Chapter V: Worship of the Malevolent Dead (3)

In India many deities live in caves. There are cave temples of Kâlî, Annapûrna, and Sûraj Nârâyan, the Sun god, at Hardwâr. Kumaun abounds in such temples. That at Gaurî Udyâr is where Siva and Pârvatî once halted for the night with their marriage procession. Their attendants overslept themselves and were turned into the stalactites for which the cave is famous. Another is called from its depth Pâtâla Bhuvaneswar, from the roof of which a white liquid trickles. The attendant of the shrine says that this was milk in the olden days, but a greedy Jogi boiled his rice in it and since then the supply has ceased. Another is called Guptâ Gangâ or "the hidden Ganges," whose waters may be heard rushing below. Hence bathing there is as efficacious as in the sacred river itself. [606] Among the Korwas of Chota Nâgpur, their bloodthirsty deity has a cave for her residence. Mahâdeva, say the Gonds, shut up the founders of their race in a cave in the Himâlayas, but Lingo removed the stone and released sixteen crores of Gonds. Talâo Daitya, a noted demon of Kâthiâwâr, lives in a cave where a lamp is lit which never goes out, however violently the wind may blow or the rain may fall. Saptasrî Devî, a much dreaded spirit in the Konkan, lives in a cave; such is also the case with the eight-armed Devî at Asthbhuja, in the Mirzapur District. Her devotees have to creep through a narrow passage into what is now the shrine of the goddess, but is said to have been, and very probably was, a cave. [607]

When the Korwas of Mirzapur have to enter a cave, they first arm themselves with a rude spear and axe as a protection against Bhûts. There are two haunted caves in the Mircha and Banka Hills in Sarguja. The Mircha cave is inhabited by a demon called Mahâdâni Deo, who is much feared. Not even a Baiga can enter this cave, but many of them have seen his white horse tied up near the entrance, and green grass and horsedung lying there. In the cave on the Banka Hill lives a Dâno, whose name either no one knows or dares to tell. No one ventures to enter his cave, and he worries people in dreams and brings sickness, unless a Baiga periodically offers a cock with black and white feathers below the cave, makes a fire sacrifice and throws some grains of rice in the direction of the mountain. When this Deo is enraged, a noise which sounds like Gudgud! Gudgud! comes from the cave. He is also heard shouting at night, and when cholera is coming he calls out Khabardâr! Khabardâr! "Be cautious! Be cautious!" Any one who goes near the cave gets diarrhoea. Captain Younghusband has recently solved the mystery of the famous Lamp Rock cave of Central Asia, which is simply the light coming through a concealed aperture at the rear of the entrance. [608]

Many caves, again, have acquired their sanctity by being occupied by famous Hindu and Muhammadan saints. Such are some of the Buddhistic caves found in many places, which are now occupied by their successors of other faiths. There is a cave at Bhuili, in the Mirzapur District, which has a very narrow entrance, but miraculously expands to accommodate any possible number of pilgrims. They say that when the saint Salîm Chishti came to visit Shâh Vilâyat at Agra, the stone seat in front of the mosque of the latter was large enough to accommodate only one person, but when Salîm Chishti sat on it its length was miraculously doubled. [609]

These cave spirits are common in European folk-lore. Such are the Buccas and Knockers of the Cornwall mines, [610] and the Kobolds of Germany. Falstaff speaks of "learning, a mere hoard of gold kept by a devil." Burton thus sums up the matter: "Subterraneous devils are as common as the rest, and do as much harm. These (saith Munster) are commonly seen among mines of metals, and are some of them noxious; some, again, do no harm. The metal men in many places account it good luck, a sign of treasure and rich ore, when they see them. Georgius Agricola reckons two more notable kinds of them, Getuli and Kobali; both are clothed after the manner of mortal men, and will many times imitate their works. Their office is, as Pictorius and Paracelsus think, to keep treasure in the earth, that it be not all at once revealed." [611]

Bhûts Treasure Guardians.

This leads us to the common idea that Bhûts, like the Cornwall Spriggans, [612] guard treasure. Ill luck very often attaches to treasure-trove. Some years ago a Chamâr dug up some treasure in the ancient fort of Atranji Khera in the Etah District. He did his best to purge himself of the ill luck attaching to it by giving away a large portion in charity. But he died a beggar, and the whole country-side attributes his ruin to the anger of the Bhûts who guarded the treasure. Some time ago an old man came into my court at Mirzapur and gave up two old brass pots, which he had found while ploughing about a year before. Since then he had suffered a succession of troubles, and his son, who was with him when he found the property, died. He then called a conference of sorcerers to consider the matter, and they advised him to appease the Bhût by giving up the treasure. He further remarked that the Sarkâr or Government doubtless knew some Mantra or charm which would prevent any harm to it from taking over such dangerous property. Occasionally, however, the Bhût is worsted, as in a Kumaun tale, where an old man and his daughter-in-law tie up a Bhût and make him give up five jars full of gold. [613]

Treasure is often thus kept guarded in sacred caves. In Jaynagar is said to be the treasury of Indradyumna, sealed with a magic seal. He was king of Avanti, who set up the image of Jagannâtha in Orissa. The spot presents the appearance of a plain smooth rock, which has been perhaps artificially smoothed. It is said that Indradyumna had a great warrior, whom he fully trusted and raised to the highest honours. At last this man began to entertain the idea of asking his master's daughter in marriage. The king, hearing this, was sorely wroth, but his dependent was too powerful to be easily subdued. So he contrived that a cavern should be excavated, and here he removed all his treasure, and when all was secured he invited the warrior to the place. The man unsuspectingly went in, when Indradyumna let fall the trap-door and sealed it with his magic seal; but he was punished for his wickedness by defeat at the hands of the Muhammadans. [614]

In Ireland the Leprehaun, a little cobbler who sits under the hedge and whose tapping as he mends his shoes may be heard in the soft summer twilight, is a guardian of treasure, and if any one can seize him he will give a pot of gold to secure his escape. [615]

Fairy Gifts.

In connection with these treasure guardians, we reach another cycle of folk-lore legends, that of gifts or robberies from fairy-land. Professor Rhys, writing of the Celts, well explains the principle on which these are based. [616] "The Celts, in common with all other peoples of Aryan race, regarded all their domestic comforts as derived by them from their ancestors in the forgotten past, that is to say from the departed. They seem, therefore, to have argued that there must be a land of untold wealth and bliss somewhere in the nether world inhabited by their dead ancestors; and the further inference would be that the things they most valued in life had been procured from the leaders of that nether world through fraud or force by some great benefactor of the human race; for it seldom seems to have entered their minds that the powers below would give up anything for nothing." Hence the many tales which thus account for the bringing of fire and other blessings to man.

