Chapter XXII: Appendix: D (3)

As well as this transverse political division of Africa, we may make what may be called a concentric analysis. Commencing with the outer _skin_, the 16,000 miles of African coast, we find upon it certain excrescences, which, if our examination went but skin-deep, might well lead us to regard Africa not as a "new," but as an "old, old" world. On the north and east the remains of ancient civilizations, Morocco, Tangier, Egypt, remind us of Africa's bygone grandeur--remind us how very much of forms of beauty and secrets of science and art came to us in the birth of civilized Europe from or through Africa. On the south and west again, memorials of Phoenician, of Portuguese, of Dutch, English and American conquering visitors and adventurers remind us of the constant preying of the nations on the dark continent--remind us, through certain prison castles still to be seen on the western coast, of the great world's crime, the slave trade. But on the outer surface of Africa other signs are to be read: North, south, east and west there are ports and roadsteads forested with the masts of the world's shipping conveying to Africa's every shore those products of the civilized world which, according to their nature for good or harm, are to influence and civilize the Africans; carrying away from her shore the land's products--a constant stream, increasing perhaps just now, but which has always been flowing--of wool, cotton, oil, rich spices, dyes and medicinal and ornamental woods, india-rubber, gum-copal, ivory, precious stones, gold. Are these the products of a desert land inhabited only by a lazy and savage people?

Following our concentric analysis, the first layer behind the outer skin of Africa may be said to consist of a verdant slope, broad and luxuriant in the tropics, where nature herself has been lavish, narrower, but still ever widening, in the drier north and south, as the oriental and the European respectively advance their groves of fruit and fields of corn, maintained in luxuriance alike by the vapors of the sea and the down drainage from the higher lands, and from the same causes also malarious and {240} unhealthy. In another sense, too, this outer belt is both rich and unhappy. Into it come those men and things representing "civilization" from afar. To it, from the interior, gravitate those of the natives who are influenced by contact with those men and things, deprived to a great extent of the old uncivilized condition and its innocencies and partially imbued with what of civilization has come to them. Mankind, too, in this outer belt is often only too rank and unhealthy in his character. It is truly "darkest Africa;" for, first, the slave trade and then the rum bottle have in many parts been the preponderating representatives to them of outer civilization.

The next layer is a step or terrace of flat sandy semi-arid country, narrow in the tropics, widening toward each extreme, until it bulges out in the north into the Sahara desert, in the south into the Kalahari, some parts always bare and sandy or covered with a sparkling saline or alkaline deposit, some parts forming broad savannas or prairies, bearing rich grasses in the rains, burnt bare in the dry season; others covered with thickets of thorns or stunted and crippled trees under the same variations of seasons. This is the land of the ostrich and the pelican, the scene of vast prairie fires or whirling dust spouts; it is the land also of the nomad man. Across the Sahara the wandering Arab leads his camels from oasis to oasis; amid the wastes of the Kalahari the homeless Bushman finds a congenial hunting territory; in the narrow, tropical parts such semi-nomads as the Somali, the Wamasai, and the Wagogo lead their cattle from place to place, as the grass and water serve them with the seasons.

This terrace or flat sandy belt being crossed, we come to the true central region of Africa, a long irregular oval-shaped elevation of mountain masses, spreading out in many places as vast plateaus and forming altogether that mysterious elevated region reported from time to time by old investigators as well as compilers of native reports as the Mountains of the Moon. In the crevices of this central mass, in rocky basins, in fathomless chasms, in vast depressions of the plateaus, lie those great natural rainwater tanks known as the central African lakes. On and around it are the richest and most beautiful and healthful countries. Spreading over it and around its beautiful waters are the most intelligent and industrious of the native African tribes, their native industry and enterprise yet almost undisturbed by the {241} busy excitement of civilization. Hence there may fairly be drawn something like a sample of the real African native character and condition. They live in families; among them the family tie and the rights of property are regarded; conscience pronounces criminal and offensive the same irregularities as are so regarded among civilized peoples; in stature and physical condition they come up to the best standards. I argue that the life and condition which presents this state of things after isolation for thousands of years from all we call civilized can scarcely be called evil or degraded.

Among these people, both pastoral and agricultural, are to be found in progress the germs at least of all the useful arts--the procuring and working of both iron and copper, pottery-making, the spinning and weaving of cotton cloth, the very beautiful development of plaiting of all kinds of vegetal fibers into string, rope, mats, baskets and cloth; and where valuable materials and products are naturally confined to particular localities, as is the case sometimes with oil, salt, etc., it is manufactured and distributed. Too often are people described as lacking in industry who are not the same as ourselves; but it seems to me ridiculous that a man should be called lazy because he has ample leisure between his busy times, who has made with his own hands, from nature's absolutely raw material, his house, his axe and hoe and spear, his clothing and ornaments, his furniture, his corn mill, all things that he has, and who, though liable often in a lifetime to have to repeat that whole process over again, has the energy and enterprise to commence afresh. Too often have the same people been called savage and bloodthirsty who, through all experience and by all their traditions getting naturally to regard unintroduced armed strangers as enemies, have the same desperate energy to defend themselves and their own which, as displayed by our own ancestral relatives, we love to term patriotism and courage.

In a fairly central position on this great central elevation is the elongated basin surrounded by a mountain rim in the bottom of which, in a long chasm, lies Lake Tanganyika, in a position alike so central and so unique that I have termed it the Heart of Africa. Inside the mountain basin rim, the rainfall all converges into Tanganyika; outside, it all flows to the outer shores of the continent by the Nile, the Congo or the Zambesi. Fifteen years ago the waters of Lake Tanganyika, having very slowly {242} gained upon the evaporation (the then only means of carrying off its surplus) attained to the height of the lowest gap in its rim and commenced to flow out, and thence its surplus water ever since has found an exit and now forms part of the Congo system. Tanganyika is 400 miles long and from 15 to 50 miles in width, and is 2,700 feet above the sea.

