Chapter II: Part 2

“In 1860 drift ice appeared off the coast and entered the fiord, and again (though in very small quantities) in 1859-60. This ice, called here Greenland ice, is the ordinary washed and decayed floe-ice, and comes from the N.W. _No icebergs have ever been seen on the coast._ The drift-ice appears with northerly and departs with southerly winds, and less of it comes into Berufiord than any other fiord on the east coast of Iceland; the residents accounting for this fact by Berufiord having a S.W. direction, and is consequently protected by the more northerly and projecting capes which shunt the ice off, while the local tides keep it drifting up and down the coast. The fiord itself never freezes, but thin ice has been known to cover the harbour off the Factory for a day or two during the winter.

“A tolerably complete survey of the fiord from the entrance to Gautavik was completed, but a further examination would be advisable outside, to ascertain the proper channel in which to lay the cable. The greatest difficulties experienced on the coast by seamen, are from the prevalent fogs during the summer months, and with easterly winds, _and this would render it advisable to start from this coast towards Faröes_, in laying the cable, because making a good land fall here would be attended with considerable uncertainty.” Finally, as to the practicability of Berufiord, Captain Young says, “There will be no difficulties from the sea, ice, or otherwise, and the only obstacles will be from fogs and thick weather, but which may be overcome by selecting proper seasons, and taking precautions in landing or embarking the telegraph cable.”

REIKIAVIK.

Captain Young sailed from Berufiord on the 17th day of August, and arrived at Reikiavik, the capital of Iceland, on the 21st day of August, and after making enquiries as to the coasts, he says, “I then determined to examine Hvalfiord, as from its situation it appeared to have the advantage over any place in Faxe Bay, and on the 27th I proceeded up that fiord, sounding it as far as ‘Maria Havn,’ a small harbour and salmon river on the south shore, 7 miles from the entrance of the fiord. The least depth of water in the channel of the fiord is 14 fathoms, with deeper water both outside and in, the general depth being 18 to 20 fathoms, soft mud. The cable could be taken into Maria Havn through soft mud, on a sandy beach in a land-locked position. Hvalfiord is protected from a heavy sea breaking into it by the shoals of ‘Vestrhran’ and ‘Sydrahraun’ in Faxe Bay, and on which there is less water than in the shoalest part of the channel of the fiord. The bays in the fiord are sometimes covered with thin ice, but the fiord itself never freezes, and with reference to drift-ice on this part of the coast, I cannot do better than quote the words of Sir Leopold M‘Clintock. ‘Faxe Bay never freezes over, and I can find no record of drift-ice within, since 1683. Merchant vessels come and go throughout the winter.’”

GREENLAND.

The “Fox” left Reikiavik, August 31st, and after a very rough passage, arrived at Frederickshaab, October 2nd. Captain Young remained there to make some necessary repairs, and finally arrived at Julianshaab on the 22nd October. He then reports: “Having made all inquiries about Igalikko or Julianshaab Fiord, I deemed it advisable at once to commence a survey of this beautiful arm of the sea, and acting upon the opinion of Colonel Shaffner, that were this fiord found practicable, the electric circuit from Reikiavik would not be too extended.”

JULIANSHAAB FIORD.

“We first sounded up to the head of the Fiord, which gave an opportunity for our landing a travelling party under command of Dr. Rae, to examine the inland ice and nature of the country. A party also went to the Old Nordisker Ruins, at Igalikko.” Returning with the “Fox” to Julianshaab, October 27th, Captain Young then surveyed the estuary of the fiord, and from the soundings obtained, says, “I am of a decided opinion that a _depth of not less than 150 to 160 fathoms_ can be carried from the middle of the fiord abreast the settlement, out to sea, with a general muddy bottom.

“_This depth of water will effectually preclude injury to the cable from the largest icebergs ever seen upon the coast._ Although many bergs lay along the coast, we saw none aground in this valley of the fiord, nor according to information obtained from the residents, have they been seen grounded in that channel.” Captain Young then proceeds to say--“This report and my previous letters will show that my decided opinion (so far as we have been upon that route) is favourable to the practicability of the undertaking, and that Julianshaab will, under all circumstances, be well adapted for the reception of the cable. With regard to the operation of laying the cable, I consider that no apprehension may be felt on that point, for from the sudden disappearance which we witnessed of the ice from the coast, and from the ice _usually_ dispersing from the south-east shores of Greenland in the autumnal months, opportunities will always occur when a ship having the cable on board and lying in readiness in Julianshaab, may depend upon having a period of clear and open sea. _The cable once laid, no drift ice can in any way injure it, if the proper precautions are taken in securing the shore end._”

ICE OF THE GREENLAND SEAS.

“Since my arrival I have seen the admirable remarks of Mr. J. W. Tayler upon the southern coast of Greenland, the results of his experience during seven years residence there. His opinions must be most satisfactory to you, and I am sure that all who are interested in the work must be grateful to him for having so freely given them.

“I perfectly coincide with his views with regard to the size of the icebergs frequenting the above coast and accompanying the Spitzbergen drift ice; and as this bears upon my own opinion that no iceberg will ground in the channel of Julianshaab Fiord, I think I may here explain my reasons for this statement. Having navigated the entire west coast of Greenland and into all the principal settlements, and having experienced a whole winters drift in the ice, through Baffin’s Sea and Davis’ Strait, I have had occasion to remark and to gather all possible information upon the ice movements.