Of the same type are the usual tales of the fairy gifts. Thus, in one version from Patna we read that one day a corpse came floating down the river, and a Faqîr announced that this was Chân Hâji. He was duly buried and honoured, and in many places he used to keep silver and gold vessels for the use of travellers. If anyone wanted a vessel, he had only to say so, and one used to float out of the water. But a covetous man appropriated one, and since then the supply has ceased. [617] The same legend is told of the great Karsota lake in Mirzapur, and of numbers of others all over the country. The culprit is generally a Banya, or corn-chandler, the type of sneaking greediness. The same story appears constantly in European folk-lore, as is shown by Mr. Hartland's admirable summary. [618]

Another version current in India also corresponds with the Western tradition. This is where a person receives a gift from the fairies, which he does not appreciate, and so loses. Thus, in a tale from Râêpur, in the Central Provinces, the goatherd used to watch a strange goat, which joined his flock. One day it walked into the tank and disappeared. While the goatherd was looking on in wonder, a stone was thrown to him from the water, and a voice exclaimed, "This is the reward of your labour." The disappointed goatherd knocked the stone back into the water with his axe. But he found that his axe had been changed by the touch into gold. He searched for the stone, but could never find it again. [619]

In another tale of the same kind, the cowherd tends the cow of the fairy, and, following the animal into a cave, receives some golden wheat. In a third version, the fool throws away a handful of golden barley, and only comes to know of his mistake when his wife finds that some fuel cakes, on which he had laid his blanket, had turned into gold. [620] So, at Pathari, in Bhopâl, there lived a Muni, or a Pîr, in a cave unknown to any one. His goat used to graze with the herdsman's flock. The shepherd, one day, followed the goat into the cave and found an old man sitting intent in meditation. He made a noise to attract the saint's attention, who asked the object of his visit. The herdsman asked for wages, whereupon the saint gave him a handful of barley. He took it home, and, in disgust, threw it on fire, where his wife soon after found it turned into gold. The herdsman went back to thank the old man, but found the cave deserted, and its occupant was never heard of again. The shepherd devoted the wealth, thus miraculously acquired, to building a temple. [621]

Underground Treasure.

This underground kingdom, stored with untold treasure, appears in other tales. Thus, Kâfir Kot, like many other places of the same kind, is supposed to have underground galleries holding untold treasures. One day a man is said to have entered an opening, where he found a flight of steps. Going down the steps, he came to rooms filled with many valuable things. Selecting a few, he turned to go, but he found the entrance closed. On dropping the treasure the door opened again, and it shut when he again tried to take something with him. According to another version he lost his sight when he touched the magic wealth, and it was restored when he surrendered the treasure. [622]

Another tale of the same kind is preserved by the old Buddhist traveller, Hwen Thsang. [623] There was a herdsman who tended his cattle near Bhâgalpur. One day a bull separated from the rest of the herd and roamed into the forest. The herdsman feared that the animal was lost, but in the evening he returned radiant with beauty. Even his lowing was so remarkable that the rest of the cattle feared to approach him. At last the herdsman followed him into a cleft of the rock, where he found a lovely garden filled with fruits, exquisite of colour and unknown to man. The herdsman plucked one, but was afraid to taste it, and, as he passed out, a demon snatched it from his hand. He consulted a doctor, who recommended him next time to eat the fruit. When he again met the demon, who as before tried to pluck it out of his hand, the herdsman ate it. But no sooner had it reached his stomach than it began to swell inside him, and he grew so enormous, that although his head was outside, his body was jammed in the fissure of the rock. His friends in vain tried to release him, and he was gradually changed into stone. Ages after, a king who believed that such a stone must possess medical virtues, tried to chisel away a small portion, but the workmen, after ten days' labour, were not able to get even a pinch of dust.

These treasure rocks, which open to the touch of magic, are common in folk-lore. [624]

Ghosts of Roads.

Bhûts are also found at roads, cross-roads, and boundaries. It is so in Russia, where, "at cross-roads, or in the neighbourhood of cemeteries, an animated corpse often lurks watching for some unwary traveller whom it may be able to slay and eat." [625] Thus, in the Hills, and indeed as far as Madras, an approved charm for getting rid of a disease of demoniacal origin is to plant a stake where four roads meet, and to bury grains underneath, which crows disinter and eat. [626] The custom of laying small-pox scabs on roads has been already noticed. The same idea is probably at the root of the old English plan of burying suicides at cross-roads, with a stake driven through the chest of the corpse. In the eastern parts of the North-West Provinces we have Sewanriya, who, like Terminus, is a special godling of boundaries, and whose function is to keep foreign Bhûts from intruding into the village under his charge. For the same reason the Baiga pours a stream of spirits round the boundary. This is also probably the basis of a long series of customs performed, when the bridegroom, with his procession, reaches the boundary of the bride's village. Of the Khândh godling of boundaries, we read:--"He is adored by sacrifices human and bestial. Particular points upon the boundaries of districts, fixed by ancient usage, and generally upon the highways, are his altars, and these demand each an annual victim, who is either an unsuspecting traveller struck down by the priests, or a sacrifice provided by purchase." [627]

Ghosts of Empty Houses.

Bhûts particularly infest ancient empty houses. If a house be unoccupied for any time, a Bhût is sure to take up his quarters there. Such houses abound everywhere. The old Fort of Agori on the Son is said to have been abandoned on account of the malignancy of its Bhûts. Not long ago a merchant built a splendid house in the Mirzapur Bâzâr, and was obliged to abandon it for the same reason. The Collector's house at Sahâranpur is haunted by a young English lady; there is one in the Jhânsi cantonment, where a Bhût, in the form of a Faqîr, dressed in white clothes, appears at night. Fortunately he is of a kindly disposition.

Ghosts of Flowers.

Bhûts occasionally take up their abode in flowers, and hence it is dangerous to allow children to smell them. In Kumaun the Betaina tree (Melia sempervivens) is supposed to be infested by Bhûts, and its flowers are never used as offerings to the gods. [628] But, on the other hand, as we shall see elsewhere, flowers and fruits are considered scarers of demons. Bhûts, it is believed, do their cooking at noon and evening, so women and children should be cautious about walking at such times, lest they should tread unwittingly upon this ghostly food and incur the resentment of its owners. [629] In the same way the Scotch fairies are supposed to be at their meals when rain and sunshine come together. In England, at such times the devil is said to be beating his wife, and in India they call it the "Jackal's wedding." [630]

The Hearth.

Among the many places where Bhûts resort comes the house hearth. This probably in a large measure accounts for the precautions taken by Hindus in preparing and protecting the family cooking-place, and smearing it with fresh cowdung, which is a scarer of demons. The idea was common among all the Aryan races, [631] but it is found also among the Drâvidian tribes, who perform much of the worship of Dulha Deo and similar family guardians at the family hearth. In Northern India, when a bride first goes to the house of her husband she is not permitted to cook. On an auspicious day, selected by the family priest, she commences her duties, and receives presents of money and jewellery from her relations. Among the low castes, at marriages a special rite, that of Matmangara, or "lucky earth," is performed, when the earth intended for the preparation of the marriage cooking-place is brought home. The women go in procession to the village clay-pit, accompanied by a Chamâr beating a drum, which is decorated with streaks of red lead. The earth is dug by the village Baiga, who passes five shovelfuls into the breast-cloth of a veiled virgin, who stands behind him. So, in Bihâr, after bathing the bride and bridegroom, the mother or female guardian brings home a clod of earth, out of which a rude fireplace is prepared. On this butter is burnt, and paddy parched on the threshold of the kitchen, where the spirit is supposed to dwell. A goat is sacrificed at the same time, and some of this parched paddy is reserved, to be flung over the pair as they make the marriage revolutions. [632]

For the same reason great care is taken of the ashes, which must be removed with caution and not allowed to fall on the ground. We have seen that it is used to identify the spirits of the returning dead, and ashes blown over by a holy man are used to expel the Evil Eye. In Bombay a person excommunicated from caste is re-admitted on swallowing ashes given him by the religious teacher of the caste.

