Chapter X: The Pampas to the Land of Fire (3)

[107] Brasseur de Bourbourg [a], ii. p. 556. The Mictlan myth is given, ib. p. 105.

[108] Oviedo, _TC_ xiv, p. 133.

[109] Lehmann [c], p. 717.

[110] See Lehmann [c], pp. 715-16.

[111] The ethnology of the Andean region is treated by Joyce [c], Wissler, _The American Indian_, and Beuchat, II. iv. Bastian, _Culturländer_, and Payne, _History_, give more extended views; while tribal distribution in its cultural relations is probably best presented by Schmidt, in _ZE_ xlv. Spinden, "The Origin and Distribution of Agriculture in America," and Means, "An Outline of the Culture-Sequence in the Andean Area," both in _CA_ xix (Washington, 1917), are significant contributions to the problem of origins and history; with these should be placed, "Orígenes Etnográficos de Colombia," by Carlos Cuervo Márquez, in the _Proceedings of the Second Pan American Scientific Congress_, i (Washington, 1917). Spinden conceives an archaic American culture, probably originating in Mexico and thence spreading north and south, which was based upon agriculture and characterized by the use of pottery, textiles, etc., and which, in the course of time, made its influence felt from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to that of La Plata. This hypothesis admirably accounts for the obvious affinities of the civilizations of the two continents.

[112] The linguistic and cultural affinities of the Isthmian tribes are described by Wissler, Beuchat, Joyce [c], and Thomas and Swanton; and on the archaeological side especially by Hartman [a], [b], and Holmes [c], [d]. For the broader analogies of the Central American, North Andean, and Antillean regions see also Saville, Cuervo Márquez, and Spinden's article mentioned in Note 111, _supra_. Spinden, _Maya Art (MPM)_, argues against the conception of extensive borrowing. Of the earlier authorities for this region, the important are Peter Martyr, Benzoni, Oviedo, Herrera, and Las Casas. Among writers of later times, Humboldt holds first place.

[113] Oviedo (_TC_), pp. 211-22. Other references in this paragraph are: Benzoni (_HS_), ii; Andagoya (_HS_), pp. 14-15; Cieza de León (_HS_),1864, ch. viii.

[114] Peter Martyr, 1912, ii (pp. 319, 326 quoted).

[115] Gabb, pp. 503-06; Pittier de Fábrega [b], pp. 1-9; Las Casas [b], ch. cxxv.

[116] The most recent work, summarizing the legend of El Dorado, is Zahm [b]; and the earliest versions of the tale are those of Simon, Fresle, Piedrahíta, Cavarjal, and Castellanos, the latter of whom incorporated the story in his poetical _Elejias de Varones Ilustres de Indias_, which was printed at Madrid, in 1850. Critical accounts, in addition to Zahm, are Bollaert's "Introduction" to Simon's _Expedition of Pedro de Ursua_ (Spanish in Serrano y Sanz, _Historiadores de Indias_, ii) and in Bandelier's _The Gilded Man_. On the historical side, especially as regards the period of the Conquest, Andagoya, Castellanos, Carvajal, Fresle, Simon, give unforgettable pictures of the adventurous extravagance and _bizarrerie_ of a time scarcely to be paralleled in human annals. Father Zahm's _Quest of El Dorado_ is an inviting introduction to this literature.

[117] For Chibchan ethnology and archaeology, see Joyce [c], Acosta de Samper, and Cuervo Marquez.

[118] Cieza de León (_HS_), 1864, pp. 59, 88, 101.

[119] The primary sources for the mythology of the Chibchan tribes at the time of the Conquest are Pedro Simon, Lucas Fernandez Piedrahíta (especially I, iii, iv), and Cieza de León. Simon's "Cuarta Noticia," in eighteen chapters, is the fullest exposition of Chibcha beliefs and history; along with the "Tercera Noticia" it is printed in Kingsborough, viii, which is here cited (pp. 244, 263-64 quoted). Other authorities include Humboldt, Joyce [c], chh. i, ii; Acosta de Samper, ch. viii; Sir Clements Markham, art. "Andeans," in _ERE_; and Beuchat, pp. 549-50. On the deluge myth see also Bandelier [c].