To leave, however, this very rough general description of Africa at this point would convey a wrong idea. We have described the verdant slope from the coast, the terrace of flatter country, the central elevation and its heart; now we may imagine a series of great ridges and furrows and other radial features diverging from the heart of Africa to its very shores, besides certain isolated ridges and peaks, some of them snow-clad, and certain isolated depressions forming lakes or swamps; first the three great furrows of the Nile, Zambesi and Congo and the three great ridges formed by their dividing water-sheds, and so on through fan-like expansions of rim or ridges and furrows until the previously described concentric formation, although still there, is considerably cut up.

The great central mountain mass, buttressed by its far-stretching ridges, forms _the backbone_, from which, outward and downward, in intricate articulations, extends the complicated _bony skeleton_ of Africa.

Set like sparkling jewels in its crevices and depressions, the great lakes send forth the streams which, flowing through gaps in their surrounding mountain barriers, rushing through narrow channels, oozing slowly through elevated flats or bounding in beautiful cascades over steep steps, and carrying the vitalizing fluid in every direction through the length and breadth of Africa, form _its system of circulation_.

Bordering the great lakes and clustering on the slopes, forests of gigantic trees form the _flesh and muscle_ of this great creation; preserved in perpetual verdure wherever water constantly remains and in long extending lines and network fringing the ever-winding banks of the streams, and finally joining with the verdant belt of the sea-coast to form the brilliant _epidermis_ of the whole, and forming background and filling to the network of these prominent features, in broad concentric curves and in belts and patches, the more stunted thorny growth, long grass, broad savanna and sandy plain, ever changing in color and aspect.

The great new and beautiful world of Africa lies open before {243} us; 250,000,000 intelligent and courageous people have become exposed to the influence, for good or evil, of the civilized races. What shall we do with it and them? Quite possible is it fairly and honestly so to explore and deal with both country and people as to develop its resources and benefit them, while adding to the world's treasury of comfort-bringing products and human brotherhood the riches and the friendship of a new continent; but it must be by peaceful and just measures and by honest trade with wholesome wares.

II.

As a practical way of leading you in imagination to the heart of Africa, and as indicating the circumstances and experience upon which my observations on Africa are based, I shall describe one of my many journeys.

In the year 1882 I had the honor to be leader of the largest European expedition that has yet entered Africa, having in it, for instance, 200 more men than the Emin Pasha relief expedition. There were ten Europeans, all told, who represented survey and navigation, medicine, carpentry, blacksmithing, and other specially selected talent for the purpose of exploration and civilization, as well as those specially devoted to the teaching of Christianity, which was the ultimate aim of all. We entered Africa from the village of Saadani, on the eastern coast, opposite Zanzibar, our destination being the shores of Lake Tanganyika at Ujiji.

To make not only our progress sure, but work and residence at our destination safe and possible in such a land, we had stores of groceries, medicines, tools and clothing, and a large quantity of calico and other cloth, which forms the currency of the country, for the purchase of supplies and payment of wages to porters, servants and workmen.

The special locality to be worked being the countries surrounding Lake Tanganyika, to which that extensive and beautiful inland sea gives access, we carried with us also, for its navigation, a sailing boat built of steel, of the form of a sea-going life-boat, and constructed in small sections and pieces for transport. This boat I designed myself. Six of the sections were to travel on {244} specially constructed light carts, drawn by African natives, and the rest, in small pieces, were to be carried by the porters in the ordinary way.

The mode of travel was walking, except when now and then an invalid was carried in a hammock. The method of transport was by means of native porters, hundreds of whom devote themselves to this work. They are paid $5 per month as wages, payable at Zanzibar on their return to the coast, less such advance in kind as they may draw from their leader along the road. In addition, they get a regular allowance of two yards of white calico per seven days, each man, as barter with which to obtain food.

The organization and start of such a party took some time, and parties of from 100 to 300 were dispatched along the road as things were ready, until, when I started with the final rear guard, we had on the road over 900 of these porters, with their headmen and petty officers, all under complete organization.

The first start of the boat-section carts was the scene of apparent disaster. The men, wild with excitement and uniting their shouts with those of onlookers, were beyond all restraint for the moment, and as they rounded a sharp turn to get out of the village of Saadani, over went the carts, one after the other, on their sides; and it was some time before I could train the men to steer more carefully or to move gently down a declivity. In time, however, the whole thing worked well. The fore compartment of the boat, going stem first, often forced its own way through masses of brush and creeper, helping to clear the way for the narrower sections, whose carts insinuated themselves through surprisingly small gaps. The men themselves were most zealous in the service, and as we emerged from lengthy stretches of jungle, ascended steep river banks, or jolted whole days over rugged stony places unharmed, we made up our minds that, these carts would "go anywhere." In twenty days we reached Upwapwa, 200 miles from the coast, and joined an advance party awaiting us; and after a few days rest and reorganization, we started once more westward.

The first village beyond, in the country of Ugogo, was thirty miles off. The first day was a comparatively easy march to a watering place, but the next two days gave us tough work. The thick, tangled, thorny scrub became quite dense, and for those two days we had to cut our way through it foot by foot. Hour {245} after hour the twang of the sword-bayonets and the thud of the axes were almost the only sounds to be heard till the train of carts moved slowly on as the way was opened. Toward evening of the second day we followed a narrow pass along the side of a rocky river bed, stout, inflexible trunks and branches here projecting into our path. On some of these ebony bars the axes resounded as on an anvil, and they yielded only to the more patient saw. As the sun descended we began to flag, but help was at hand; for a party coming back to us from the camp ahead with food and water, we picked up strength and spirit and reached camp late in the evening.