Most Hindus particularly dislike being watched at their meals, and make a pretence of eating in secret. If on a walk round your camp you come on one of your servants eating, he pretends not to recognize his master, and his hang-dog look is the equivalent of the ordinary salaam. This is an idea which prevails in many parts of the world. The Vaishnava sect of Râmânujas [633] are very particular in this respect. They cook for themselves, and should the meal during its preparation, or while they are eating, attract the looks of a stranger, the operation is instantly stopped, and the food buried in the ground.

Ghosts of Filthy Places.

Bhûts, again, frequent privies and dirty places of all kinds. Hence the caution with which a Hindu performs the offices of nature, his aversion to going into a privy at night, and the precaution he uses of taking a brass vessel with him on such occasions. Mr. Campbell supposes this to depend on the experience of the disease-bearing properties of dirt. [634] "This belief explains the puzzling inconsistencies of Hindus of all classes that the house, house door, and a little in front is scrupulously clean, while the yard may be a dung-heap or a privy. As long as the house is clean, the Bhût cannot come in. Let him live in the privy; he cannot do much harm there."

The House Roof.

Lastly comes the house roof. We have already seen that the Drâvidian tribes will not allow their women to touch the thatch during a whirlwind. So, most people particularly object to people standing on their roof, and in a special degree to a buffalo getting upon it. It is on the roof, too, that the old shoe or black pot or painted tile is always kept to scare the Bhûts which use it as a perch.

END OF VOL. I.

NOTES

[1] On the assimilation by Rome of Celtic faiths, see Rhys, "Origin and Growth of Religion as illustrated by Celtic Heathendom," 2 sq.

[2] Lang, "Custom and Myth," 178.

[3] Leland, "Etruscan Remains," 9.

[4] At Pushkar and Idar. Monier Williams, "Brâhmanism and Hinduism," 566 sqq.

[5] Devatâ in Sanskrit properly means "the state or nature of a deity, divinity," without any very decided idea of inferiority. In modern usage it certainly has this implication.

[6] "Panjâb Ethnography," 113.

[7] Cunningham, "Archæological Reports," ii. 114, 342, 353; iii. 110, 112; xiii. 63; "Râjputâna Gazetteer," ii. 160; Führer, "Monumental Antiquities," 6, 50, 145, 286.

[8] Hunter, "Orissa," i. 188; Jarrett, "Aîn-i-Akbari," ii. 128.

[9] "Asiatic Quarterly Review," ii. 236.

[10] Sherring, "Sacred City of the Hindus," 59, 157; Bholanâth Chandra, "Travels," ii. 384.

[11] Monier-Williams, "Brâhmanism and Hinduism," 342.

[12] Wilson, "Essays," ii. 384.

[13] Growse, "Mathura," 180. The story of Joshua (x. 12-14) is an obvious parallel.

[14] Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 25.

[15] Blochmann, "Aîn-i-Akbari," i. 200-266.

[16] Max Müller, "Ancient Sanskrit Literature," 53, note.

[17] Hall, "Vishnu Purâna," ii. 150; "Journal Asiatic Society, Bengal," 1862, p. 112.

[18] Tod, "Annals," i. 597.

[19] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 130, 132, 133, 141, 157, 159, 186, 223; Elliott, "Hoshangâbâd Settlement Report," 255; Hislop, "Papers," 26.

[20] "Folk-lore," iv. 358.

[21] Gordon Cumming, "From the Hebrides to the Himâlayas," ii. 164; Brand, "Observations," 126; Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 61; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sâgara," i. 98, 573.

[22] Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 234; Grimm, "Household Tales," ii. 493, 524; Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 160; Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," i. 99, 139, 170.

[23] Knowles, "Kashmîr Folk-tales," 3; fire is used in the same way; Temple, "Wideawake Stories," 32, 271; "Legends of the Panjâb," i. 42; "Folk-lore Journal," ii. 104.

[24] Campbell, "Notes," 70.

[25] i. 50.

[26] Grimm, "Household Tales," ii. 415.

[27] x. 85, 5.

[28] "Bombay Gazetteer," xiii. 93.

[29] "Merchant of Venice," v. 1; "Hamlet," iv. 7.

[30] "Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry, February;" see other references collected by Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 318.

[31] Mrs. Mîr Hasan 'Ali, "Manners and Customs of the Muhammadans of India," i. 275.

[32] "Folk-lore," ii. 222; iv. 355.

[33] "Institutes," vi. 9; Wilson, "Vishnu Purâna," 145, 275 note.

[34] Ewald, "Antiquities of Israel," 349 sq.; Goldziher, "Mythology among the Hebrews," 63.

[35] "Odes," iii. 23, 1, 2, and compare Job xxxi. 26, 27; Psalm lxxxi. 3.

[36] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 205 sq.

[37] Campbell, "Notes," 187.

[38] Sherring, "Sacred City," 221; "Panjâb Notes and Queries," ii. 42.

[39] Hunter, "Orissa," ii. 140.

[40] Sarat Chandra Mitra, "Vestiges of Moon-worship in Bihâr and Bengal," in the "Journal Anthropological Society of Bombay," 1893.

[41] "Folk-lore," ii. 221; Monier Williams, "Brâhmanism and Hinduism," 343.

[42] Hardy, "Eastern Monachism," 149.

[43] "Folk-lore," ii. 228.

[44] Oppert, "Original Inhabitants of Bharatavarsa," 97, 98, 40.

[45] Ovid, "Fasti," iv. 728; Lady Wilde, "Legends," 113; "Folk-lore," ii. 128; Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 326; "Indian Antiquary," ii. 90; iii. 68; vii. 126 sqq.; Wilson, "Essays," s.v. "Holî;" Leviticus xviii. 21; 2 Kings xxiii. 10; Herklot, "Qânûn-i-Islâm," s.v. "Muharram."

[46] Cunningham, "Archæological Reports," xvi. 28.

[47] "Lear," i. 2.

[48] "Brihat Sanhita." Manning, "Ancient India," i. 371.

[49] "Demonology," i. 45.

[50] Mrs. Mîr Hasan 'Ali, "Observations," i. 297 sq.

[51] "Travels," 301.

[52] Atkinson, "Himâlayan Gazetteer," ii. 913 sq.

[53] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 38.

[54] Brand, "Observations," 665; Aubrey, "Remaines," 37, 85.

[55] The Celtic form of the myth is given by Rhys, "Lectures," 140 sq.; the Indian legend in Muir, "Ancient Sanskrit Texts," ii. 23.

[56] "Golden Bough," i. 331 sq.; and see Lang, "Custom and Myth," ii. 262.

[57] Ibbetson, "Panjâb Ethnology," 114.

[58] Yule, "Marco Polo," i. 291, with note ii. 543.

[59] For instances, see Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 179.

[60] "Bombay Gazetteer," xi. 55.

[61] Campbell, "Notes," 79.

[62] "Folk-lore," ii. 298.

[63] "Bombay Gazetteer," xxii. 790.

[64] Fryer, "Travels," 418; Campbell, "Notes," 81.

[65] "Custom and Myth," i. 285; ii. 229, note.

[66] Campbell, "Notes," 78 sqq.

[67] Gregor, "Folk-lore of North-East Scotland," 206; Aubrey, "Remaines," 37; Ewald, "Antiquities of Israel," 34; Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 259, 314; Grimm, "Teutonic Mythology," ii. 643.

[68] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 261.

[69] Elliott, "Settlement Report," 125.

[70] "Settlement Report," 168.

[71] "Folk-lore," i. 153.

[72] Virgil, "Georgics," i. 487; "Æneid," vii. 141; Horace, "Odes," i. 34, 5.

[73] "Descriptive Ethnology," 229.

[74] "Peri Potamôn."

[75] i. 3888 sqq.