“Around the coast of Greenland, westward of Cape Farewell, there are two distinct descriptions, or rather kinds, of drift ice ever approaching but never meeting together. The first is the ice formed during the winter on the vast area of Baffin’s Sea and the different channels from the Polar Seas westward of Greenland. This ice, called by the Greenlanders _the west ice_, often blocks up throughout the year the upper part of Melville Bay, and drifts constantly throughout the winter and early spring to the southward through Davis’ Strait into the Atlantic. It seldom comes in contact with the coast of Greenland below the parallel of Disko, _and there is always an open sea between it and Greenland as far up as Holsteinberg throughout the winter_. The second is the Spitzbergen called also the ‘store ice,’ which as has been shown comes down the east coast of Greenland around Cape Farewell, and is carried by the current up the west coast at times even to the Arctic Circle, but by which time it is usually pretty much broken up, and if not entirely dispersed, the last remnants are supposed to return southward by Davis’ Strait to the Atlantic--so near these two great ice streams approach that vessels bound to the colonies have in the early spring passed up Davis’ Strait with the west ice and the Spitzbergen ice on either hand. But as there are two kinds of oceanic ice, so also are there two distinct classes of icebergs, namely, the bergs from the stupendous glaciers far up the west coast of Greenland, and especially in Melville Bay:--these bergs attain an astonishing magnitude, but like the west ice which they accompany, or outsail, they do not come upon the west coast of Greenland below the same parallel, although in exceptional seasons of violent gales such as the last, they may be blown in upon the land a little more to the southward; and I saw some of these _ice islands_ last October aground, upon and near Tallert Bank northward of Frederickshaab. The other icebergs are those which accompany the Spitzbergen ice, and may be said to follow its movements. They are launched from the glaciers far up the east coast of Greenland, and from those in the island of Spitzbergen, and besides being originally far less in their dimensions they are exposed during their long passage southward to the warmer Atlantic winds and heavy swells, and are proportionally reduced before their arrival at Cape Farewell. The bergs from the southern glaciers of Greenland are but small, and need scarcely to be taken into consideration, for as they must come out from the heads of the fiords, they surely would not take the ground in again entering the _channel_ of the deepest fiords.

“With regard to the flotation of ice, it has been calculated that seven-eighths of a cubical mass of ice will be immersed, but icebergs being very irregular in their formation and having usually very peaked and angular summits, whilst below the water they are smooth, rounded, and most frequently widened out. I think that icebergs are not found that draw more water than the proportion of six feet below to one foot of perpendicular height above the water. Therefore in 150 fathoms of water (the very least found in the entrance to Julianshaab Fiord) an iceberg of an elevation above the water of 150 feet, or having an entire perpendicular height of 1050 feet, will there be suspended above the ground, and such bergs are not to be met with in that place.”

REMARKS UPON THE SEASONS.

“The finest months in the Faröes are June and July, and in these months only should the cable be laid, and then about the last quarter of the moon, because the tides are greater at the full than at the change, consequently the neap tides and immediately after the last quarter, should be selected, as the currents are then inconsiderable. I have already given my reasons for recommending that the cable be laid from Iceland towards the Faröes, not only on account of the prevailing fogs on the east coast of Iceland, but also from the greater facilities for making the coast of the Faröes, and the opportunity that the comparatively speaking shallow water off the N.W. coast would give of shipping and buoying the cable in the event of a sudden gale of wind occurring at the time of laying it. The finest months upon the east coast of Iceland are also June and July, but I was informed that the weather is clearer earlier in the season, in the months of May and June--I suppose from the alternations of temperature being then less frequent. A few hours, however, of clear weather would always carry a ship beyond these mists, which usually hang only on the land. With reference to Faxe Bay station, the west coast of Iceland is generally free from fogs, and the gulf stream which sets round Cape Reikianess, and appears to keep up a continuous flow around Faxe Bay to the northward, passing out by Snœfellssness, also appears to considerably affect the climatic condition of the west coast. Navigation is open all the year round, and the operation of bringing the cable here can be timed to the opportunities for departing from Greenland. A fine pyramidal beacon has lately been erected on the Skagen, and is of great assistance to navigators entering Faxe Bay from the southward.”

CONCLUSION.

Before concluding, it is proper to state that the voyage was one surrounded with much peril, on account of the succession of gales and the extraordinary quantities of ice found in the Greenland seas; never within the memory of man has there been so much and so long a continuation of ice upon the Greenland coasts as during the past year. In the arduous labours of the voyage Captain Young was most ably assisted by Mr. J. E. Davis, Master in the Royal Navy, who by the kindness of Captain Washington, Hydrographer to the Admiralty of the British Government, was permitted to accompany the expedition and take part in the necessary surveys; and his former well-known services under Sir James Ross in the Antarctic regions, and great experience as a marine surveyor, enabled him to render the most valuable assistance in the especial mission of the “Fox,” which is acknowledged by Captain Young in his report in the highest possible terms. During the voyage various specimens of deep interest to the geologist and naturalist were collected; a large number of scientific observations were made, and a detailed meteorological journal was kept, which, together with other valuable information and an extensive collection of photographs made with great zeal by Mr. Woods under very difficult circumstances, have been furnished by Captain Young and Dr. Rae to the promoters of the enterprise, with the hope that they will be found to contribute to the cause of science, as well as to the immediate object for which they were made. Time will not now permit me to give further details of this most interesting voyage; but any members of this Society who may desire to make personal inspection of the charts, meteorological tables, logs, reports, and specimens, will be gladly permitted to do so.