The level plains of Ugogo, which here represent the flat, open step or terrace to which I have referred in the general description of Africa, enabled us to make a week or so of splendid and comfortable marches. Ugogo passed, there lay before us the much-dreaded wilderness, so-called, of the Magunda-Mkali, separated from Ugogo by a steep, rocky ascent, which we could only tackle one cart at a time, and we soon came to a point so rugged with broken rocks that we could proceed no further; but the sections were unlashed, the carts taken to pieces, and all handed or dragged across the difficult place and put together again beyond. Over the scrubby, rugged hill and dale of Magunda-Mkali, without inhabitants, 20 to 25 miles a day was often made; every man knew the necessity of pushing on for food and water, and the danger, from wild beasts or wandering highwaymen, of lagging in the rear.

On, on, went the novel train, through weary miles of forest, across the scorched plain, rattling over the hard sun-baked footprints of the elephant and rhinoceros; on through grassy glades where the nimble antelope bounded, scared out of our path, and the zebra and giraffe were startled by the rattling of these strange disturbers of their solitude; on still, through miles of swamp, with its croaking legions; on through scenes of surpassing beauty, bright flowers and gleaming birds and butterflies; on past the bleaching bones of other travelers waylaid or exhausted, till the sun creeps up high overhead and eager glances are cast at green spots where water once had been; on, till the pace grows slow with weariness and thirst, and still on, till it revives again as the welcome messenger from the front appears in sight with water or the camp-fires tell of food and rest.

Completing this difficult section of the journey and mounting {246} to the beautiful forests and numerous villages of Unyamwesi, we had arrived upon the central heights of the continent, which everything around us bespoke its best part; the clearer, more healthy air, the rich land, the open forests, the numerous and industrious people, all spoke eloquently of a better and brighter state of things in the interior of Africa than on its outside.

At Urambo we elicited the pleased surprise of our friend, the famous chief Mirambo. Said Mirambo, laying his hand emphatically on one of the boat sections, "This boat and these carts are mine, and all Unyamwesi is yours." It was his way of expressing sympathy and admiration of what he considered to be a very wonderful enterprise, and we left him pondering more deeply than ever on the doings of the "white men."

The rains were now at hand and the country rich and verdant; we hastened on with all speed possible to enable us to cross the Malagarasi river before it should be too swollen. Emerging from elevated forest land to a view of the valley of the river, it appears like a vast level expanse of harmless grass, but the swift river is flowing in the bottom. The toll required by the natives being paid, we descended to the river through the thick grass. We crossed the river in tiny dug-out or bark canoes managed by the natives. One old man, a leader among these ferrymen, we had especial cause to notice; we called him "the old admiral." He wore a curious skull cap apparently made of bladder, and presented a most odd appearance. To him we paid a special fee of propitiation for the boatmen. As we proceeded down toward the river the first sign of it among the long grass was quiet shallow water on the path; this grew deeper and deeper as we walked on until we were immersed to the armpits, the grass rising avenue-like overhead. We emerged upon a small island or rising ground, and the river proper was before us. On this little eminence stood "the old admiral" superintending all. The porters and their ordinary loads all crossed in the usual way, two or three at a time in the little canoes. The two large carts, with the bow and stern compartments of the boats, were floated along the watery avenue by the buoyancy of their tank-like loads; the others came, sections and carts, separately. The fare for each load was one yard of calico, but when the carts appeared there was general astonishment among the ferrymen, who showed signs of clearing off altogether; "the old admiral" alone was unmoved; his stolid countenance showed no sign, but a deep bass growl, {247} "Eight yards, eight yards for these!" expressed at once his nonchalance and his determination; and eight yards we had to pay. All was safely got over in a day. Two of the bark canoes were lashed together with poles across, and one section or one cart at a time laid on top, and thus all was carried across.

Obstacles which further back would have been regarded as great hindrances were now made little of; success seemed assured to all, and the men even began to rehearse their triumphal entry into Ujiji. One more difficult river, the Lusugi, we had to cross. We reached its banks, down a rocky descent, late one night in a heavy fall of rain. We waited an hour or two next morning till the river had somewhat subsided, and then commenced work. Two or three volunteers swam across with a stout rope, which was then hauled tight across the stream. The porters, holding this rope in one hand, slowly but surely made their way across. Then the carts and sections were attached to a block running on the rope, and so, carefully attended by two or three men, were floated over in safety.

Ujiji was now only a few marches ahead. The view of the lake was caught at last, a narrow strip of its waters gleaming in the sun in the distance, and next morning we slowly marched into Ujiji in a compact body. The boat was duly launched and has now been for years at work on Lake Tanganyika in the cause of civilization and Christianity.

The _completion_ of this journey, however, was but the _commencement_ of a still larger enterprise in the region reached. Stations were established among the tribes on the lake shores; a larger vessel, with steam power, was built and launched on the lake, and a substantial mission was established and is still at work at a point which is only 400 miles from that point on the Congo river accessible to the steamers of the missions there.

* * * * *

All the work I have described was done at the expense of the London Missionary Society.

{248}

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON EXPLORATION IN ALASKA.

(_Accepted April 3, 1891_.)

_Washington, D. C., April 3, 1891_.

TO THE BOARD OF MANAGERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY,
_Washington, D. C._

_Gentlemen_: Your Committee, instructed "to consider the advisability of further Alaskan exploration by the Society this year and if deemed advisable, to consider and report upon ways and means for accomplishing it," respectfully submit the following report:

The general question of desirability has been decided affirmatively by the Board of Managers; it therefore is inferred that the question of advisability may be taken as involved in that of ways and means.

In outlining a plan of work, concerning which such inquiry is to be made, it has been found necessary, in the lack of formulated opinion by the Society, to make assumptions as to what should be its purpose and policy in undertaking exploration. It is assumed tentatively that in order best to further the object for which the Society is organized, namely, "the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge," the aim in exploration should be not so much to promote the growth of science as to diffuse a general interest in geographic work in its several departments, and, adhering to the principle of attractiveness, to increase the sum of knowledge by discovery and by the addition of general and elementary facts rather than by detailed investigation, for appreciation of which scientific training must be presupposed. It is furthermore believed that the policy of the Society should be to invite coöperation, offering opportunity at the same time for special study in related sciences; to effect the organization and devise the plan, and itself to take part directly in field work only so far as may be necessary to initiate and promote it.