[76] "Mathura," 179 sq.

[77] Duncker, "History," iv. II, note; Romesh Chandra Datt, "History of Civilization," i. 94.

[78] Gregor, "Folk-lore of North-East Scotland," 41.

[79] Jarrett, "Aîn-i-Akbari," ii. 224; "Râjputâna Gazetteer," iii. 219.

[80] "Karnâl Gazetteer," 31.

[81] Buchanan, "Eastern India," i. II; Madden, "Journal Asiatic Society, Bengal," 1847, 228, 400; Wright, "History of Nepâl," 154, 163.

[82] Madden, loc. cit., 233.

[83] Loc. cit., i. 14.

[84] Sleeman, "Rambles," i. 17.

[85] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 264.

[86] "Folk-lore," iii. 32.

[87] "Katha Sarit Sâgara," i. 374.

[88] "Odyssey," v. 450; and for other instances see Tylor, "Primitive Culture," ii. 213; Campbell, "Notes," 325 sqq.

[89] Growse, "Mathura," 55; Tod, "Annals," i. 675; Oldfield, "Sketches from Nepâl," ii. 204.

[90] Atkinson, "Himâlayan Gazetteer," ii. 788, 832.

[91] "Berar Gazetteer," 35.

[92] "Folk-lore," i. 152, 209; iii. 72.

[93] Rhys, "Lectures," 123.

[94] Knowles, "Folk-tales," 313.

[95] "Folk-lore," ii. 284, 509; Hunt, "Popular Romances," 194; Campbell, "Popular Tales," ii. 205; Conway, "Demonology," i. 110 sq.; Sir W. Scott, "Letters on Demonology," 85; Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 219; Farrer, "Primitive Manners," 366; Aubrey, "Remaines," 30; Gordon Cumming, "From the Hebrides to the Himâlayas," i. 139; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 109 sq.; ii. 208; Gregor, "Folk-lore," 66 sq.; Lady Wilde, "Legends," 216; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sâgara," i. 58.

[96] Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 109.

[97] "Descriptive Ethnology," 188.

[98] "Primitive Culture," i. 108 sq.; "Demonology," i. 205.

[99] "Folk Medicine," 28 sq.

[100] "Legends," 82 sq.

[101] Brand, "Observations," 480.

[102] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 242.

[103] Herklots, "Qânûn-i-Islâm," 21, 66 sq, 292; Hughes, "Dictionary of Islâm, s.v.

[104] Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 185.

[105] Ibbetson, "Panjâb Ethnography," 114; "Panjâb Notes and Queries," ii. 1; iii. 7; iv. 68.

[106] Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 102.

[107] "Sirsa Settlement Report," 178.

[108] "Katha Sarit Sâgara," i. 258; Clouston, "Popular Tales," i. 118.

[109] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 124.

[110] Ball, "Jungle Life in India," 531; "Panjâb Notes and Queries," ii. 166; Temple, "Legends of the Panjâb," i. 2; Lady Wilde, "Legends," 236 sqq.

[111] Campbell, "Notes," 404.

[112] Forbes, "Settlement Report," 41.

[113] Knowles, "Folk-tales of Kashmîr," 504, with note; "Katha Sarit Sâgara," i. 499.

[114] Führer, "Monumental Antiquities," 80, 134.

[115] "Eastern India," ii. 43.

[116] Rhys, "Lectures," 184.

[117] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 292.

[118] Atkinson, "Himâlayan Gazetteer," ii. 793, 798.

[119] Ibid., iii. 38.

[120] Atkinson, "Himâlayan Gazetteer," iii. 26.

[121] Tod, "Annals," i. 814 sq.; Conway, "Demonology," i. 113; "Berâr Gazetteer," 169.

[122] From the "Mânasa Khanda"; Atkinson, "Himâlayan Gazetteer," ii. 308.

[123] "Râjputâna Gazetteer," ii. 131.

[124] "Science of Fairy Tales," chapter vi.; "Berâr Gazetteer," 148.

[125] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 194.

[126] "Bareilly Settlement Report," 20; Führer, "Monumental Antiquities," 26; "Bhandâra Settlement Report," 47; Temple, "Legends of the Panjâb," i. 39.

[127] Oppert, "Ancient Inhabitants," 467; Grimm, "Household Tales," ii. 466.

[128] Führer, loc cit., 290.

[129] "Himâlayan Gazetteer," iii. 27.

[130] "Archæological Reports," iv. 192.

[131] Ibid., viii. 39.

[132] Ibid., xxi. 175.

[133] Ibid., xiv. 76.

[134] Oppert, "Original Inhabitants," 289.

[135] "Popular Tales," i. 176.

[136] Lâl Bihâri Dê, "Folk-tales of Bengal," 281; "Berâr Gazetteer," 158, 176; "Panjâb Notes and Queries," iii. 42; Wright, "History of Nepâl," 135; "Bombay Gazetteer," v. 440; "Râjputâna Gazetteer," ii. 220.

[137] i. 17.

[138] "Mânasa Khanda"; Atkinson, "Himâlayan Gazetteer," ii. 271.

[139] See the remarks by Lassen, quoted by Muir, "Ancient Sanskrit Texts," ii. 337.

[140] Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 200 sq., 210, 336.

[141] "Remaines," 18; Sir W. Scott, "Lectures on Demonology," 135.

[142] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 188, 210, 223, 230, 135, 186; Lubbock, "Origin of Civilization," 306.

[143] Atkinson, "Himâlayan Gazetteer," ii. 832.

[144] "Settlement Report," 121, 254.

[145] Atkinson, loc. cit., ii. 792; Hislop, "Papers," 14; Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 139.

[146] Atkinson, loc. cit., iii. 48.

[147] "Bombay Gazetteer," v. 252.

[148] Human sacrifice to the Durgâ of the Vindhyas occurs often in Indian folk-lore. See Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sâgara," i. 64.

[149] Oppert, "Original Inhabitants," 24; Wright, "History of Nepâl," 178.

[150] Buchanan, "Eastern India," i. 51 sq.; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sâgara," ii. 333.

[151] Griffin, "Râjas of the Panjâb."

[152] Growse, "Mathura," 278, where all the local legends are given in full.

[153] "Anatomy of Melancholy," 123.

[154] "Primitive Culture," ii. 261.

[155] Growse, "Râmâyana," 318.

[156] "History of India," chapter iii. 21, 330.

[157] Sherring, "Sacred City," 129.

[158] Hislop, "Papers," 18.

[159] "Folk-lore," iii. 541.

[160] Yule, "Marco Polo," i. 292, 301; Oldfield, "Sketches from Nepâl," ii. 6.

[161] "Notes and Queries," v. Ser. iii. 424; Farrer, "Primitive Manners," 70; Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 16.

[162] Conway, "Demonology," i. 267.

[163] Ibid., 224.

[164] "Science of Fairy Tales," 71 sqq.

[165] Campbell, "Notes," 101 sq.

[166] "Bombay Gazetteer," xviii. 416; xxi. 180; "Journal Ethnological Society," N. S. i. 98. In the "Katha Sarit Sâgara," i. 154, the queen Kavalayavalî worships the gods stark naked.

[167] Wright, "History," 10.

[168] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 148, 301.

[169] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 31, 35.

[170] "Golden Bough," i. 17; "Panjâb Notes and Queries," iii. 41, 115; Hartland, "Science of Fairy Tales," 84.

[171] "Settlement Report," 207.

[172] I cannot procure this book. The quotation is from "Calcutta Review," xv. 486.