[120] The story of the giants is given by Cieza de León [a], ch. lii; see also Velasco, p. 12; Bandelier [b], where the literature of the subject is assembled; and Saville, 1907, p. 9. The archaeology of the region, with numerous plates, is presented in Saville's reports; ii. 88-123 (1910) contains a description and discussion of the stone seats; while brief accounts are to be found in Beuchat and in Joyce [c].

[121] Velasco is the chief authority for the career of the people of Cara. The discoveries of Dorsey on the island of La Plata give an added significance to these tales of men from the sea.

[122] Balboa (_TC_), ch. vii; cf. Joyce [c], ch. iii.

[123] The history and archaeology of aboriginal Peru is summarized by Markham, _The Incas of Peru_ (1910), to which his notes and introductions to his many translations of Spanish works, published by the Hakluyt Society, form a varied supplementation. Among earlier authorities E. G. Squier, _Travel and Exploration in the Land of the Incas_ (1877), and Castelnau, _Expédition_ (1850-52), are eminent; while of later authorities the more conspicuous are: for Inca monuments, Bingham, of the Yale Expedition, and Baessler; for Tiahuanaco, Créqui-Montfort, of the Mission scientifique française à Tiahuanaco, Bandelier, Gonzalez de la Rosa, Posnansky, Uhle and Stübel; for the coastal regions, Baessler, Reiss and Stübel, Uhle, Tello; and for the Calchaqui territories, Ambrosetti, Boman, and Lafone Quevado. General and comparative studies are presented in Wissler, _The American Indian_; Beuchat, _Manuel_; Joyce, _South American Archeology_; Spinden, _Handbook_; while a careful effort to restore the sequences of cultures in Peru is Means, "Outline of the Culture-Sequence in the Andean Area," in _CA_ xix (Washington, 1917).

[124] Cieza de León [a], ch. xxxvi.

[125] The origin of agriculture in America is regarded by Spinden, "The Origin and Distribution of Agriculture in America," _CA_ xix (Washington, 1917), as probably Mexican. From Mexico it passed north and south, reaching its limiting areas in the neighbourhoods of the St. Lawrence and of La Plata. Cf. Wissler, _The American Indian_.

[126] Montesinos's lists are analyzed by Markham [a]. See, also, Means; cf. Pietschmann.

[127] Uhle, especially [a], [c], and art., _CA_ xviii (London, 1913), "Die Muschelhügel von Ancon, Peru"; Bingham [b], [c].

[128] Means, _CA_ xix (Washington, 1917), p. 237, gives as the general chronological background of Peruvian culture:

?-_circa_ 200 B. C. Preliminary migrations. _circa_ 200 B. C.-600 A. D. Megalithic Empire. _circa_ 600-1100 A. D. Tampu-Tocco Period, decadence. _circa_ 1100-1530 A. D. Inca Empire.

He also gives in the same article, p. 241, a most interesting comparative restoration of the chronologies of the sequence of culture in the several Peruvian and Mexican centres, namely:

[129] For the myths and religion of the coastal peoples of Peru the important early authorities are Arriaga, Avila, Balboa, Cieza de León, and Garcilasso de la Vega. Markham [a], especially chh. xiv, xv, is the primary authority here followed. For archaeological details the authorities are Baessler; Bastian; Joyce [c], ch. viii; Squier [e]; Tello; Putnam; and Uhle. It is from this coastal region that the most striking Peruvian pottery comes, the Truxillo and Nasca styles respectively typifying the Chimu and Chincha groups.

[130] Tello, "Los antiguos cementerios del valle de Nasca," p. 287, suggests three criteria by means of which the mythological nature of such figures is to be inferred: When symbolical attributes are indicated by the animal's carrying mystical or thaumaturgical objects; when the figure retains, through a variety of representations, certain constant, individualizing traits; and when the same image is used repeatedly on the more notable types of cultural and artistic objects. Señor Tello believes Nasca religion to have been totemic in character.

[131] It is reproduced by Joyce [c], p. 155.

[132] Garcilasso's accounts of the coastal religion are scattered through his inchoate work, the more important passages being bk. ii, ch. iv; bk. vi, chh. xvii, xviii.

[133] Summarized by Markham [a], p. 216.

[134] Summarized by Markham [a], pp. 235-36.

[135] Avila [b].