Your Committee find that apparently it will be practicable, {249} with coöperation, for the Society to extend this year the exploration work of last year in the vicinity of Mount St. Elias. Specifically it is recommended that the plan be to determine directly, from a long base line near the coast, the height of the mountain, to ascend it, to observe systematically the unique phenomena of physical geography of the Malaspina glacier from Icy bay to the initial point of last year's exploration, and to explore the Seward glacier to its head if deemed advisable after the ascent of the peak.

In view of the fact that it is the purpose of the Coast and Geodetic Survey to carry the international boundary survey into this region within one or two years, it is considered inexpedient for the Society to undertake extended topographic work. It is, however, submitted, as a principle which this Society should emphasize in projecting exploration, that facts of physical geography have minimum value and may lead to false conclusions unless correlated through their space relations; and it is recommended that the expedition aim always to employ such means as may be practicable for making record of its course and of its observations in approximate geometric relation to surroundings.

Conditional offers of coöperation have been made by the Revenue Marine Service, the Geological Survey, the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the Century Company of New York. Transportation from Seattle to Alaska and return, it is thought, may be secured on the steamer Corwin, and that vessel's commander, Captain Hooper, has expressed a desire to extend his coast-line exploration of last year by making a survey of Disenchantment bay. The Geological Survey offers to detail Mr. Russell to conduct the expedition, and to bear the expense of a number of field hands and of their equipment. The Coast and Geodetic Survey has expressed a desire to aid, if practicable, by beginning boundary work in the same field this year, and incidentally to do other surveying with special relation to the work of the expedition. The Century Company offers to send an artist experienced in Alpine work and to pay the greater portion of his expenses. The opportunity for study of the fauna and flora of the region it is thought should not be neglected.

The cost to the Society, wholly in items of field expense otherwise unprovided for, which may be considered as the cost of enabling the combination to work as one organization, is estimated at $500.

{250} The expedition should leave Seattle in the latter part of May, aiming to reach Icy bay by the first of June, and field work should close by the end of September.

Your committee consider further exploration in Alaska by the Society this year as practicable, and recommend that the proposed expedition be authorized, and that Mr. Russell be at once invited to organize and conduct it, under the auspices of the Society.

Very respectfully,

G. K. GILBERT,
EVERETT HAYDEN,
WILLARD D. JOHNSON,
_Committee on Exploration_.

NOTES.

_La Carte de France, dite de l'Etat Major, par M. J. Collet. Paris, 1887. 8vo, pp. 92, with 4 plates._--This pamphlet describes the great "Staff Map" of France, recently completed, giving its history, the methods employed in the field and office work, the contents of the map, and the means of representing the various features therein described. The scale of the map is 1:80,000. Relief is represented by hachures, for drawing which approximate contour lines have been located, but these are not otherwise used. A great variety of cultural features are shown, many of which are ephemeral, and which contribute to the overloading of the map with details. Moreover, as the time which has ordinarily elapsed between the survey and the issuance of the work in printed form is ten or twelve years, most of this culture has become not only of no value but misleading by the time it is published.

The account of the organization and methods by which the map has been produced is of special interest. The primary triangulation upon which it is based is one of the most elaborate and accurate ever executed in any country. No expense has been spared in this direction. Within this triangulation is a secondary triangulation, also very elaborate, from the stations of which numerous additional points are cut in, or located by unclosed triangles. All this work is of the highest order of excellence, being infinitely more accurate than the map requires. {251} With this, however, the accuracy appears to end. The detail consists of the map, or the map proper, little more than a compilation of commune cadastral plans. These were fitted to the triangulation points and to one another, a process which appears to have been by no means easy of satisfactory accomplishment. This adjustment having been completed, the culture was brought up to date of survey and a survey was made of the relief features by the use of such inferior instruments as the clinometer compass and chain.

The principal and obvious criticism upon such work is that it is top-heavy. The triangulation is far more elaborate than is required, while the provision for making the map itself is by no means comparable with it: it is as far below the requirements of the scale as the triangulation is above it.

This leads up to a broader proposition, which may be stated thus: That the general tendency of surveying organizations is in the direction illustrated by that of the "French Staff." Organized originally for map-making, they progress little by little in the direction of devoting their energies to geodetic work, while at the same time the topographic work proper, for which they were created, is belittled and neglected. As a consequence the latter depreciates in quality and diminishes in quantity; the main purpose of the organization is lost, and a mere means becomes the ultimate end of the work. This tendency should be recognized in map-making organizations. The weakness of our modern maps is seldom in the primary control. It is easy to do triangulation of sufficient accuracy for the control of maps upon such scales as that above considered, little knowledge or experience being required beyond that gained at our engineering schools; while the more accurate triangulation, generally known as geodetic work, requires merely better instruments, more time, and more experienced observers.

The weak features of maps are generally the details, the part of the work that, strange to say, is usually relegated to the lowest grade of professional men. This weakness consists in an insufficiency of minor locations for the control of the sketch and in unfaithful sketching. It is the sketching that requires the most careful attention and the best and most experienced men. The instrumental portion of the work is the least difficult; the artistic portion, or sketching, is the most difficult. It would seem more logical and would doubtless produce better results to reverse the {252} usual order of promotion and place the topographer above the triangulator. Moreover, the triangulation should be regarded as merely a means for the correction of the sketching, and it should be required only that it be of sufficiently high grade to meet this condition. The minor locations should be sufficiently numerous and well distributed to fully control and correct the sketching; and finally the sketching should be as faithful a representation of the topography as is consistent with the necessary generalization of the surface features.