[173] "Settlement Report," 135.

[174] Cunningham, "Archæological Reports," vii. 162.

[175] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 210.

[176] Oppert, "Original Inhabitants," 476, quoting Mr. Fawcett.

[177] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 134.

[178] "Bombay Gazetteer," iii. 221.

[179] "Indian Antiquary," v. 5.

[180] "Bombay Gazetteer," iv. 114.

[181] Jarrett, "Aîn-i-Akbari," ii. 408, quoting Alberuni, chapter viii.

[182] "Ethnology in Folk-lore," 94.

[183] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," i. 102.

[184] Ibid., ii. 41; Lyall, "Asiatic Studies," 136.

[185] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 369.

[186] "Golden Bough," i. 14.

[187] Brand, "Observations," 753.

[188] Beal, "Fah Hian," 78.

[189] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," iv. 218.

[190] Turner, "Samoa," 45.

[191] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 101; Aubrey, "Remaines," 180; Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 24.

[192] Aubrey, "Remaines," 180; Henderson, "Folk-lore," 24; "Panjâb Notes and Queries," i. 65, 75, 109, 126.

[193] "Etruscan Roman Remains," 217.

[194] Brand, "Observations," 431.

[195] "Archæological Reports," v. 136.

[196] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 13.

[197] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 135.

[198] "Folk-lore," i. 162.

[199] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 106.

[200] "Folk-lore," i. 149.

[201] Ibid., iv. 173.

[202] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 128; "Folk-lore," i. 149, 153; iv. 351.

[203] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 79.

[204] Temple, "Legends of the Panjâb," ii. 104 sqq.; iii. 301.

[205] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 39; Forbes, "Oriental Memoirs," i. 205.

[206] Leland, loc. cit., 272.

[207] "Archæological Reports," xvi. 32.

[208] Atkinson, "Himâlayan Gazetteer," ii. 762.

[209] Cunningham, "Archæological Reports," xvii. 141.

[210] Barth, "Religions of India," 265.

[211] Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," ii. 99 sq.

[212] See instances collected by Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 376 sqq.

[213] "Asiatic Studies," 13 sq.

[214] Buchanan, "Eastern India," i. 467; Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 147.

[215] Campbell, "Notes," 260.

[216] "Legend of Perseus," i. 173.

[217] "Descriptive Ethnology," 140.

[218] "Journey through Oudh," ii. 133.

[219] Campbell, "Notes," 260.

[220] Buchanan, "Eastern India," ii. 141 sq.; "Panjâb Notes and Queries," iv. 9.

[221] Dowson, "Classical Dictionary," s.v.

[222] "Gazetteer," 323.

[223] "Papers," 16.

[224] Ibid., 23 sq.

[225] Madden, "Journal Asiatic Society Bengal," 1848, p. 600; Hunt, "Popular Romances," 73.

[226] Buchanan, "Eastern India," iii. 38.

[227] Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 225 sqq.; "Panjâb Notes and Queries," iii. 181 sq.

[228] Knowles, "Folk-tales from Kashmîr," 10.

[229] "Original Inhabitants," 455.

[230] "Central India," ii. 206.

[231] Tod, "Annals," i. 67; for other examples see Buchanan, "Eastern India," ii. 131, 352, 478; "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 110.

[232] "Panjâb Ethnography," 114.

[233] Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 83.

[234] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sâgara," i. 8.

[235] "Bombay Gazetteer," iii. 220; "Râjputâna Gazetteer," iii. 65.

[236] Gomme, "Ethnology in Folk-lore," 34 sq.

[237] Frazer "Golden Bough," ii. 233.

[238] "Bhandâra Settlement Report," 51.

[239] Ganga Datt Upreti, "Folk-lore of Kumaun," Introduction, vii.

[240] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 220, 281.

[241] "Settlement Report," 257.

[242] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 268.

[243] Risley, "Tribes and Castes of Bengal," ii. 58.

[244] Temple, "Wideawake Stories," 399.

[245] Ibbetson, "Panjâb Ethnography," 114; "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 518.

[246] Atkinson, "Himâlayan Gazetteer," ii. 825.

[247] Channing, "Settlement Report," 34.

[248] Maclagan, "Panjâb Census Report," 103 sq.

[249] Führer, "Monumental Antiquities," 146.

[250] Sir W. Scott, "Letters on Demonology," 143.

[251] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 147.

[252] Wilson, "Essays," i. 21; "Bombay Gazetteer," xvi. 568.

[253] Jarrett, "Aîn-i-Akbari," ii. 159; Führer, "Monumental Antiquities," 153.

[254] "Annals," ii. 15.

[255] "Notes," 147.

[256] MacIagan, "Panjâb Census Report," 107.

[257] Sherring, "Sacred City," 119.

[258] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," i. 35.

[259] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 259.

[260] For the Celtic Mothers see Rhys, "Lectures," 100, 899; for Arabia, Robertson-Smith, "Kinship," 179.

[261] Lubbock, "Origin of Civilization," 146; Starke, "Primitive Family," 17 sqq.; Letourneau, "Sociology," 384.

[262] Benfey, "Panchatantra," i. 41-52; quoted by Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sâgara," ii. 638.

[263] Monier-Williams, "Sanskrit Dictionary, s.v. Mâtrî"; for the Nepâl enumeration, Oldfield, "Sketches," i. 151; for Bombay, "Gazetteer," xvii. 715. In the "Katha Sarit Sâgara" (i. 552), Nârâyanî is their leader. There is a very remarkable story of the gambler who swindled the Divine Mothers (ibid., ii. 574 sqq.).

[264] Campbell, "Notes," 311; "Athenæum," 6th December, 1879; "Folk-lore Record," iii. Part i. 117 sqq.

[265] "Bombay Gazetteer," v. 432 sq.

[266] Atkinson, "Himâlayan Gazetteer," ii. 884.

[267] Cunningham, "Archæological Reports," vii. 158.

[268] Growse, "Mathura," 116, 125; Führer, "Monumental Antiquities," 27, 132.

[269] Bholanâth Chandra, "Travels of a Hindu," i. 38.

[270] "Rig Veda," viii. 23, 25.

[271] Brand, "Observations," 331.

[272] "Border Minstrelsy," 466.

[273] Tod, "Annals," ii. 363 sq., 763; Conway, "Demonology," i. 54.

[274] Campbell, "Notes," 145.

[275] Tod, "Annals," i. 708; ii. 670.

[276] Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," i. chap. iv.

[277] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 232.

[278] "Gazetteer," 276.

[279] "Rambles and Recollections," i. 123.

[280] Stokes, "Indian Fairy Tales," 140 sqq.; Temple, "Wideawake Stories," 109, 302; "Indian Antiquary," iv. 57; Grimm, "Household Tales," ii. 400.

[281] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 64; other instances in Westermarck, "History of Human Marriage," 158 sq.

[282] "Gazetteer," i. 175.

[283] "Bombay Gazetteer," xvii. 200; xxiii. 12; Campbell, "Notes," 12 sqq.

[284] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 97, 60, 46.

[285] "Bombay Gazetteer," xix. 465.

[286] Grimm, "Teutonic Mythology," ii. 1161; Tylor, "Early History," 143; Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 229; Sir W. Scott, "Lectures on Demonology," 105.

[287] Risley, "Tribes and Castes of Bengal," i. 179.

[288] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 153.

[289] Ibbetson, "Panjâb Ethnography," 114.

[290] "Indian Antiquary," viii. 211.

[291] Chevers, "Medical Jurisprudence for India," 415 sq.