Having thus presented to the Society some of the most valuable and interesting portion of Captain Young’s report, I have only to observe that the result of the recent survey has been to remove from my mind the apprehensions which I previously entertained in common with many others, as to the extent and character of the difficulties to be overcome, in carrying a line of telegraph to America by the northern route.

Prior to the dispatch of the surveying expedition we had no knowledge of the depth of the seas to be crossed, with the exception of the few soundings obtained by Colonel Shaffner in 1859, and our information as to the nature of the shores of Greenland in regard to the requirements for a telegraphic cable was equally small.

These points are of vital consequence to the prospects of the North Atlantic Route, and the survey has placed us in possession of satisfactory particulars respecting them. The soundings taken by Sir Leopold M‘Clintock will be a guide in the selection of the most suitable form for the deep-sea lengths of the cables, while the information furnished by Captain Young will direct the construction of the more massive cables to be laid in the inlets of the coast. It is not necessary to determine upon the precise landing places and other points of detail in connection with the enterprise at the present time, but the promoters of the undertaking have received ample encouragement from the survey, and from the testimony of competent and experienced voyagers and sojourners in the countries to which the line is to be carried, to warrant them in proceeding with their labours with renewed vigour and confidence. When they have achieved that success which their perseverance and energy deserve, I am sure they will always gratefully remember that their endeavours at the stage of their operations which is now under discussion would have been very much less productive of good results, but for the patriotic foresight of Lord Palmerston in ordering the “Bulldog” on her late successful service; and for the assistance of Sir Leopold M‘Clintock, Captain Young, Dr. Rae, and the Commissioners appointed to accompany the “Fox” by the Danish government, as well as others who took part in the cause, whose patience and devotion to their self-imposed work has been above all praise. Nor can those interested in this important undertaking forget the great assistance which has been rendered to them by the Royal Geographical Society.

SURVEY OF THE LAND SECTIONS, WITH REMARKS UPON THE CLIMATE, PEOPLE, &c.; BY DR. JOHN RAE, F.R.G.S., &c., COMMANDER OF THE LAND EXPEDITIONS.

The LORD ASHBURTON: I will now call upon Dr. Rae to read his paper.

DR. RAE then read the following, viz.:--

When the promoters of the North Atlantic Telegraph were about to fit out expeditions for the purpose of examining a practicable route, _viâ_ the Færöes, Iceland, Greenland, and Labrador, by which to form a telegraph communication between England and America, I volunteered my services for the land portion of the survey.

In this paper I will give a brief account of my observations, and of information obtained from reliable sources regarding the nature of the lands travelled over, and their suitability for the objects of the telegraph.

THE FÆRÖE ISLES.

After a passage of fourteen days from England in the screw yacht “Fox,” we arrived, on the 3rd August, at Thorshaven, the capital of the Færöes. It contains about 900 inhabitants.

On the day following, Colonel Shaffner, Lieutenant Von Zeilau (Danish Commissioner), and myself, accompanied by two Faröese as guides, commenced a journey over Stromöe, our destination being Haldervig, a village near the northern extremity of that island.

Our course for the first two miles was W.N.W., over the shoulder of a hill (named Klubbin), the height of which about fifty feet below its summit was 1048 feet; we then turned more to the northward until we reached the high land immediately south of Kalbakfiord, 1408 feet above the sea level. The walking round the head of this fiord was fatiguing in consequence of the unfinished state of the path. At the end of five hours we reached the top of the pass overlooking Kallefiord, having an altitude of 1179 feet. When we descended to the valley, we took up our night’s quarters at the house of Mr. Dam, a farmer, who gave us a hospitable welcome, and provided us with a good dinner of fish, dried mutton, ham, cheese, butter, milk, cream, and coffee.

Next morning I ascended a hill named Skarling, said to be the highest on Stromöe. Strong squalls of wind, with heavy rain changing into snow as we neared the summit, made the climbing difficult. The barometer indicated a height of 2506 feet. The Colonel had in the mean time travelled along the path a distance of five miles, to the house of J. C. Jacobson, where we joined him. We were again hospitably entertained, and after remaining an hour we resumed our journey.

Our active guides led us by the shortest but the most difficult of two routes, the highest point of which was 1711 feet above the sea. We arrived in the afternoon at Qualvig, a village having 132 inhabitants, where we passed the night.

Next morning we traced back the more level but longer route between Qualvig and Kallefiord. We found its highest point to be 1275 feet at 2-1/4 miles distance from Qualvig. The hill is not too steep for loaded ponies. We hired some of these excellent little animals for the purpose of testing their qualities. They were strong, sure footed, and carried with ease a man weighing over fifteen stone.

From Qualvig to Haldervig the distance is nine miles, and the path, lies close to the shore all the way. We found the “Fox” at Haldervig.

The formation of the Island of Stromöe is almost wholly basaltic, with an occasional thin stratum of red tuffa. Opals are found in the hills north of Kollefiord.

No difficulties of importance present themselves to the placing of a telegraph line over the route examined, which is about twenty-seven miles in length. At three points of the line some expense would necessarily be incurred in improving the paths, so as to make them more easy for loaded ponies to travel over. These places are, the ascent of the high grounds north and south of Kalbakfiord, the descent to Kollefiord, and the height between Kollefiord and Qualvig.