[136] Avila's _Narrative_ in _Rites and Laws of the Yncas (HS)_, 1883, pp. 121-47, is the authority for the myths given in the text; but several of the stories appear also in Molina, Salcamayhua, and Sarmiento, showing that the mythic cycle was widespread, extending into the highlands as well as along the coast. The people from whom Avila received his tales were of a tribe that had migrated from the coast to higher valleys.

[137] The Tiahuanaco monolith is interpreted by Squier [e], ch. xv; Markham [a], ch. ii; Gonzalez de la Rosa, "Les deux Tiahuanaco," _CA_ xvi (1910); and by Posnansky, "El signo escalonado," _CA_ xviii (1913). The latter regards the meander design, or its element, the stair-design in its various forms, as a symbol of the earth; and he believes Tiahuanaco to be the place of origin of this symbol, whence it spread northward into Mexico. It is, of course, among the Pueblo Indians of the United States an earth-symbol. If this be the correct interpretation, the central figure is the sun, rising or standing above the earth. Bandelier [e] gives ancient and modern myths in regard to Titicaca and its environs.

[138] Representations of pottery and other designs from the Diaguité region showing the influence of Tiahuanaco and possibly Nasca influence are to be found in the publications of Ambrosetti, Boman, Lafone Quevado and others. Perhaps the most interesting is the potsherd showing the figure of a deity (?) bearing an axe with a trident-like handle, while near him is what seems clearly to be a representation of a thunderbolt; a trophy head is at his girdle.

[139] Markham [a], pp. 41-42. Caparó y Pérez, _Proceedings of the Second Pan American Scientific Congress_, section i, pp. 121-22, interprets the name "Uirakocha" as composed of _uira_, "grease," and _kocha_ "sea"; and, since grease is a symbol for richness and the sea for greatness, it "signified that which was great and rich."

[140] Molina (Markham, _Rites and Laws_), p. 33.

[141] Markham [a], ch. viii; another version is given by Markham [c]; while the text and Spanish translation are in Lafone Quevado [a]. Cf. the fragments from Huaman Poma given by Pietschmann [b], especially the prayer, p. 512: "Supreme utmost Huiracocha, wherever thou mayest be, whether in heaven, whether in this world, whether in the world beneath, whether in the utmost world, Creator of this world, where thou mayest be, oh, hear me!"

[142] Salcamayhua (Markham, _Rites and Laws_), pp. 70-72.

[143] Bandelier [d], [e], especially pp. 291-329.

[144] Molina, _op. cit._; Cieza de León [b], ch. v, pp. 5-10; Sarmiento, pp. 27-39; and for summary of the narrative of Huaman Poma, Pietschmann, _CA_ xviii (London, 1913), pp. 511-12.

[145] Viracocha and Tonapa obviously belong to the group, or chain, of hero-deities of a like character, extending from Peru to Mexico, and, in modified forms, far to the north and far to the south of each of these centres. This personage, as a hero, is a man, bearded, white, aided by a magic wand or staff, who brings some essential element of culture and departs; as a god, he is a creator, who appeared after the barbaric ages of the world and introduced a new age (there are exceptions to this, as the narrative of Huaman Poma); further, he is a deity of the heavens, the plumed- or the double-headed serpent is his emblem, perhaps his incarnation, and he is closely associated with the sun, which seems to be his servant. Is it not entirely possible that this interesting mythic complex is historically associated, in its spread, with the spread of the cultivation of maize at some early period? In the Navaho representations of Hastsheyalti, the white god of the east, bearded with pollen, and himself creator and maize-god, with the Yei as his servants, and his two sons (in the tale of "The Stricken Twins") genii respectively of rain (vegetation) and of animals (see _Mythology of All Races_, Boston, 1916, x, ch. viii, sections ii, iv) we have the essential attributes of this deity and at the same time an image of his probable function, as sky-god associated especially with the whiteness of dawn, with rain-giving, and hence with growing corn. The staff, which is the conspicuous attribute of Tonapa and Bochica in particular, may well bear a double significance: in the hands of the hero, as the dibble of the maize-planter; in the hands of the god, as the lightning. In any case, there are a multitude of analogies, not only in the myths, but also in the art-motives and symbolisms of the group of tribes which extends from the Diaguité to the North American Pueblo regions that powerfully suggest a common origin of the ideas which centre about the cult of heaven and earth, of descending rain and upspringing maize. Many partial parallels for the same group of ideas are to be found among the less advanced tribes of the plains and forest regions of both South and North America. Possibly, the myth, or at least the rites upon which it rests, accompanied the knowledge of agriculture into these regions.