[292] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," ii. 62.

[293] Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 115; Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 141 sqq.

[294] "Rambles and Recollections," i. 207.

[295] Nûr Ahmad Chishti, Yâdgâr-i-Chishti.

[296] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," iii. 42, 167.

[297] "Asiatic Studies," 57 sq.

[298] "Rambles and Recollections," i. 208.

[299] "Calcutta Review," xviii. 68.

[300] Hoshangâbâd "Settlement Report," 119, 255.

[301] Atkinson, "Himâlayan Gazetteer," ii. 833, 816 sq.

[302] "Settlement Report," 254 sq.

[303] Sultânpur, "Settlement Report," 42.

[304] Blochmann, "Aîn-i-Akbari," Introduction, xxiv.

[305] The chief authorities for Hardaul are Cunningham, "Archæological Reports," xvii. 162 sqq.; V. A. Smith, "Journal Asiatic Society of Bengal," 1875.

[306] "Settlement Report," 451 sq.

[307] Ferrier, "Caravan Journeys," 451 sq.

[308] "Allahâbâd Pioneer," 10th March, 1891.

[309] "Bombay Gazetteer," xxii. 155.

[310] "Annals," ii. 744.

[311] "Bombay Gazetteer," xvi. 520; Campbell, "Notes," 96.

[312] Wright, "History," 221, 267, 268.

[313] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 276.

[314] "Gurgâon Settlement Report," 37.

[315] Risley, "Tribes and Castes of Bengal," i. 132.

[316] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," i. 1; iv. 51; "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 355, 517; Tod, "Annals," ii. 75.

[317] Campbell, "Notes," 192 sqq.

[318] "Brâhmanism and Hinduism," 201.

[319] Numbers of such charms are to be found in vols. i., ii., iii., "North Indian Notes and Queries."

[320] "Settlement Report," 256.

[321] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 188, 257.

[322] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 85.

[323] Yule, "Marco Polo," i. 71 sq., with note; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 127; Lubbock, "Origin of Civilization," 237; Farrer, "Primitive Manners," 159 sq.

[324] "Descriptive Ethnology," 232.

[325] Campbell, "Notes," 72 sq.

[326] Cooper, "Flagellation and the Flagellants," passim; Dalton, loc. cit., 256; Campbell, loc. cit., 44 sq.; for restoration to life by beating, Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sâgara," ii. 245.

[327] "Nineteenth Century," 1880.

[328] Atkinson, "Himâlayan Gazetteer," ii. 833, 823.

[329] "Hindu Tribes and Castes," i. 36.

[330] "Settlement Report," 256 sq.

[331] "Primitive Culture," i. 134; and compare Lubbock, "Origin of Civilization," 251.

[332] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 232.

[333] "Himâlayan Gazetteer," iii. 38.

[334] Ferrier, "Caravan Journeys," 113.

[335] "Travels in the Himâlayas," i. 428.

[336] O'Brien, "Multân Glossary," 218.

[337] Clouston, "Popular Tales," i. 191.

[338] "Gazetteer," 191.

[339] Campbell, "Notes," 239.

[340] "Folk-lore," iii. 13, 380; iv. 410; Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," ii. chap. xi.

[341] "Annals," ii. 717.

[342] Gregor, "Folk-lore of N.E. Scotland," 46, 157.

[343] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," ii. 42.

[344] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 293.

[345] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 330; for other instances, see Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," ii. 101.

[346] Madden, "Journal Asiatic Society, Bengal," 1848, p. 583.

[347] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," i. 64.

[348] "Rambles and Recollections," i. 203.

[349] "Penseroso," 83, 84.

[350] Brand, "Observations," 424.

[351] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 16.

[352] Oppert, "Original Inhabitants," 187.

[353] Hislop, "Papers," 6, 47.

[354] "Popular Tales," Introduction, lxviii.; "Calcutta Review," April, 1884.

[355] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," iii. 81.

[356] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," i. 27.

[357] "Settlement Report," 155.

[358] Brand, "Observations," 447.

[359] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," i. 86, ii. 93.

[360] With this compare the Karnigor of Sindh--Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," ii. 295.

[361] "Journey through Oudh," ii. 39.

[362] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 170.

[363] "Himâlayan Gazetteer," ii. 851 sq.

[364] Ibid. ii. 871.

[365] Tylor, "Primitive Culture," ii. 113.

[366] Hearn, "Aryan Household," 18; Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 270 sq; Whitney, "Oriental and Linguistic Studies," 1st Ser. 59; Mommsen, "History of Rome," i. 73.

[367] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 132, 133, 139, 160, 229; Campbell, "Notes," 2 sqq.; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," ii. 117.

[368] Hislop, "Papers," 16 sq.

[369] Dalton, loc. cit., 158.

[370] Campbell, "Notes," 5; Tylor, loc. cit., ii. 116.

[371] E.g. Monier-Williams, "Brâhmanism and Hinduism," 278 sqq.

[372] See Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 177.

[373] Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," i. 279.

[374] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 95.

[375] "Bombay Gazetteer," vii. 16 sq.

[376] Malcolm, "Central India," i. 144.

[377] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 148.

[378] "Rambles and Recollections," i. 269 sqq.

[379] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," Introduction, cxxi.

[380] "Berar Gazetteer," 191.

[381] For an account of this worthy see "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 163.

[382] Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 187; Lubbock, "Origin of Civilization," 284; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 458 sq.

[383] Ralston, "Songs of the Russian People," 327.

[384] Hislop, "Papers," 19; Appendix, iii.

[385] "Panjâb Ethnography," 115.

[386] "Annals," i. 79.

[387] Ferguson, "History of Indian Architecture," 470; "Râjputâna Gazetteer," iii. 46; Growse, "Mathura," 138.

[388] "Berâr Gazetteer," 191.

[389] "Descriptive Ethnology," 138.

[390] Tod, "Annals," ii. 544, 546, 676; Wright, "History of Nepâl," 159, 212.

[391] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 199; "Panjâb Notes and Queries," iv. 44 sq. In the "Katha Sarit Sâgara" (Tawney, ii. 254), a mother proposes to go into the fire with her dead children.

[392] "Institutes," xi. 84.

[393] Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 8.

[394] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 202.

[395] Tod, "Annals," ii. 430 sq.

[396] Cunningham, "Archæological Reports," xvii. 160 sqq.; Buchanan, "Eastern India," i. 488; "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 38.

[397] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 540 sq.

[398] Oldham, "Memoir of Ghazipur," i. 55 sq.

[399] Baillie, "N.-W.P. Census Report," 214.

[400] Tod, "Annals," ii. 40.

[401] Atkinson, "Himâlayan Gazetteer," ii. 817; "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 5.

[402] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 284.

[403] Tod, "Annals," i. 659 sq.

[404] Sherring, "Sacred City," 118, 174; Moorcroft, "Journey to Ladakh," i. 190.

[405] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," i. 1; "Indian Antiquary," xi. 290; "Gazetteer, N.-W.P.," vi. 634; "Dâbistân," ii. 24 sq.

[406] Atkinson, loc cit., ii. 805; "Bombay Gazetteer," xi. 300, 302.

[407] Cunningham, "Archæological Reports," xvi. 28; Grierson, "Behâr Peasant Life," 407; "Maithili Chrestomathy," 3 sqq.

[408] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," i. 256.

[409] "Berâr Gazetteer," 199 sq.

[410] Buchanan, "Eastern India," i. 83.

[411] Cunningham, "Archæological Reports," xi. 129.

[412] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 517.