The inhabitants generally appear to be well educated and religious, and so fully aware of the advantages they would derive from a telegraph being carried through their island, that they would use their best efforts to protect it from injury.

Labour is comparatively cheap, the average day’s wages being about 1_s._ 4_d._ sterling. Our guides, were well pleased to receive 2_s._ each per day.

The climate is not well suited for the growth of grain, but small quantities of barley and oats are raised, and a few potatoes, turnips, and other vegetables are cultivated. The live stock of the farmers are sheep, horned cattle, and ponies, sheep being the principal and most valuable productive source. The population of Stromöe is upwards of 2600. The chief exports are wool, woollen goods, eider-down, fish, ponies, and oil. The inland transport is, principally, by pack-horses.

Two small bays, the one a short distance to the south of Thorshaven, the other at Haldervig, having been examined by Captain Allen Young, were found well adapted for the landing of a telegraph cable; and the route examined by me overland forms the connection of the projected telegraph.

The sound separating Stromöe from Osteröe offers great facilities for the transport of materials, as it is navigable throughout the whole length, with the exception of about 100 yards near Qualvig, for vessels of ordinary size. The arms of this sound, namely, Kalbakfiord, Kollefiord, and Qualvig Bay, afford good anchorages and approach at three points to within a quarter of a mile of the projected route.

ICELAND.

The “Fox” reached Berufiord, on the east coast of Iceland, on the afternoon of the 12th, and anchored in the harbour of Djupivogr, near the entrance of the fiord. From this place the Land Expedition resumed its labours to travel across the island to Reikiavik. About fourteen horses, and two men, to act as guides and pony-drivers, were required. We had two very zealous auxiliaries in the persons of Mr. Weywadt, the Danish merchant, and Lieut. Von Zeilau, both of whom exerted themselves to procure the necessary assistance and accommodations for the journey. Only eight ponies, exclusive of those of the guides, could be obtained at prices varying from 2_l._ 12_s._ to 5_l._ 10_s._ Hoping to complete our number of ponies on the way, we left Djupivogr on the afternoon of the 15th. With the exception of the guides, our party was the same as that when travelling across Stromöe. Our path ran along the south shore of Berufiord, and was rough and stony.

It was getting late when we reached the head of the fiord, a distance of only nine-and-a-half miles in a straight line; so we proceeded to the pastor’s house, which we made our home for the night. This worthy man, Sira Hosias, who had been to Djupivogr, overtook us as we were dismounting at his door and gave us a hearty welcome.

It was difficult to make an early morning’s start. Our horse-drivers were active and willing enough, yet we could seldom get away before eight or nine o’clock. A lamb was bought for 2_s._ 3_d._ sterling. After taking an observation with the barometer we resumed our journey--and ascended to the tableland west of Berufiord by a series of four steps. The path which is formed among stones, gravel, and earth, might be much improved by a very little labour. Two observations for altitude were obtained. The first about halfway up, giving 891 feet, the last, near the top, 1282 feet, at which the latitude 64° 49′ 3″ N. was also observed.

From this point our path lay nearly due north, for 8 miles, to a small lake 426 feet above the sea level. After travelling 7 miles farther in the same direction we arrived at Thingmuli and took up our quarters in the church, where we found ourselves very comfortable. The clergyman Sira Biarni was a kind and good man. A strong horse suitable for either pack or riding, was bought here for 3_l._ 8_s._

Our course for five miles was north, along the slope of a hill. We then travelled west until crossing the ridge, when we turned to the south-west, and reached in a short time Hallormstadr on the banks of Lagar Fliot. Hitherto we had been surrounded by a dense fog, which we emerged from on descending the hill. We here allowed our horses to feed for an hour, and an observation with the barometer gave the altitude of our position 528 feet, that of the river which was upwards of a quarter of a mile distant being 90 feet lower. This river has its source in the Vatna Jökull, and the muddy and white colour of its water indicate its glacier origin. As far as we could see to the northward the river widens into the form of a narrow lake having little or no current. This was the case we were told for 30 miles or more. As we rode to the southward along the stream we passed through a grove of small birch trees, many of which were from 16 to 18 feet in height. At four miles above Hallormstadr the lake-like river ends, and four miles further up we came to the ferry. The river was here about 170 yards wide, the current strong, and the water so deep from the recent rains that the horses had to swim when crossing. The ferry-boat carried us all over with the baggage at two trips. We walked to the parsonage of Valthiofstadr, 2 miles distant, and met with a most kind reception from Sira Pietra. Taking the direct route to Valthiofstadr, it may be reached in one day from Berufiord, as the distance is about 26 geographical miles, and we learned that the road was not bad.

The morning of the 18th was very beautiful. Our horses having strayed during the night, we were detained some hours. We here bought another horse for 2_l._ 14_s._

After riding eight miles along a fine level path, we turned to the N. W., and commenced the ascent of a steep hill, up which we had not gone half way before we were in a thick fog. Fortunately we had engaged a guide, otherwise it would have been difficult to have kept the proper track.

It was half-past nine, and very dark, when we arrived opposite to Bru, where we had to cross a river on one of those curious swing-bridges, before reaching the house. This conveyance was about 2 feet 6 inches long, 2 feet wide, and 2 feet deep, suspended by pullies to two ropes, which stretch over the river at a height of thirty feet above the stream, which is about seventy feet wide.

