles as CASTE (Vol. 5, p. 464), HINDUISM (Vol. 13, p. 501), BRAHMANISM, BRAHMAN and BRAHMANA (Vol. 4, p. 378), all by Prof. Julius Eggeling, Edinburgh; BUDDHA and BUDDHISM (Vol. 4, p. 737), both by Prof. T. W. Rhys Davids of Manchester, author of _Sacred Books of the Buddhas_, etc.; MAHOMET (Vol. 17, p. 399), by Prof. D. G. Margoliouth, Oxford; MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS and MAHOMMEDAN LAW (Vol. 17, p. 411), by Prof. D. S. Macdonald, Hartford Theological Seminary, and MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION (Vol. 17, p. 417), by Rev. G. W. Thatcher, Camden College, Sydney, N. S. W.; INDIAN LAW (Vol. 14, p. 434), by Sir William Markby, author of _Lectures on English Law_, etc.; and ZOROASTER (Vol. 28, p. 1039), by Prof. Karl Geldner, Marburg, and PARSEES (Vol. 20, p. 866). This list of articles subsidiary to the history of India could be prolonged almost indefinitely, but enough has been given to put the student on the track of valuable articles which might otherwise escape his notice.

Before we come to the authentic history of India there is a legendary period, the only historic test for which is the rock inscriptions,—see the article INSCRIPTIONS, _Indian_ (Vol. 14, p. 621), by J. F. Fleet, author of _Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings_. On the earliest literary description of the Aryans in India and their contests with the Dravidians see the article SANSKRIT, _Vedic Period_ (especially p. 161 of Vol. 24, on the _Rig Veda_)—and in general the articles ARYAN and DRAVIDIAN. An interesting reconstruction of the civilization of the primitive Aryans on the basis of languages will be found in the article INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES (Vol. 14, especially pp. 498–500), by Dr. Peter Giles, Cambridge, author of _Manual of Comparative Philology_; and this picture of Aryan life before the conquest of India will hold in the main for the earlier period of the Aryans in India.

[Sidenote: Early Buddhism]

With the 6th century we come to the beginning of the Buddhist period. See the article JAINS, the articles on Buddhism already mentioned, and the articles: ASOKA, the great Buddhist emperor and organizer of the faith, whose rock inscriptions throughout India are so valuable as historical records; KANISHKA, the Buddhist king of Kabul and Kashmir; FA-HIEN and HSÜAN TSANG, the Chinese pilgrims of India, who left important records of early Buddhism and of Brahmanism, which was steadily growing in power and strength.

The Hindu period, overlapping the Buddhist, is marked by the beginning of Western influences on India. For the Persians in India see the articles PERSIA (Vol. 21, especially pp. 209–210), DARIUS (Vol. 7, p. 832), and SCYLAX, the Greek who under Darius’s orders explored the course of the Indus. Far more important was the conquest by Alexander the Great and the establishment of the Hellenistic empire of the Seleucids in Syria, Bactria and India: see ALEXANDER THE GREAT (Vol. 1, especially p. 548), NEARCHUS, Alexander’s admiral and navigator, and SELEUCID DYNASTY. The first paramount ruler of India was CHANDRAGUPTA (Vol. 5, p. 839), whom the Greeks called Sandracottus and who crushed the Seleucid power and founded the Maurya dynasty. Of his grandson Asoka we have already spoken in outlining the growth and decline of Buddhism. In this period Greek thought and art influenced India greatly, and in the period immediately following—2nd century B.C.—northwestern India was invaded again by western troops: see DEMETRIUS, EUCRATIDES, MENANDER. The records of the next four centuries are confused and vague; on the invasions from the North, see SAKA and YUE-CHI, by Sir Charles Norton Edgcumbe Eliot.

The Yue-Chi founded the Kushan dynasty, in which the greatest king was KANISHKA (Vol. 15, p. 653), already mentioned as a Buddhist ruler whose policy marked the beginning of the end of Buddhism in India. On the succeeding dynasty see the article GUPTA; and refer again to the article FA-HIEN for the Chinese account of the rule of the second Gupta king, Chandragupta,—on whom in legend see VIKRAMADITYA. On the White Huns and their invasion consult the articles EPHTHALITES and HUNS. On the only other great king of this period, who was paramount monarch of northern India in the first half of the 7th century and whose administration was described by Hsüan-Tsang, see HARSHA. On the principal Deccan dynasties of the Hindu period, see CHALUKYA and RASHTRAKUTA, and the article DECCAN.

[Sidenote: Mahommedans and Moslems]

For a general notion of the Mahommedan period in India the student should read the articles on Mahommedanism already mentioned, and for more definite information about India, the articles on the 11th century invader MAHMUD OF GHAZNI (Vol. 17, p. 397), and on SOMNATH, the temple city which he captured and sacked in 1025. See DECCAN and GUJARAT for the Moslem conquest of these states by Ala-ud-din. For the destruction of the Tughlak dynasty, which followed Ala-ud-din’s successors, see AFGHANISTAN (Vol. 1, especially p. 315) and TIMUR (Vol. 26, p. 994), by Major-General Sir Frederick John Goldsmid. The “last stand made by the national faith in India against conquering Islam” was in VIJAYANAGAR (Vol. 28, p. 62). With the 16th century and the Mogul dynasty, India is quite definitely Moslem: see BABER, HUMAYUN, AKBAR, ABUL FAZL the historian of Akbar’s reign, JAHANGIR, SHAH JAHAN, and AGRA and INDIAN ARCHITECTURE (especially Fig. 17, opposite p. 433, Vol. 14) for the Taj Mahal, the Mausoleum built by Shah Jahan for his wife Mumtäz Mal, and—for the culmination of the Mogul power, the beginning of its decay, and the first sign of Moslem bigotry and intolerance on the part of the Mogul emperors,—AURANGZEB. His attempt to conquer the Mahommedan kings of the Deccan gave the natives an opportunity to regain power: see the article MAHRATTAS, and for the earlier risings of the Mahrattas, SIVAJI. And for the rise of Afghan power under the Durani dynasty and the battle of Panipat in 1761, a crushing defeat for the Mahrattas, see AFGHANISTAN, _History_ (Vol. 1, especially p. 316), and AHMAD SHAH.