[413] "Rambles and Recollections," i. 116.

[414] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 200.

[415] "Berâr Gazetteer," 195.

[416] The Persian version of the play has been translated by Sir Lewis Pelly. See Hughes' "Dictionary of Islâm," 185 sq.

[417] The five Pîrs give their name to the Pîr Panjâl pass in Kashmîr (Jarrett, "Aîn-i-Akbari," ii. 372, note). For another list of the Pîrs see Temple's "Legends of the Panjâb," ii. 372, note.

[418] See Brand, "Observations," 197.

[419] For a very complete account of the cultus, see Mr. R. Greeven's articles in Vol. I. "North Indian Notes and Queries," afterwards republished as "Heroes Five."

[420] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," iv. 64.

[421] For instances see Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 279.

[422] Briggs, "Farishta," i. 587.

[423] For the history of Masaud, see "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 111 sqq.; Sleeman, "Journey through Oudh," i. 48; Elliot, "Supplementary Glossary," 51.

[424] Maclagan, "Panjâb Census Report," 132; "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 182; "Calcutta Review," lx. 78 sqq.; Ibbetson, "Panjâb Ethnography," 115; Oldham, "Contemporary Review," xlvii. 412; "Panjâb Notes and Queries," ii. 181 sq.; Temple, "Legends of the Panjâb," i. 66 sqq.

[425] Ibbetson, loc. cit. 115 sq.

[426] Temple, "Legends of the Panjâb," i. 121 sqq.; iii. 261 sqq.; Tod, "Annals," ii. 492.

[427] "Indian Antiquary," xi. 33 sq.; Cunningham, "Archæological Reports," xvii. 159; "Panjâb Notes and Queries," ii. 1.

[428] Rhys, "Lectures," 502.

[429] Campbell, "Popular Tales," i. 72.

[430] "Râjputâna Gazetteer," ii. 37.

[431] "Bombay Gazetteer," v. 218; Risley, "Tribes and Castes of Bengal," i. 41.

[432] Miss Roalfe Cox, "Cinderella," 484; Temple, "Wideawake Stories," 423; Knowles, "Folk-tales of Kashmîr," 21; Clouston, "Popular Tales," i. 117; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sâgara," i. 14, note, 571.

[433] Yule, "Marco Polo," i. 132 sq.

[434] Ibbetson, "Panjâb Ethnography," 115.

[435] "Annals," ii. 199, note.

[436] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 197 sq., 515.

[437] For the History of Farîd, see "Indian Antiquary," xi. 33 sq.; Thomas, "Chronicles of the Pathân Kings," 205; Ibbetson, "Panjâb Ethnography," 115; Sleeman, "Rambles and Recollections," ii. 165; Maclagan, "Panjâb Census Report," 193.

[438] Führer, "Monumental Antiquities," 69, 270; "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 21, 56, 155, 189.

[439] "Karnâl Settlement Report," 153.

[440] "Karnâl Gazetteer," 103.

[441] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 17.

[442] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 92.

[443] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," iii. 81.

[444] Mrs. Mîr Hasan 'Ali, "Observations on the Muhammadans of India," ii. 324.

[445] Maclagan, "Panjâb Census Report," 198.

[446] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 18.

[447] "Berâr Gazetteer," 192.

[448] O'Brien, "Multâni Glossary," 146.

[449] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 334; Cunningham, "Archæological Reports," xvi. 5. For the Chanod shrine, "Bombay Gazetteer," vi. 160.

[450] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," i. 367.

[451] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 144.

[452] "Eastern India," i. 82 sq.

[453] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," iii. 143.

[454] "Reports," i. 98, 130; xiv. 41; xxiii. 63.

[455] "Journal, Asiatic Society of Bengal," xiii. 205; "Panjâb Notes and Queries," i. 109.

[456] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 11 sq.

[457] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 175.

[458] Atkinson, "Himâlayan Gazetteer," ii. 777; Wright, "History," 114, 124.

[459] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 38.

[460] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 210 sq.

[461] Ibid., i. 8 sq.

[462] Campbell, "Notes," 366.

[463] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 50.

[464] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 378.

[465] Forbes, "Râs Mâla," ii. 332, quoted by Campbell, "Notes," 15.

[466] "Legend of Perseus," i. 72, 207.

[467] Lâl Bihâri Dê, "Folk-tales of Bengal," 1, 117, 187; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sâgara," i. 52, 172, 355, 382; ii. 216; Knowles, "Folk-tales of Kashmîr," 131, 416.

[468] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 246.

[469] "Observations," 625; and see Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 150; Lubbock, "Origin of Civilization," 220; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," ii. 27; Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 215 sq.; Sir W. Scott, "Letters on Demonology," 90.

[470] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," iii. 166.

[471] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sâgara," i. 21, 420; Miss Cox, "Cinderella," 489; Clouston, "Popular Tales," i. 437.

[472] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 31; Clouston, loc. cit., ii. 228; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sâgara," ii. 588.

[473] Führer, "Monumental Antiquities," 144.

[474] "Panjâb Ethnography," 116.

[475] Ibbetson, loc. cit., 117.

[476] Aubrey, "Remaines," 121; Lady Wilde, "Legends," 44, 233.

[477] Campbell, "Notes," 171.

[478] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," i. 13; "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 4.

[479] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," iv. 57.

[480] See Cunningham, "Archæological Reports," xvii. 147.

[481] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 261.

[482] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," iv. 51; Lâl Bihâri Dê, "Folk Tales," 199; "Govinda Sâmanta," i. 109, 152 sq., 157; "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 83.

[483] "Bombay Gazetteer," xv. 150; Campbell, "Notes," 172.

[484] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," iv. 5; "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 9; iii. 74.

[485] Hislop, "Notes," i. 3.

[486] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," ii. 114, 167; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 102; Aubrey, "Remaines," 177, 194; Campbell, "Notes," 177.

[487] Fausböll, "Jâtaka," ii. 15 sq.; Ibbetson, "Panjâb Ethnography," 118.

[488] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sâgara," i. 254.

[489] Campbell, "Notes," 177.

[490] "Odyssey," xvii. 541 sq.; Yule, "Marco Polo," ii. 351; Aubrey, "Remaines," 177.

[491] Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 117.

[492] "Folk-lore," ii. 289.

[493] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 109.

[494] Lâl Bihâri Dê, "Gobinda Sâmanta," i. 115 sqq.

[495] Ralston, "Russian Folk-tales," 306.

[496] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sâgara," i. 231, 543.

[497] Ibid., ii. 208.

[498] Wilson, "Essays," i. 26.

[499] Buchanan, "Eastern India," i. 65, 166.

[500] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sâgara," i. 256 sqq.

[501] Knowles, "Kashmîr Folk-tales," 43; Clouston, "Popular Tales," i. 135.

[502] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sâgara," i. 210; ii. 318.

[503] "Journal Royal Asiatic Society," N.S. ii. 300; "Ancient Sanskrit Texts," iv. 247; Wilson, "Rig Veda," i. 107.

[504] Manu, "Institutes," iii. 90; Haug, "Aitareya Brâhmanam," ii. 87, 90 sq.

[505] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," ii. 132; Lai Behâri Dê, "Govinda Sâmanta," i. 117; Campbell, "Notes," 24 sqq.

[506] "Journal Asiatic Society Bengal," 1847, p. 582.

[507] "Folk-lore," iii. 323.

[508] Grimm, "Household Tales," ii. 381.

[509] Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," i. 16.

[510] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 75, 270.