Our day’s ride had been long and fatiguing, but there were only two parts of the road by any means difficult. The first being the ascent of the hill in the early part of the day already mentioned, and the other where we descended to a small stream, about seven miles distant from Bru. In both instances the ground is of such a nature, that the paths are capable of easy improvement. The heavy rains had made a portion of the road rather swampy.

Sunday, 19th.--Taking with us a guide we started for Mödrudalr. For twelve miles our course was north, we then turned to the westward, which we kept all the way to Mödrudalr, where we arrived at half-past six. The roads were good throughout the day’s journey and we passed great quantities of dwarf willow,--at eight miles from Mödrudalr we traversed a perfectly desert plain flat as a bowling green, and covered with black sand and gravel, the débris of lava. Sigurder Jonsson, the owner of the comfortable farm-house gave us a most hearty welcome. The farm is extensive, and produces an excellent crop of grass and quantities of dwarf willow, which, when cut and dried, furnishes excellent fodder for both sheep and cattle. Mr. Jonsson possesses 600 of the former, three or four of the latter, and a number of horses.

Mödrudalr is situated in a beautiful plain extending to a long distance north and south. Far to the south, at least forty-five miles off, you see one of the peaks of Vatna Jökull, having a deep snow filled cleft in the centre. Within fifteen miles to the south-west is Herdubreid, one of the highest mountains in Iceland.

20th.--In company with a Mr. Skulason, who was going in the same direction as ourselves, we left Mödrudalr at nine A.M.

Our course during the whole day’s travel was north with a very little westing. The road was good, and we arrived at Grimstadr, twenty-five miles distant, at half-past two, P.M.

21st.--Mr. Skulason still gave us the advantage of his company. We arrived at the ferry on the Jökulsa Axarfiordr at 9·15 A.M., which is four miles from Grimstadr. The river is 150 yards wide, the water deep, and the current very strong. The horses had to swim about half the way. We crossed in a boat. The banks of the river are of fine black sand. The water was white and muddy, bearing the characteristics of a river that has its source from a jökull, or glacier. Its west bank is 951 feet above the sea-level. When we had ridden sixteen miles from the river, we arrived at an immense bed of very rugged lava in a valley to our left, and in one place there was an appearance as if it had filled up the bed of a river. We rode for seven miles along this lava, and then turned aside to visit a number of boiling mud-springs.

Before reaching Reikialith we had ridden among or close to the most recent lava we had seen. The only object I could compare the rough lava beds to, except in colour, was a field of ice that had been floated at high water to a low flat beach, covered with large boulder-rocks, which, when the tide ebbed, broke up the ice into all sorts of forms. Reikialith is situated on the shores of Myvatn (Lake), which is very irregular in form, and studded with rugged lava islands. Our course to-day was nearly west, and the distance travelled fully thirty miles.

22nd.--The first portion of the route was crooked, to avoid holes in the lava which were overgrown with moss and grass. A ride of six and a half hours, including an hour of stoppage to graze horses, brought us to the ford of Arndisarstadr, on the Skialfandafliot. It was about 100 yards wide, two feet deep, the current strong, and the water white and muddy. We reached the house of the worthy pastor (Sira Pallson) at Hals in the evening.

Hals is in lat. 65° 44′ N., and was the farthest north point reached by us. I learned that, during the winter, snow occasionally falls to great depth, and is blown into deep drifts. The cold is not usually severe, the lowest temperature being 20° or 21° below zero of Reaumur, equal to 13° or 15° below zero of Fahrenheit, and this occurs but rarely.

Thursday, 23rd.--We resumed our journey, having with us Mr. Eggerd Olafsson, a young student, who most obligingly offered his services as guide. After travelling south two miles along the small river that flows northward past Hals, we forded the stream. We crossed to the west the ridge of hills about 1900 feet high, that lies between Hals and Akreyri. This last-named place is next in size to Reikiavik. As soon as we appeared from under the fog on the hill side, the twelve vessels at anchor in the harbour hoisted their colours. Akreyri is built at the head and on the west shore of Eyjafiord. Its harbour is sheltered by a spit of land that runs half way across the fiord where its width is about a mile. From the beginning of November to the end of March or April, the navigation is usually closed by ice; but during the summer months there is considerable trade at this place. The valley is one extensive and productive grass meadow running southward for nearly thirty miles, on which a great number of persons were occupied haymaking. The river I found to be navigable for boats drawing about two feet of water, to the distance of twenty-five or thirty miles. Its width varies from twenty-five to eighty yards. The path was good and level, fitted for a waggon in summer, or for a sledge in winter.

Early in the evening we came to Saurbær, and were most cordially welcomed by Sira Thorlacius--a clergyman distinguished for his goodness and learning. We here made our arrangements for the next three days’ journey, which lay through an uninhabited part of the country. The guide lived at some distance, and our young student rode to his house and engaged him.

24th.--From Holar, the path led us south for four miles along the east bank of the stream, we then commenced an ascent of the high grounds in a south-west direction. The hill was 2868 feet in height, being the greatest altitude we had yet passed over. We reached the top in an hour and a half; although the road was now pretty level, and many of the larger stones had been removed to one side, the path was not good enough to permit us to ride fast.