[146] Lafone Quevado [a], p. 378.

[147] Garcilasso de la Vega, bk. i, chh. xv, xvi. The myth is also given by Acosta, bk. i, ch. xxv; bk. vi, ch. xx; by Sarmiento, chh. xi-xiv; and by Salcamayhua (Markham, _Rites and Laws_), pp. 74-75.

[148] Garcilasso de la Vega, bk. ii, ch. xviii; bk. viii, ch. viii; cf. bk. ix, ch. x.

[149] Molina, pp. 11-12.

[150] The Inca pantheon is described by Markham [a], chh. viii, ix, and by Joyce [c], ch. vii. The primary sources are Garcilasso de la Vega, Cieza de León, Molina, Salcamayhua, and Sarmiento, and perhaps most important of all Blas Valera, the "Anonymous Jesuit" whose writings were utilized by various early narrators. Salcamayhua's chart is published by Markham, in a corrected form, in _Rites and Laws of the Yncas_, p. 84. The literal reproduction accompanies Hagar's discussion of it, _CA_ xii, and it has been several times reproduced. Its interpretation is discussed by Hagar, _loc. cit._; Spinden, _AA_, new series, xviii (1916); Lafone Quevado [b], and "Los Ojos de Imaymana," with a reproduction of the chart which he characterizes as "the key to Peruvian symbolism"; cf., also, Ambrosetti, _CA_ xix (Washington, 1913).

[151] The myth of the Ayars is recorded by Sarmiento, x-xiii; it is discussed by Markham [a], ch. iv, where are the interpretations of the names adopted in this text.

[152] Cieza de León [b], chh. vi-viii (pp. 13, 16, quoted).

[153] Garcilasso de la Vega, bk. i, ch. xviii.

[154] The argument for the antiquity of man in South America rests mainly upon the discoveries and theories of Ameghino, especially, _La Antigüedad del hombre en la Plata_ (2 vols., Buenos Aires and Paris, 1880) and artt. in _AnMB_, who is followed by other Argentinian savants. Ales Hrdlicka, _Early Man in South America (52 BBE_, Washington, 1912), examines the claims made for the several discoveries and uniformly rejects the assumption of their great age, in which opinion he is generally followed by North American anthropologists; as cf. Wissler, _The American Indian_ (New York, 1917). The theory favored by Hrdlicka and others is of the peopling of the Americas by successive waves of immigrants from north-eastern Asia, with possible minor intrusions of Oceanic peoples along the Pacific coasts of the southern continent.

[155] The sketch of South American ethnography in d'Orbigny's _L'Homme américain_ is, of course, now superseded in a multitude of details; it appears, however, to conform, in broad lines, to the deductions of later students. In addition to d'Orbigny and Schmidt (_ZE_ xlv, 1913), Brinton, _The American Race_, Beuchat, _Manuel_, and Wissler, _The American Indian_, present the most available ethnographic analyses.

[156] "Linguistic Stocks of South American Indians," in _AA_, new series, xv (1913); also, Wissler, _The American Indian_, pp. 381-85, listing eighty-four stocks. It must be borne in mind, however, that the tendency of minute study is eventually to diminish the number of linguistic stocks having no detectable relationships, and that, in any case, classifications based upon cultural grade are more important for the student of mythology than are those based upon language alone.

[157] Brett [a], p. 36; other quotations from this work are from pp. 374, 401, 403.