[511] Miss Frere, "Old Deccan Days," 41, 198; Wright, "History of Nepâl," 175; Lady Wilde, "Legends," 257.

[512] Miss Frere, loc. cit., 82, 58, 62, 208, 268 sqq.; Knowles, "Kashmîr Folk-tales," 47.

[513] Atkinson, "Himâlayan Gazetteer," ii. 352, note; Cunningham, "Archæological Reports," ii. 21.

[514] Tylor, "Early History," 316; Herodotus, i. 68.

[515] Campbell, "Popular Tales," ii. 95; "Wideawake Stories," 404 sqq.; Miss Stokes, "Fairy Tales," 261; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 161; Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 300; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sâgara," i. 42, 47; Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," ii. chap. viii.

[516] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 428; Cunningham, "Archæological Reports," ix. 142; xviii. 5; "Indian Antiquary," vi. 360; "Bombay Gazetteer," xii. 449; compare Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 394 sq.; Wright, "History of Nepâl," 175; "Folk-lore," i. 524.

[517] Führer, "Monumental Antiquities," 7, 40, 103.

[518] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 43, 75.

[519] Buchanan, "Eastern India," i. 88; iii. 56.

[520] Grimm, "Household Tales," ii. 413; Hunt, loc. cit., 136.

[521] Knowles, "Folk-tales of Kashmîr," 423.

[522] Annals, ii. 382, note; Wright, "History of Nepâl," 86.

[523] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 71.

[524] Lâl Bihâri Dê, "Folk-tales," 257; Miss Stokes, "Fairy Tales," 273, 291; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," ii. 98 sq., 378; Hunt, "Popular Romances," 55.

[525] Cunningham, "Archæological Reports," xvii. 1.

[526] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 1.

[527] "Gazetteer," xi. 308.

[528] Risley, "Tribes and Castes of Bengal," i. 303.

[529] Grimm, "Teutonic Mythology," ii. 449.

[530] Campbell, "Notes," 150.

[531] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 57, 80, 130.

[532] "Annals," ii. 681.

[533] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 145, 244; Campbell, "Popular Tales," ii. 101; "Folk-lore," iv. 352; Grimm, "Household Tales," i. 346.

[534] Lâl Bihâri Dê, "Govinda Sâmanta," i. 9; "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 199.

[535] "Bombay Gazetteer," xxv. 457.

[536] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 308, 311.

[537] Lâl Behâri Dê, "Govinda Sâmanta," i. 158.

[538] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 180.

[539] Cunningham, "Archæological Reports," xx. 96.

[540] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 213.

[541] Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 308; Grote, "History of Greece," iv. 285; "Folk-lore," i. 167.

[542] Leland, loc. cit., 95.

[543] Traill, "Asiatic Researches," xvi. 137 sq.

[544] Atkinson, "Himâlayan Gazetteer," ii. 820.

[545] Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 428 sq.

[546] Wright, "History," 153; Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 142.

[547] Traill, "Asiatic Researches," xvi. 137 sq.; "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 27.

[548] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 223.

[549] Brand, "Observation," 571.

[550] Oppert, "Original Inhabitants," 505.

[551] Atkinson, "Himâlayan Gazetteer," ii. 825 sqq.; Madden, "Journal Asiatic Society Bengal," 1847, p. 599 sqq.

[552] "Panjâb Notes and Queries," i. 120; iii. 171.

[553] Traill, "Asiatic Researches," xvi. 137; Atkinson, loc. cit., ii. 831; Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 101.

[554] Grierson, "Behâr Peasant Life," 408.

[555] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 251.

[556] Campbell, "Notes," 387; Hartland, "Science of Fairy Tales," 93 sqq.

[557] "Rig Veda," iv. 17, 16; i. 51, 13.

[558] Burton, "Arabian Nights," i. 9, note.

[559] Hughes, "Dictionary of Islâm," s.v. Genii; Burton, "Arabian Nights," passim.

[560] "Eastern India," i. 106.

[561] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 132.

[562] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 280.

[563] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 253.

[564] Ibbetson, "Panjâb Ethnography," 117.

[565] Campbell, "Notes," 149.

[566] Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 185, 187; ii. 238.

[567] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 204.

[568] Campbell, "Notes," 156.

[569] Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 307; Pliny, "Natural History," vii. 2.

[570] Rhys, "Lectures," 156.

[571] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 158.

[572] "Folk-lore," ii. 288; Lady Wilde, "Legends," 7, 39.

[573] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sâgara," ii. 198; Hartland, "Science of Fairy Tales," 42.

[574] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," i. 94.

[575] Campbell, "Notes," 488.

[576] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sâgara," i. 227.

[577] Atkinson, "Himâlayan Gazetteer," ii. 932.

[578] "Folk-lore," iv. 363.

[579] "Etruscan Roman Remains," 337.

[580] Blochmann, "Aîn-i-Akbari," i. 139.

[581] "Oudh Gazetteer," ii. 418.

[582] Yule, "Marco Polo," ii. 70, with note.

[583] "Lectures," 626 sq.

[584] The most recent authority on the subject, Mr. Hartland, sums up the matter thus: "It is founded on the belief that the child is a part of the parent; and, just as after apparent severance of hair and nails from the remainder of the body, the bulk is affected by anything which happens to the severed portion, so as well after as before the infant has been severed from the parent's body, and in our eyes has acquired a distinct existence, he will be affected by whatever operates on the parent. Hence whatever the parent ought for the child's sake to do or avoid before severance it is equally necessary to do or avoid after. Gradually, however, as the infant grows and strengthens he becomes able to digest the same food as his parents, and to take part in the ordinary avocations of their lives. Precaution then may be relaxed, and ultimately remitted altogether,"--"Legend of Perseus," ii. 406.

[585] "Brâhmanism and Hinduism," 229.

[586] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 191; Risley, "Tribes and Castes," i. 323; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 84.

[587] Campbell, "Notes," 410.

[588] Ibid.

[589] "Sirsa Settlement Report," 32.

[590] Wright, "History," 15; Yule, "Marco Polo," i. 203; Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 249 sq.; Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 278.

[591] "Remaines," 109 sq.; Spencer, loc. cit., i. 329; Farrer, "Primitive Manners," 24, 225 sq.

[592] Isaiah xxxiv. 14; Mayhew, "Academy," June 14th, 1884; Conway, "Demonology," ii. 91 sqq.; Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," ii. 202.

[593] Campbell, "Notes," 59.

[594] "Journal Asiatic Society Bengal," 1848, p. 609; Benjamin, "Persia," 192; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 451.

[595] Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 204; Tylor, loc. cit., ii. 230; "Early History," 358; Cox, "Mythology of the Aryan Nations," ii. 327; Conway, "Demonology," i. 18.

[596] "Eastern India," i. 414.

[597] "Bombay Gazetteer," xii. 13; xvii. 703.

[598] "Oudh Gazetteer," iii. 286.

[599] "Folk-lore," iii. 83.

[600] Campbell, "Notes," 150 sq.

[601] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sâgara," i. 446, 558; ii. 197.

[602] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 431.

[603] "Principles of Sociology," i. 201.

[604] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 86.

[605] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 27.

[606] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 106; iii. 147.

[607] Atkinson, "Himâlayan Gazetteer," ii. 321 sq.; "Bombay Gazetteer," viii. 660; xi. 383.

[608] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 103 sq.

[609] Ibid., ii. 3.

[610] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 82.

[611] "Anatomy of Melancholy," 126.

[612] Hunt, loc. cit., 81.

[613] Ganga Datt Upreti, "Folk-lore," 10.