We made many detours so as to avoid the rougher portions of the ground, but the general direction of our travel was to W.S.W. In the evening a thick fog came on, and as the cairns of stone set up as marks became less frequent, the guide lost his way, and I had to put him right by the compass. About half-past eight we pitched our tent on the bank of a small stream, where there was a little grass for our tired horses. Generally speaking, when travelling over Iceland, sufficient dry willows and willow roots can be picked up for cooking, but here none could be found, so we had recourse to an “Etna” and some alcohol we had carried with us, for the preparation of our coffee.

25th.--Our position by computation was in latitude 65° 8′ N., longitude 18° 53′ W. Height by observation above sea, 2385 feet. The fog still continued this morning, but not very thick. We had to put back a short distance to recover the proper route; we then crossed a small white water stream, very rapid and stony, named Jökulsa Eystri. Our course was generally S.W. by W., marked by little heaps of stones. As usual, we stopped twice to-day to grass the horses, near some lakes, where several swans were seen. We would have made a long journey to-day, but fog again came on in the evening, notwithstanding which our guide insisted that he could find the way. His confidence in himself was misplaced.

Two observations for height were obtained to-day. One at Pollar, latitude 65° 5′ N., 19° 2′ W., gave altitude 2368 feet; the other, 6 miles S.W. of Pollar, 2463 feet. Both these places afford good grass and water for horses. In latitude 64° 45′ we crossed nearly two miles of very rough lava, extremely difficult to travel over. A small amount of labour would remedy this evil. Further on we passed quagmires of very adhesive clay. These by a little care can be easily avoided.

Between the latitudes of 65° and 64° 45′ N., and in long. 19° 20′ W., we crossed a number of rivers, very rapid and some of them two feet deep, flowing from Hofsjökull, which lay to our left. Many of these streams appear to change their beds, or to spread out to considerable extent during thaws or rainy weather, and could be crossed with difficulty by a telegraph wire, were it not that I noticed that at some points the water was kept within bounds on both sides by solid barriers of rock or lava, generally not more than 20 yards apart.

26th.--Our position by account was in lat. 64° 40′ N., long. 19° 33′ W., and height above sea 1983 feet. It was ten o’clock before we got away. Our road was better than for the past two days, and we went ahead faster. About half-past three P.M., we arrived at the Hvita River, a mile or two below its source from Hvitarvatn, having come twenty-two miles, down hill, the incline being very gradual. The altitude here was 1580 feet.

The river, which is 120 yards wide, could be forded by the horses, but they were very nearly swimming; so to save our baggage from getting wet, we had a boat brought across, and were ferried over. After permitting the horses to feed for an hour and a half, we travelled westward for five miles round the base of the craggy and lofty Blafell. We now passed over a ridge 400 feet higher than the ferry on the Hvita.

From this point we had a very extensive view of more than fifty miles down the valley of the Hvita, with its numerous lakes and boiling springs, the clouds of white vapour from the latter indicating their positions. We now made a south course, and at the end of seven miles again came to the banks of the Hvita, along which we found an excellent path, over which we trotted at a great rate until late, when the guide again lost his way, and left us at a good grazing place to search for a house in the neighbourhood.

27th.--After waiting until half-past eleven, in vain, for the return of our truant guide, we unpacked our tent, and lay under it, having no poles to pitch it with. The guide joined us at five in the morning. He said he had wandered about all night in search of his friend’s house, which was within less than ten minutes’ ride of where we were. We reached Haukadalr at a little before six, and took up our quarters in the church, where we had a good and substantial breakfast.

We then rode forward to the Geysers where we found Lord Milton encamped. We collected specimens, and sounded the Geyser, obtaining seventy-eight feet depth. The barometer gave the height of the position 626 feet above the sea in latitude by observation 64° 18′ 16″ N.

Our breakfast at Haukadalr had not been so superior as to prevent us enjoying the good things that Lord Milton most kindly invited us to join him in partaking of, and after a parting glass of champagne with his lordship, we rode for sixteen miles further on our way to Reikiavik, and then took up our night’s quarters at Laugarvatn. Near this house are several boiling springs of very pure water, which are used for cooking.

We arrived at Reikiavik at eight o’clock on the morning of the 29th August, all well, but our horses very much used up by a journey of nearly 450 statute miles.

The results of this journey went to prove that there would be no serious difficulty in carrying a telegraph across Iceland by the route travelled over. Doubtless considerable expense would be incurred in repairing the old paths, so as to make them more easy for loaded pack-horses, and in making new ones to shorten distances; but this work will be materially facilitated, as the Icelandic Diet has appropriated a considerable amount of money to be paid annually for this purpose. The six largest rivers that we crossed had high well defined banks, that showed no indication of ice action or of changing their position.