[158] King Blanco, pp. 63-64. The lack of significant early authorities for the mythologies of the region of Guiana and the Orinoco (Gumilla is as important as any) is compensated by the careful work of later observers of the native tribes, especially of Guiana. Among these, Humboldt, Sir Richard and Robert H. Schomburgk, and Brett, in the early and middle years of the nineteenth century, and im Thurn, at a later period, hold first place, while the contributions of van Coll, in Anthropos ii, iii (1907, 1908), are no less noteworthy. Latest of all is Walter Roth's "Inquiry into the Animism and Folk-Lore of the Guiana Indians," in 30 _ARBE_ (1915), which, as a careful study of the myth-literature of a South American group, stands in a class by itself; it is furnished with a careful bibliography. The reader will understand that the intimate relation between the Antillean and Continental Carib (and, to a less extent, Arawakan) ideas brings the subject-matter of this chapter into direct connexion with that of Chapter I; while it should also be obvious that the Orinoco region is only separated from the Amazonian for convenience, and that Chapter X is virtually but a further study of the same level and type of thought. The bibliographies of Chh. I, VI, and X are supplementary, for this same region, to that given for Chapter VIII.

[159] Humboldt [b] (Ross), iii. 69; im Thurn, pp. 365-66.

[160] Surely one may indulge a wry smile when told that "heavenly father" and "creator" are no attributes of God, and may be reasonably justified in preferring Sir Richard Schomburgk's judgment, where he says (i. 170): "Almost all stocks of British Guiana are one in their religious convictions, at least in the main; the Creator of the world and of mankind is an infinitely exalted being, but his energy is so occupied in ruling and maintaining the earth that he can give no special care to individual men." This unusual reason for the indifference of the Supreme Being toward the affairs of ordinary men is probably an inference of the author's. Roth commences his study of Guiana Indian beliefs with a chapter entitled, "No Evidence of Belief in a Supreme Being," and begins his discussion with the statement: "Careful investigation forces one to the conclusion that, on the evidence, the native tribes of Guiana had no idea of a Supreme Being in the modern conception of the term," quoting evidence, from Gumilla and others, which to the present writer seems to point in just the opposite direction. Of course, the phrase "in the modern conception of the term" is the key to much difference in judgement. If it means that savages have no conception of a Divine Ens, Esse, Actus Purus, or the like, definable by highly abstract attributes, _ça va sans dire_; but if the intention is to say that there is no primitive belief in a luminous Sky Father, creator and ruler, good on the whole, though not preoccupied with the small details of earthly and human affairs, such a conclusion is directly opposed to all evidence, early and late, North American and South American, missionary and anthropological. Cf. _Mythology of All Races_, x, Note 6, and references there given; and, in the present volume, not only Ch. I, iii (Ramon Pane is surely among the earliest), but also--passing over the numerous allusions in descriptions of the pantheons of the more advanced tribes (Chh. II-VII)--Ch. IX, iii (early and late for the low Brazilian tribes); Ch. X, ii, iii, iv.

[161] Sir Richard Schomburgk, ii. 319-20; i. 170-72. Roth gives legends from many sources touching these deities and others of a similar character.

[162] Humboldt [b] (Ross), ii. 362.

[163] See above, note 157.

[164] This tale is translated and abridged from van Coll, in _Anthropos_, ii, 682-89; Roth, chh. vii, xviii, affords an excellent commentary.

[165] Brett [a], ch. x, pp. 377-78.

[166] Humboldt [b] (Ross), ii. 182-83, 473-75. Descriptions of the petroglyphs are to be found in Sir Richard Schomburgk, i. 319-21, and im Thurn, ch. xix.

[167] Boddam-Whetham, _Folk-Lore_, v. 317 (im Thurn, p. 376, misquoting Brett, calls this an Arawakan tale); for other creation legends, see Roth, ch. iv.

[168] Van Coll, _Anthropos_, iii. 482-86.

[169] Humboldt [b] (Ross), iii. 362-63; other citations from Humboldt in this section are, _id. op._, iii. 70; ii. 321; iii. 293, 305; ii. 259-60, in order.

[170] Boddam-Whetham, _Folk-Lore_, v. 317-21.

[171] Sir Richard Schomburgk, i. 239-41; im Thurn, p. 384. Other quotations are from Ruiz Blanco, pp. 66-67; Brett [a], pp. 278, 107, 356.

[172] For contemporary beliefs about Lope de Aguirre, see Mozans (J. A. Zahm), [a], pp. 264-67.