H. G.

* * * * *

_Polar Regions_.--The _Societe de Geographie_ of Paris in its Proceedings publishes the following communication from M. Ch. Rabot on the new Danish expedition engaged in the exploration of the eastern coast of Greenland, under the command of Lieutenant Ryder, of the royal Danish navy. The expedition has in view the examination of the unknown coast between Franz-Josef fiord, in latitude 73°, and the most northerly point reached by Commander Holm and Lieutenant Garde, about latitude 66°. Lieutenant Ryder left Copenhagen June 7, 1891, in the Norwegian whaler _Hekla_, which had been chartered by the Danish government. The first ice was met on the 20th, in latitude 68° 12', longitude 13° 05' west. Unable to pass through the pack to the Greenland shore after several attempts, the ship proceeded northward, and in the vicinity of Jan Mayen made soundings and successful dredgings. Several attempts to reach the coast of Greenland were made from the 75th parallel southward, but without success up to July 2, when the _Hekla_ was in latitude 71° 31', longitude 6° 30' west. Since that date there has been no direct news, but on July 26, in latitude 72° 40', longitude 14° 25' west, the English whaler _Active_ saw the _Hekla_ a few miles to the northeast, heading to the south-southwest. On August 2 the _Active_, in latitude 71° 40', approached within 12 miles of the coast, and on August 20, in 70° 30', was within 7 miles of the mainland. In both instances the intervening sea was free of ice. The English captain believes that the _Hekla_ made the eastern coast in about 71° 30'. The _Hekla_ is provisioned for the winter, and there is a prospect of marked success by the Danish officers in their undertaking.

* * * * *

{253} _The Crossing of Tibet_.--The explorations of Mr. Rockhill in Tibet and his renewed attempt to reach Lassa, the "holy city" of that country, creates an unusual interest for Americans in the account of the crossing of Tibet by M. G. Bonvalot, Prince Henri d'Orleans, and P. Dedeken, published in the last Bulletin of the Paris Geographical Society.

Six days' journey from Moscow brought the party through Russia and Turkestan to Kouldja (45° N., 41° W.), in extreme western Mongolia. Having obtained authority from the Chinese governor of the province to proceed, the party, aggregating 15 in number, left that place September 12, 1889, with Batang, China, as an objective point. On October 5, after a journey of about 450 miles, during which they crossed the Thian-chan ("heavenly") mountains by Narat pass, they camped at Korla, near Bagratch-koul. Here they were warned that they could proceed no farther, and the governor of Ili sent an order to arrest them. The mandarin and other local authorities did not, however, actively oppose their departure, which took place during the night of October 10, the party then consisting of 20 horsemen and 40 pack-animals. On October 28 they reached Kara-douran, the western end of Lob-nor. A side trip by d'Orleans and Dedeken to Lob-nor proved it to be no longer a lake but a series of swamps and sandy islands, with the water nowhere more than four feet deep. Meantime Bonavolot accumulated supplies and replaced from the hardy Mongols the more timid among their camp-followers, the party being reduced to seven, with a few extra men for a short distance.

Quitting Tcharkalik on November 17, they followed the route taken by Carey; but on the advice of the natives they resolved after crossing the Altyn-tagh to go directly southward instead of turning eastward, and thus to attempt a new route, on which they were beset by the usual physical discomforts attendant on travel at great elevations. On these mountain ranges they saw only wild sheep, blue hares, wild horses, crows and partridges. On December 5, just south of a large salt lake (Ouzoun-tchour), they, saw a caravan of Kalmouk pilgrims returning from Lassa by an unknown route, which they refused to make known, and decided to temporarily abandon their idea of reaching Batang and instead to go direct to Lassa by retracing the caravan trail. From this point (about 38° 30' N. and 87° 30' W.) they proceeded directly southward. The region penetrated was unknown, the winds {254} violent the entire day, the desert treeless and without water, the route lined with the carcasses of camels and their drivers, the only fuel the dung of wandering yaks or caravan camels, and the trail so indistinct that at times they marched by compass. The elevation gradually and steadily increased to 15,000 and even 16,500 feet; the mountain fever became worse, the storms more violent and continuous, and the temperature ranged from 7° (-14° C.), with wind, at midday to 30° below zero (-33° C.) at night. One by one their horses and camels died, and also an old Kirgese who followed them. Extensive glaciers were passed, from which flow on the one side the Salouen and Mekong into Indian ocean, and on the other the Yang-tse to China sea. On January 8, 1890, they skirted a large unfrozen lake named Montcalm, 50 miles long by 12 miles wide, and on January 14 traversed Duplex pass, 20,000 feet elevation. On the 31st they finally ran across a man, a wild Tibetan, small, thin, with enormous lips, long knotted hair, clothed in sheepskin and armed with a saber and flint-lock gun, whom they called "appa" (father); he knew neither Chinese nor Mogul, but spoke Tibetan of which the travelers knew scarcely a dozen words. Other Tibetans, with flocks of sheep, soon appeared and sold them mutton, a little salt, and rancid butter, and then followed on horseback for fifteen days without losing sight of the explorers. Often they were counseled in Mogul by those in authority to turn back.

In the middle of February they reached lake Nam-tso ("heaven"), or Tengri-nor, a large frozen body of water. Out of 40 camels only 15 remained, and, of 20 horses but one survived; three of the party of seven were in desperate state of health, while all were worn out and almost without provisions. They were finally obliged to stop in a mountain pass of the Nindjin-tangla, which led directly to Lassa, then not more than sixty miles distant. On February 17 the Tibetan authorities sent a large party to meet them and ask their intentions. Mistaken for Russians, it took 13 days to convince the authorities that they were French. They received presents from the authorities and obtained costumes from Lassa, but found it impossible to visit the "holy city." After 49 days of negotiation, on April 5, provided with arms, provisions and horses, and also a safe permit from the Talia lama to cross Tibet to Batang by an unknown route, they started eastward, on a course nearly {255} parallel to and north of Salouen river, reaching Sô and once again seeing houses on April 15. They arrived at Batang early in June, their route some distance west of it having joined the Imperial highway from Pekin to Lassa over which l'Abbe Huc travelled. From Tatsien-lou, where the French Tibetan mission is located, their route turned southward to Red river, which was reached, at Manhoau, on September 21, when their journey practically ended, as Hanoai was reached two days later.