A shorter, and in every respects a better route across Iceland for telegraphic purposes than the one described, is that marked on the chart in a dotted line. This route, from Berufiord as far as Mödrudalr, in lat. 65° 17′ N., long. 16° W., is nearly the same as that followed by us. From this point, instead of running northward, it strikes nearly west for 45 miles, over what is said to be not a difficult country, to Isholl, a farm on the Skialfanda river. Following up the west bank of this stream to near its source, you cross the centre of Iceland in a south-westerly direction, by the Sprengisandr road, until you fall upon the head waters of the Thorsa. Trace this stream to south-west, keeping on its left bank, to avoid the numerous jokul streams that enter it on the right, until reaching lat. 64° 20′, where the river would be crossed. The course then would be west to the Hvita and the Geysers. On nearly fifty miles of this route there is little or no grass, but depôts of hay can be established. Having measured on the charts four different routes from Berufiord to Reikiavik, the distances are about as follows:--

Geographical
Miles.
Route travelled over, cutting off several unnecessary detours 310
By contemplated telegraph route, _viâ_ Sprengisandr 250
In a straight line, keeping north of Vatna Jökull 210
Along south shore of Ireland 260

The modes of transport through Iceland are by pack-horses, waggons, and in winter on sledges. Of these the pack-horse is by far the most general. These little animals are remarkably sure-footed, and so strong that they can carry a load of 200 or 250 lbs. with apparent ease. They are easily kept in condition with no other food than grass or hay. Their prices vary from 2_l._ to 3_l._, those for riding being more expensive. The pack-saddle in general use is an extremely primitive affair, the pads employed to protect the back from being injured being composed of turf which has been well dried, and a portion of the mould beat out of it. Boats might be used with advantage on some of the rivers.

The population of Iceland amounts at present to some 60,000; at one time it is said to have been as high as 100,000, but the ravages of epidemic diseases and other causes reduced the numbers to less than those at present on the island.

The masses of the people are able and active, harmless and honest. Wherever we went, we were received with much kindness and hospitality, and even at the poorest cottages, milk, coffee, and brandy were handed to us. All classes seem more or less educated, and the Lutheran religion prevails. The chief occupations of the people are fishing and farming, both being combined when the farms are near the sea. The women spin, knit woollens, and weave cloth for home consumption. The farm live stock consists of sheep, ponies, and horned cattle; the two last are of small size. Of these, the sheep are the chief source of wealth. A farmer having 800 or 1000 sheep is considered wealthy. The usual food is mutton, fish (fresh and dried), rye-bread, butter, cheese, milk, one preparation of which, named _skuer_, is much used.

The price of labour varies from 1_s._ 2_d._ to 2_s._ 8_d._ per day, according to the season. During the haymaking, in the months of July, August, and September, it is highest.

Reikiavik, the capital of Iceland (a town of 1500 inhabitants), has been so often described by others that it is needless for me to say anything on the subject. A little thin ice forms along shore near Reikiavik during calm weather in the winter time, but the first breeze of wind disperses it.

GREENLAND.

The “Fox” sailed from Reikiavik on the 31st August, for Greenland. On the 2nd of October we reached Frederickshaab.

There is a Danish superintendent, a clergyman, and several clerks at this place, and about two hundred Esquimaux. These Esquimaux are civilised;--sober, honest, and faithful, apt and willing to be instructed; attentive to their religious observances, and thankful for kindness. The evening amusement was dancing. The principal food of the natives is fish, seal, whale, a few ptarmigan, waterfowl, including eider duck, with biscuit and coffee, imported from Denmark. Large quantities of a small fish (the kepling), called by the Esquimaux “amaset,” are caught in scoop nets in the summer, and dried on the rocks. These are laid up for winter food, and sometimes given to the cattle.

After lying here eighteen days, the “Fox” sailed on the 20th of October for Julianshaab, at which place she anchored on the evening of the 22d. Julianshaab is one of the principal stations on the coast.

On the 24th I learnt that it had been decided to sound and examine the Fiord of Igalikko, which ran by Julianshaab. During the time that the “Fox” would be employed on this service, which I was told by Captain Young might probably occupy four days, I thought with Colonel Shaffner that a short journey should be made to the interior of the country, for the purpose of ascertaining the practicability of travelling over it. The use of one seaman and a whale-boat were obtained from Captain Young, to enable us to return from the head of the fiord to Julianshaab. Four Esquimaux women were engaged as rowers. At sixteen miles inland from the fiord a heavy fall of snow stopped further travel. After an absence of four days, we returned to our boat, but found that the fall of snow, followed by unusually cold weather, had already caused the fiord to freeze up for many miles. We had enough of provisions, and were supplied with some excellent fresh mutton, milk, and butter, by an Esquimaux that lived in the neighbourhood, to whose house we removed. The frost continued for several days with unusual severity, and made the ice strong enough to enable Captain Young (after coming half-way up the fiord in a boat) to travel over the ice with a sledge party from the “Fox,” to our relief. Another party of men, sent by Superintendent Möller from Julianshaab to aid us arrived at the same time. We all returned next day (the 6th) to the “Fox.”

At Julianshaab, as at Frederickshaab, nothing could exceed the kindness and hospitality of the resident Danish gentlemen. Mr. Möller, the Superintendent, Mr. Höyer, his Assistant, the Doctor, and others vied with each other in paying us attention.

The chief exports of the place are whale and seal oil, fox skins (blue and white), bear skins, and eider down. A few cattle, goats and sheep are kept. The hay is usually collected at the summer encamping places of the natives, and must be very nutritious, as I was informed that one small cow during the past summer, had not only yielded sufficient milk and cream to supply the family, but also to make eighty Danish pounds of butter. The natives here, as at Frederickshaab, are honest, docile, and well conducted, doing great credit to the Danish Government. The prevailing form of worship is the Lutheran.