[173] The myth of the Amazons is not only the earliest European legend to become acclimated in America (cf. Ch. I, ii [with Note 5], iv; Ch. VIII, iii), it is also one of the most obstinate and recurrent, and a perennial subject of the interest of commentators. For general discussions of the question, see Chamberlain, "Recent Literature on the South American Amazons," in _JAFL_ xxiv. 16-20 (1911), and Rothery, _The Amazons in Antiquity and Modern Times_ (London, 1910), which reviews the world-wide scope and forms of the myth, chh. viii, ix, being devoted to the South American instances. Still more recent is Whiffen, _The Northwest Amazons_ (New York, 1916), pp. 239-402.

[174] Markham [e], p. 122. Carvajal is cited in the same work, pp. 34, 26.

[175] Magalhães de Gandavo, ch. x (_TC_, pp. 116-17); Schmidel (Hulsius), ch. xxxiii; Raleigh (in _Hakluyt's Voyages_, vol. x), pp. 366-68.

[176] Humboldt [b] (Ross), ii. 395 ff.; iii. 79. Lore pertaining to the Amazon stone is hardly second to that dealing with the Amazons themselves. Authorities here cited are La Condamine, pp. 102-113; Spruce, ii, ch. xxvi (p. 458 quoted); Ehrenreich [b], especially pp. 64, 65, with references to Barbosa Rodrígues and to Brett [b]. Others to consult are Rothery, ch. ix; T. Wilson, "Jade in America," in _CA_ xii (Paris, 1902); J. E. Pogue, "Aboriginal Use of Turquoise in North America," in _AA_, new series, xiv (1912); and I. B. Moura, "Sur le progrès de l'Amazonie," in _CA_ xvi (Vienna, 1910).

[177] See _Mythology of All Nations_, x. 160, 203, 205, 210, and Note 64.

[178] Netto, _CA_ vii (Berlin, 1890), pp. 201 ff.

[179] Acuña (Markham [e]), p. 83. The literature of a region so vast as that of the basin of the Amazon and the coasts of Brazil is itself naturally great and scattered. The earlier narratives--such as those of Acuña, Cardim, Carvajal, Orellana, Ortiguerra, de Léry, Ulrich Schmidel, and Hans Staden--are valuable chiefly for the hints which they give of the aboriginal prevalence of ideas studied with more understanding by later investigators. Among the more important later writers are d'Orbigny, Couto de Magalhães, Ehrenreich, Koch-Grünberg, von den Steinen, Whiffen, and Miller; while Teschauer's contributions to _Anthropos_, i, furnish the best collection for the Brazilian region as a whole.

[180] Kunike, "Der Fisch als Fruchtbarkeitssymbol," in _Anthropos_ vii (1912), especially section vi; Teschauer [a], part i, texts (mainly derived from Couto de Magalhães); Tastevin, sections iii, vi; Garcilasso de la Vega, bk. i, chh. ix, x (quoted).

[181] Cook, p. 385; cf. Whiffen, chh. xv, xvi, xviii; and von den Steinen [b], pp. 239-41.

[182] Whiffen, pp. 385-86. The myths of manioc and other vegetation are from Teschauer [a], p. 743; Couto de Magalhães, ii. 134-35; Whiffen, _loc. cit._; and Koch-Grünberg [a], ii. 292-93.

[183] The legends of St. Thomas are discussed by Granada, ch. xv, especially pp. 210-15 (cf. also, ch. xx, "Origen mítico y excelencias del urutaú," with accounts of the vegetation-spirit Ñeambiú). The suggested relationship of Brazilian and Peruvian myth is considered by Lafone Quevado in _RevMP_ iii. 332-36; cf., also, Wissler, _The American Indian_, pp. 198-99. It may be worth noting that there is a group of South American names of mythic heroes or deities which might, in one form or another, suggest or be confounded with _Tomás_, among them the Guarani _Tamoi_ (same as Tupan, and perhaps related to Tonapa), the Tupi _Zume_. The legend has been discussed in the present work in Ch. VII, iv.

[184] Koch-Grünberg [a], ii. 173-34; for details regarding the use of masks and mask-dances, see also Whiffen; Tastevin; M. Schmidt, ch. xiv; Cook, ch. xxiii; Spruce, ch. xxv; von den Steinen [b]; and Stradelli.

[185] Cardim (Purchas, xvi), pp. 419-20; Thevet [b], pp. 136-39; Keane, p. 209; Ehrenreich [c], p. 34; Hans Staden [b], ch. xxii.