An excellent map of the itinerary, by Prince Henri, accompanies the article.

A. W. G.

* * * * *

_Third Annual Report on the Statistics of Railways in the United States to the Interstate Commerce Commission, for the year ending June 30, 1890_: Washington, Government Printing Office, 1891 (advance copy, pp. 1-100).--This pamphlet, by Professor Henry C. Adams, is issued in advance of the full report, which is promised to comprise about 875 pages. It contains a summary, digest and discussion of the full report.

It appears that the total railroad mileage on June 30, 1890, was 163,597, an increase of 5,838 miles during the year. The increase came mainly from southeastern and western states. This mileage was owned by 1,797 distinct corporate bodies, but entirely controlled in one way or another by only 747 companies. To illustrate the extent to which consolidation of railroad property has gone, it may be stated that 47.5 per cent of all railroad mileage is controlled by but forty companies, and that 65.4 per cent is controlled by seventy-five companies. The greatest mileage controlled by one company is 6,053, operated by the Southern Pacific company.

The total capital and bonded debt of railroad companies was $9,871,378,389, or $60,340 per mile. Stock and bonds were about equal in amount. Mr. Adams estimates the value of railroad property by capitalizing at 5 per cent the dividends and interest on bonds paid during the year, reaching as a result $6,627,461,140, or about 2/3 of the nominal capital and bonded debt. The justice of this method may fairly be questioned. A comparison of the ruling prices of dividend-paying stocks with the rate per cent of the dividend shows that 5 per cent stocks are above par and that 4 per cent stocks average nearly par. {256} Moreover, it is well known that many railroads are built and operated, not for their own immediate earnings but to give value to other property of the companies, notably to lands, from the sale or lease of which the companies derive profits. Again, many railroads are built, not for present but for future profits, after they shall have induced settlement of their territory; and, furthermore, numerous branch roads have been built as defensive measures to prevent rivals from occupying territory; and in many cases earnings are used in betterment of property instead of distributing it as dividends. In all these cases the roads have value, although they are not paying dividends.

Taking all these matters into account, it does not appear that the railroad stocks of the country have, collectively, been watered to any great extent, if by "watering" is meant expanding nominal values above actual values.

Concerning dividends paid on stock, Mr. Adams presents a table showing that 63.76 per cent of all stock paid no dividends; that but 6.47 per cent paid less than 4 per cent; that 25.26 per cent paid from 4 to 8 per cent, the remainder paying above 8 per cent. It appears that in the northeastern states much the highest dividends were paid, while in the west, so far as dividends are concerned, the stockholders have to wait for future developments.

The total passenger mileage for the year was 11,847,785,617, a slight increase over the previous year. The total freight mileage was 76,207,047,298, an increase of nearly 10 per cent over that of the previous year. The gross earnings of the year were $1,051,877,632, and the operating expenses $692,093,971, leaving as the income from operations $359,783,661. The income from other sources was $126,767,064, and the total deductions from income were $384,792,138, leaving as the net income $101,758,587, out of which there was paid as dividends on stock $89,688,204.

The magnitude of the railway interests of the country is set forth in the above enormous figures. It is still further emphasized by the fact that nearly three-quarters of a million men are in the employ of this industry. Assuming that each such employé supports two others besides himself, it is seen that the railroad interest supports two and a quarter millions, or more than one thirtieth of the inhabitants of the country.

H. G.

{257}

INDEX.

ABBE, CLEVELAND, cited on isostaths, 43 --, Record of communication by, viii -- -- -- discussion by, viii

ABORIGINES of South America, 7

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Russian, Quotation from records of, 212

ADAMS, HENRY C., Review of report on railway operations by, 255

ADELUNG, J. C., Geographic work by, 211 --, Quotation from, on de l'Isle's map, 212, 213, 214

ADMIRALTY BAY, 56

AFRICA, Area of, 32 --, Conquest and division of, 31 --, Natural divisions of, 238 --, Population of, 238 -- (The Heart of); E. C. Hore, 238

AGASSIZ GLACIER, Ascent of, 147 -- -- named, 73

AGE of St. Elias range, 175

ALASKA (An expedition to Mount St. Elias,); I. C. Russell, 53 --, Boundaries of, 237 --, Early works concerning, 206 --, Report of committee on exploration in, 248

ALLEN, JAMES, cited on isostaths, 44

ALPENSTOCKS, Necessity for, 165

ALPINE glaciers, 176, 180

ALTON, EDMUND, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

ALVORD, H. E., Remarks by, at field meeting, x

AMAZON, Discovery of the, 11 --, Sketch of the, 4

AMENDMENT to by-laws proposed, xii

ANDES, General description of the, 1

ANEMOMETER formula devised by C. F. Marvin, 49

ANGOT, A., Reference to work of, 46

ANTIQUITIES of Peru, 8

ARCHANGELICA, Mention of, 89, 114

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, Sketch of, 19

ASIA, Exploration in, 253

ATREVIDA, Mention of the, 63, 92, 105

AURIFEROUS sands from Yakutat bay, 196

AVALANCHES, 145, 155

BAIE DE MONTI, 56 -- named by La Pérouse, 60

BAKER, MARCUS, cited on early eclipses, 220 -- -- -- Mount St. Elias, 232 --, Explorations by, 70, 72 --, Reference to bibliography by, 58 --, Record of discussion by, viii, ix