On earlier European settlements in India see the article INDIA, _History_ (Vol. 14, p. 404), and more particularly for Portuguese explorations and settlements the articles VASCO DA GAMA (Vol. 11, p. 433), ALBUQUERQUE (Vol. 1, p. 516), and GOA the capitol of Portuguese India, the last article being by K. G. Jayne, author of _Vasco da Gama and His Successors_: for Dutch rule the article DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY (Vol. 8, p. 716); and for the beginning of British influence in India the articles EAST INDIA COMPANY; SURAT; MADRAS, where the first English fort was built in 1640 and the first grant, except for factory use, was made by the English; BOMBAY, acquired from Portugal in 1661–65; SIR JOHN and SIR JOSIAH CHILD; JOB CHARNOCK, founder of Calcutta, and the article on CALCUTTA.

[Sidenote: The British Conquest]

On British political history in India in the 18th century, see the articles on PONDICHERRY, DUPLEIX, French Governor-General in Pondicherry, his rival CLIVE the founder of the British Empire and of the power of the East India Company in India, EYRE COOTE who took Pondicherry from the French in 1761, SURAJ-UD-DOWLAH and CALCUTTA for the siege of the city and story of the Black Hole, PLASSEY, SHAH ALAM for the massacre of PATNA; and for the period after CLIVE the articles WARREN HASTINGS, MAHRATTAS for the first Mahratta war, HYDER ALI and MYSORE for the first Mysore war; TIPPOO SAHIB and CORNWALLIS for the second Mysore war; TEIGNMOUTH and BENGAL, for the permanent settlement of Bengal under Cornwallis; WELLESLEY and TIPPOO SAHIB and SERINGAPATAM, WELLINGTON and LAKE (Vol. 16, p. 85) for the campaigns against the French and natives during Wellesley’s governor-generalship; LORD MINTO for the years from 1807 to 1813; MARQUESS OF HASTINGS, OCHTERLONY and NEPAL for the war in Nepal; for the wars of 1817 the articles PINDARIS, MAHRATTAS, ELPHINSTONE, SIR JOHN MALCOLM; for the administration (1823–28) of Lord Amherst, the articles AMHERST, BURMESE WARS, BHARATPUR and COMBERMERE; for Bentinck’s rule, the articles BENTINCK, SUTTEE, THUGS by Reinhold Rost, late secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society, and MYSORE; METCALFE, for a view of his short tenure of office; for the stormy period of the ’40’s, AUCKLAND, ELLENBOROUGH, AFGHANISTAN, SIR W. H. MACNAGHTEN, SIR R. H. SALE and SIND; and for the Sikh wars, HARDINGE, PUNJAB, SIKH WARS, RANJIT SINGH, SIR HUGH GOUGH, DALHOUSIE, SIR HENRY LAWRENCE, EDWARDES, BURMESE WARS for the second war of 1852, and OUDH for its annexation; and for the close of the Company’s rule, the articles LORD CANNING, INDIAN MUTINY, DELHI, LORD LAWRENCE, RICHARD BAIRD SMITH, JOHN NICHOLSON, SIR NEVILLE CHAMBERLAIN, CAWNPORE, NANA SAHIB, LUCKNOW, SIR HENRY LAWRENCE, SIR J. E. W. INGLIS, HAVELOCK, J. G. S. NEILL, OUTRAM, Sir Colin Campbell.

On India under the Crown, since 1858, see particularly the articles on the viceroys, CANNING, ELGIN, LAWRENCE, MAYO, NORTHBROOK, LYTTON (see also SHERE ALI and YAKUB KHAN),—RIPON (see also AYUB KHAN, EARL ROBERTS, and ABDUR RAHMAN KHAN), DUFFERIN (see also PANJDEH for the Russian scare of 1885 and BURMA and BURMESE WARS for the dispute with Thebaw), CURZON and KITCHENER, and MINTO.

CHINA

As with India, so with China, the whole of the article in the Britannica is of value to the historical student. The article CHINA (Vol. 6, pp. 166–231) is equivalent to 200 pages of this Guide. The most important part for the student of history is section V. (pp. 188–212) on _History_: but such parts of the article as _Geography_, with a coloured map, the _People_ (pp. 171–174), _Religion_ (174–177), _Economics_ (177–181), _Government and Administration_ (181–188), _Art_ (213–216) with illustrations, and _Language and Literature_ (216–231) are all of importance to help get the background that is so baffling to an occidental studying the Far East. As was the case with India, the study of religions is particularly important and besides the section _Religion_ in the article CHINA, the student should turn to the articles LAO-TSZE, the founder of a philosophy debased into Taoism, MENCIUS, and CONFUCIUS, all by the Rev. James Legge, author of _The Religions of China_, and the editor of _The Chinese Classics_, and BUDDHISM and LAMAISM, the latter the form of Buddhism in vogue in China,—and he should remember that there are some Mahommedans in China. In connection with the latest developments in Chinese history he should read with great care in the article CHINA, Section IV, _Government and Administration_, especially p. 184 on the Civil Service, an elaborate merit system.