The result of this expedition, as far as regards the land portion of it over the Færöe Isles and Iceland, was extremely favourable to the practicability of laying down or erecting a telegraphic wire. The question in Iceland will be, whether the telegraph should be carried across the whole island from Berufiord to Faxe Bay, or only from Portland Bay to the latter place. The latter will reduce the distance on land from about 250 to 90 miles.

THE FIORDS OF SOUTH GREENLAND, AS TO THEIR DEPTH, MUD BOTTOMS, &C.; BY J. W. TAYLER, ESQ., F.G.S., LATE A RESIDENT AND MINERALOGIST IN SOUTH GREENLAND.

The LORD ASHBURTON: I will now call upon Mr. J. W. Tayler to read his paper.

MR. TAYLER then read the following, viz.:--

I have been desired by the promoters of the North Atlantic Telegraph to give you a short description of the Fiords of South Greenland, and to point out the advantages they offer to the landing of the cable on that coast.

Any one who has travelled in Norway will have an idea of the leading characteristics of fiords in general, but as many of the Society have probably not had that opportunity, I will endeavour to describe, as well as I can, the general appearances of fiords in Greenland.

The land of Greenland is very elevated, the average height of its mountains being not less, perhaps, than 1500 feet, and in some places exceeding 6000 feet, above the level of the sea. It appears that at the time of the elevation of the west coast of Greenland, a chain of mountains of about 50 miles in breadth, running about north and south, was acted on in a wave-like manner, _i. e._ leaving depressions nearly equal to the elevations and more or less at right angles with the direction of the chain. These depressions or long valleys into which the sea runs constitute the fiords:--they vary in breadth from one to eight miles, and run up into the interior from ten to sixty or more miles.

The scenery in these fiords is magnificent, perhaps unequalled. The lofty mountains--rugged, precipitous, and barren--with patches of ice, (projections from the great interior glaciers), and snow unmelted by the summer’s sun; with valleys half filled up by enormous angular blocks of stone detached from the sides of the steep mountains by the alternate frost and thaws; the solitude, and the almost total absence of life, animal and vegetable, make up a picture of indescribable desolation.

In other places the more rounded and sloping mountains are covered with green and yellow moss. Grass, heath, and wild flowers grow in the valleys; whilst in some still more favoured and sheltered dales, miniature forests of Arctic willow six feet in height are pointed out by the Esquimaux as proofs of the extraordinary excellence of the climate of Greenland and fertility of the soil. Of the latter material there is not, however, in many places sufficient to bury the dead, and they are compelled to place the body on the surface and form a grave by building up stones around it.

These fiords with grassy dales offer the most pleasant places of abode in Greenland; in fact, it is only to the more fertile parts of the fiords that the name of Greenland is at all appropriate. But these parts of the fiords form a striking contrast to the outer coast of Greenland.

The Danish settlements are mostly at the entrance of the fiords, for the convenience of seal hunting and of shipping; but the old Scandinavians who settled in Greenland in the ninth century brought cattle with them, and therefore established themselves at the interior ends of the fiords and bays, where grass was to be found. The ruins of their habitations, constructed of very large blocks of stone, are still to be seen at all the more fertile places. Judging from the number of ruins and the accounts in the Icelandic Sagas, their number must at one time have reached about 10,000. But the Scandinavians of Greenland have perished; cattle no longer graze in the valleys as then; and some heaps of stones are all that remain to show the enterprise of those early western pioneers.

The Icelandic Sagas contain descriptions of most of the fiords of South Greenland, and of the chief settlers in them. Perhaps the most notable in this respect is the Fiord of Igalikko. This fiord ends in two forks or arms;--in the northern stand the ruins of Brattelid, the first town in Greenland, built by the first settler, Eric the Red, in 986; in the other was built the town of Garde, the residence of the Bishop of Greenland. These two towns vied with each other in the claim for precedence--Brattelid claiming it on the ground of its being the first erected, and the residence of Eric the Red and his descendants; whilst Garde asserted its superior worthiness in being the residence of the bishop. After much wordy quarreling and sundry duels, Garde appears to have triumphed, and was henceforth considered as the capital of Greenland.

But Garde now shares the ruin and desolation of Brattelid, with nothing else to recommend it to our further notice. Not so however with its rival Brattelid. In the time of Eric the Red, Anno Domini 1000, there sailed from the fiord of Igalikko and from the town of Brattelid an expedition of discovery. These enterprising Scandinavians were not contented with having discovered the vast territory of Greenland; this appears to have only stimulated their thirst for further discoveries, and it may perhaps also be that after two or three years’ residence in Greenland, they found it was not the El Dorado they had dreamed of; however, the expedition sailed to the west and south, and finally discovered the continent of America. They found good prairie land which they called Markland, and sailing on they came to land bearing wild grapes in great abundance, this they called Vinland. They wintered in America, left some settlers (who after some time succumbed to the natives), carved their runics on the rocks, and taking in cargoes of timber and supplies of wild grapes sailed the next summer and safely returned to Brattelid.

Thus the credit of discovering America is certainly due to the Scandinavians of Greenland. And Columbus when he visited Iceland some years previous to his celebrated voyage, no doubt read the accounts of the discovery in the Icelandic Sagas. But as these accounts were suffered to remain almost unknown to the world, and as the navigators of northern Europe had in his time forgotten the route discovered by their more energetic forefathers not only to America but also to Greenland, (which was then called the “Lost Land,”) all honor is certainly due to Columbus for the re-discovery of America.