BASE LINE, Measurement of, 86

BATES, H. W., Quotation from, on South America, 29

BEAR, Meeting with the, 94, 109

BELCHER, SIR EDWARD, Explorations by, 68, 69

BELL, A. GRAHAM, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

BELL, CHARLES J., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

BELLIN, S., Geographic work by, 207

BERING BAY, Mention of, 56

BERING'S first voyage (The cartography and observations of); A. W. Greely, 205 -- provisions, 219

BERING, VITUS, Explorations by, 58

BERG, M., cited on thunderstorms, 44

BIEN, MORRIS, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

BIGELOW, F. H., Record of communication by, viii

BIRNIE, JR., ROGERS, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

BLACK GLACIER, Brief account of, 101, 104

BLODGETT, J. H., Record of discussion by, vii, ix

BLOSSOM ISLAND, Description of, 113, 122

BOARD ON GEOGRAPHIC NAMES, Institution of the, 39

BONVALOT, G., Crossing of Tibet by, 253

BOURSIN, HENRY, Mention of, 79

BRAZIL, Revolution in, 36 --, Sketch of, 17

BROKA, GEORGE, Explorations by, 73, 74

BUACHE, PHILLIPE, Geographic work by, 208

BUCHAN, ALEX., Reference to work of, 44

BUCKLE, SIR HENRY, Quotation from, on tropical America, 29

BY-LAWS, Proposed amendment to the, xii

CAMP hands, 166

CARPENTER, Z. T., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

CARTOGRAPHY, Discussion of, 251 -- (The) and Observations of Bering's First Voyage; A. W. Greely, 205

CASCADE GLACIER named, 144

CENTURY COMPANY, Offer of coöperation by, 249

CHAIX HILLS named, 73

CHARIOT, THE, Mention of, 140

CHATHAM, Mention of, 66

CHERIKOF, ALEXEI, Explorations of, 58

CHINA, Exploration in, 253

CHRISTIE, J. H., Member of expedition, 76 --, Work of, 82, 83, 84, 96, 103, 112, 113, 123, 162

CLIMATE of South America, 6

CLOVER, RICHARDSON, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, Explorations by, 70, 72 --, Offer of coöperation by, 249

COLD WAVES, Prediction of, 51

COLLETT, M. J., Review of map described by, 250

COMMERCE of South America, 17, 19, 23

COOK, CAPTAIN JAMES, Explorations of, 58

CORDILLERAS of South America, 1

CORWIN CLIFFS, Mention of, 138

CORWIN (The) in Disenchantment bay, 100 -- Return of the, 163

CREVASSES, 181, 182 -- at Pinnacle pass, 130

CROSS SOUND, visited by Vancouver's expedition, 67

CRUMBACK, J. H., Member of expedition, 76 --, Work of, 96, 103, 122, 125, 129, 131, 135, 137

CURTIS, W. E., Record of communication by, xi

CYCLONES, Theory of, 42

DAGELET, M., Mention of, 60

DAHLGREN, ULRICA, Presentation of flag by, viii

{258}

DALL, W. H., cited on Bering's first voyage, 205 -- -- -- -- supplies, 219 -- -- -- de l'Isle's map, 218 -- -- -- early eclipses, 219 -- -- -- Mount St. Elias, 231 --, Explorations by, 70, 72 --, Quotation from, on map by de l'Isle, 207 --, Record of discussion by, vii --, Reference to bibliography by, 58

DALTON, JOHN, Glacier named for, 98 --, Mention of, 73

D'ANVILLE, M., cited on early eclipses, 229

DAVIS, W. M., Reference to meteorologic review by, 47

DEDEKEN, P., Crossing of Tibet by, 253

DEFINITION of formations in St. Elias region, 167

DEKALB, COURTENAY, Record of communication by, ix

DE L'ISLE, J. N., Authenticity of map by, 211, 213 --, Geographic work by, 206 --, Map by, 207 --, Quotation from, on eclipses, 220

DE MONTI BAY, Arrival at, 79

DESCUBIERTA (The), Mention of, 63

DESENGAÑO BAY, named by Malaspina, 63

DEVIL'S CLUB (_Panax horridum_), Mention of, 95, 115

DIGGES' SOUND, named by Vancouver, 68

DILLER, J. S., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

DIP at Pinnacle pass, 140

DISCOVERY (The), Mention of, 66

DISENCHANTMENT BAY, Canoe trip in, 96, 103 --, Last view of, 163 --, Mention of, 56 --, visited by Malaspina, 63, 64

DIXON, CAPTAIN GEORGE, Explorations of, 60, 62

DOBBINS, J. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

DOBBS, ARTHUR, Geographic work by, 210

DOME PASS named, 146

DONEY, L. S., Member of expedition, 76 --, Work of, 85, 158, 159, 160, 162

D'ORLEANS, PRINCE HENRI, Crossing of Tibet by, 253

DOUGLASS, E. M., Record of discussion by, xi

DOUGLASS, CAPTAIN, Explorations of, 62

DRY BAY, Mention of, 55

DU BOCAGE, BARBIC, Geographic work by, 211 --, Quotation from, on de l'Isle's map, 216

DU FOSSE, E., cited on early publications, 207

DU HALDE, PÈRE, Geographic work by, 206 --, Quotation from, on de l'Isle's map, 218

EARTHQUAKES, South American, 2

ECLIPSES, Early, observed in Kamshatka, 219, 229

EIFFEL TOWER, Use of, in meteorology, 46

EKHOLM, NILS, cited on isostaths, 43

ELDORADO, Early accounts of, 14

ELECTION of officers, xii

ESPERANZA, POINT, Mention of, 14, 85

EXPEDITION (An) to Mount St. Elias, Alaska; I. C. Russell, 53

EXPLORATION in Alaska, 248

FARENHOLT, LIEUTENANT COMMANDER O. F., of U. S. S. _Pinta_, 79

FAULTED pebble from Pinnacle pass, 171

FAULTS 83, 136 --, Thrust, in Hitchcock range, 118

FERREL, WILLIAM, cited on cyclones, 42 --, Reference to treatise by, 47

FINLEY, J. P., Reference to work of, 50

FLORAL HILLS, Brief account of, 105, 108

FLORAL PASS, Brief account of, 105, 108, 110

FORMATIONS of the St. Elias region, 167

FOSSILS at Pinnacle pass, 140 --, Description of, of Yakutat system, 172

FOSSIL PLANTS, Report on, by Lester F. Ward, 199, 200

FRANCE, Review of Staff Map of, 250

GABBRO on the Marvine glacier, 123

GALIANO, DON DIONISIO ALCALA, Mention of, 63

GALIANO GLACIER, Visit to, 89, 90

GANNETT, HENRY, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 --, Instructions from, 194 --, Review of railway operations by, 255 -- -- -- Staff Map of France, by, 250

GANNETT, S. S., Computation of height of Mount St. Elias, by, 235

GEOGRAPHIC names, Board of, 39

GEOGRAPHY of the Air; A. W. Greely, 41 -- -- -- Land; H. G. Ogden, 31

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, Acknowledgments to, 40 --, Instructions from, 192, 193, 194 --, Offer of coöperation by, 249

GEOLOGY of the St. Elias region, 167, 174, 190, 191

GILBERT, G. K., Instructions from, 192, 193 --, Record of discussion by, vii, ix, x --, Remarks by, at field meeting, x --, Report on exploration by, 250

GLACIAL currents, 187 -- river, Example of, 183 -- streams, 183, 184

GLACIER BAY, Mention of, 67

GLACIERS in Disenchantment bay in 1792, 64, 65, 97 -- -- -- -- observed by Malaspina, 64, 65 -- -- -- -- -- -- Puget, 67, 68 -- of the St. Elias region, 176 -- west of Icy bay, 187

GRACE, M. P., Financial operations by, 23

GREELY, A. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 -- cited on Mississippi floods, 38 --; Geography of the Air, 41 --, Note by, on polar regions, 252 -- -- -- -- the crossing of Tibet, 253 --, Record of communication by, vii, viii, xi --; The Cartography and Observations of Bering's First Voyage, 205

GUIANA, Sketch of, 13

GUIDES, Use of, in ascending St. Elias, 166

GUYOT GLACIER named, 73

HAENKE, D. TADEO, Haenke island named for, 65

HAENKE ISLAND, Condition of, when seen by Malaspina, 63, 64, 65, 97 --, Visit to, 96, 103

HANN, JULIUS, cited on cyclones, 42

HAYDEN, DR. F. V., Glacier named for, 108

HAYDEN, EVERETT, Contributions to exploration fund by, 75 --, Record of discussion by, vii, viii, ix, xi --, Report on exploration by, 250

HAYDEN GLACIER, Brief account of, 108, 110, 111

HAYS, J. W., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

HAZEN, H. A., Reference to work of, 50

HEIGHT and position of St. Elias, 189, 190

HENDRIKSEN, REVEREND CARL J., Mention of, 80, 83

HILL, S. A., Reference to work of, 47

HILL, R. T., Record of communication by, xiii

HITCHCOCK, PROFESSOR EDWARD, Range named for, 112

HITCHCOCK RANGE, Brief account of, 112 -- from Pinnacle pass, 133 --, Structure of, 118

{259}

HOOGEWERFF, J. A., Record of communication by, viii

HOOPER, CAPTAIN C. L., Navigation of Disenchantment bay, 56, 100 --, Offer of coöperation by, 249

HORE, E. C., Record of address by, vii --; The Heart of Africa, 238

HOSMER, E. S., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 --, Return of, 83 --, Volunteer assistant, 76

HOTCHKISS, JED., Record of communication by, ix, x --, Testimonial to, x

HOVEY, H. C., Record of communication by, x --, Remarks by, at field meeting, x

HOWELL, E. E., Record of communication by, xi

HUBBARD, GARDINER G., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 --, Glacier named for, 99 --, Presentation of flag by, viii --, Record of presidential address by, xiii --; South America: Annual address by the President, 1

HUBBARD GLACIER, Brief description of, 99

HUC, L'ABBÉ, Route of, 255

HUGHES, T. MCKENNEY, Record of communication by, x

ICEBERGS, Formation of, 98, 99, 101, 102 -- in Yakutat bay, Description of, 87

ICE tunnels, 184

INCAS of Peru, 8

INDIANS of South America, 7

INSTRUCTIONS from Geological Survey, 192, 193, 194 -- -- National Geographic Society, 194

IRVING, PROFESSOR R. D., Mountain named for, 144

JACKSON, SHELDON, Record of discussion by, ix

JOHNSON, J. B., Record of discussion by, xi

JOHNSON, WILLARD D., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75 --, Exploration planned by, 75 --, Record of discussion by, vii --, Report on exploration by, 250

JUDD, J. G., Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

JUNGEN, ENSIGN C. W., Mention of, 81

KAMSHATKA, Cartography of, 217 --, Early eclipses in, 219, 229

KERR, MARK B., assigned as an assistant, 75 -- cited on Mount St. Elias, 39 --, Report on topographic work by, 195

KHANTAAK ISLAND, Village on, 79, 80

KING, HARRY, Contribution to exploration fund by, 75

KNAPP, HON. LYMAN E., Mention of, 79

KNIGHT ISLAND, Scenery near, 83 -- named by Puget, 68

KNOWLTON, F. H., Report on fossil plants, 199

LA BOUSSOLE, Mention of, 58

LAKE CASTANI named, 73

LAKELETS on the glaciers, 119, 120

LAKES, Abandoned beds of, near Blossom island, 116