[186] Frič and Radin, p. 391; Ignace, pp. 952-53; von Rosen, pp. 656-67; Pierini, pp. 703 ff.

[187] D'Orbigny, vii, ch. xxxi, pp. 12-24; iv, 109-15; cf. also pp. 265, 296-99, 337, 502-10.

[188] Whiffen, ch. xvii (p. 218 quoted); Church, p. 235. The subject here is a continuation of that discussed in Ch. VIII, ii (with Note 160); in connexion with which, with reference to Brazil, the comment of Couto de Magalhães is significant (part ii, p. 122): "Como quer que seja, a idéa de un Deus todo poderoso, e único, não foi possuida pelos nossos selvagens ao tempo da descoberta da America; e pois não era possival que sua lingua tivesse uma palvra que a podesse expressar. Ha no entretanto um principio superior qualificado com o nome de Tupan a quem parece que attribuiam maior poder do que aos outras." The real question to be resolved is what are the necessary attributes of a "supreme being." Cf. _Mythology of All Nations_, x, Note 6.

[189] On wood-demons and the like, in addition to Cardim, see Teschauer [a], pp. 24-34; Koch-Grünberg, [a], i. 190; ii. 157; and Granada, ch. xxxi, "Demonios, apariciones, fantasmas, etc."

[190] On ghosts and metamorphoses, see Ignace, pp. 952-53; Frič and Radin; Frič [a]; von Rosen, p. 657; and Cook, p. 122.

[191] On were-beasts, see Ambrosetti [b]; cf. Garcilasso de la Vega, bk. i, ch. ix.

[192] _Loci citati_ touching cannibalism are Haseman, pp. 345-46; Staden [a], ch. xliii; [b], chh. xxv, xxviii; Cardim (Purchas), ii. 431-40; and Whiffen, pp. 118-24.

[193] Von den Steinen [b], p. 323.

[194] Couto de Magalhães, part i, texts.

[195] Steere, "Narrative of a Visit to the Indian tribes on the Purus River," in _Report of the U. S. National Museum, 1901_ (Washington, 1903).

[196] _Loci citati_ are Ehrenreich [b], pp. 34-40; [c], p. 34; Markham [d], p. 119; von den Steinen [a], p. 283; [b], pp. 322 ff.; Teschauer [a], pp. 731 ff. (citing Barbosa Rodrígues and others); Koch-Grünberg [b], no. 1.

[197] Feliciano de Oliveira, _CA_ xviii (London, 1913), pp. 394-96.

[198] Teschauer [a], p. 731. The Kaduveo genesis is given by Frič, in _CA_ xviii, 397 ff. Stories of both types are widespread throughout the two Americas.

[199] Couto de Magalhães, part i, texts. This is among the most interesting of all American myths; it is clearly cosmogonic in character, yet it reverses the customary procedure of cosmogonies, beginning with an illuminated world rather than a chaotic gloom. Possibly this is an indication of primitiveness, for the conception of night and chaos as the antecedent of cosmic order would seem to call for a certain degree of imaginative austerity; it is not simple nor childlike.

[200] Cardim (Purchas), p. 418.

[201] Adam [b], p. 319. Other sources for tales of the deluge are Borba [b], pp. 223-25; Kissenberth, in _ZE_ xl. 49; Ehrenreich [b], pp. 30-31; Teschauer; and von Martius.

[202] D'Orbigny, iii. 209-14; von den Steinen [a], pp. 282-85; [b], pp. 322-27; and cf. the Kapoi legends in Koch-Grünberg [a]. The Yuracara tale narrated by d'Orbigny is one of the best and most fully reported of South American myths.

[203] On the physical and ethnological conditions of the Chaco and the Abiponean districts the important authorities are Dobrizhoffer; Grubb [a], [b]; Koch, "Zur Ethnographie der Paraguay-Gebiete," in _MitAGW_ xxxiii (1903); for the southern region important are, _Voyages of the Adventure and the Beagle_; the publications of the _Mission scientifique du Cap Horn_; Cooper, _Analytical and Critical Bibliography of the Tribes of Tierra del Fuego and Adjacent Territory (63 BBE)_, with map; and _El Norte de la Patagonia_, with map, published by the Argentine Ministry of Public Works, Buenos Aires, 1914.

[204] D'Orbigny, _L'Homme américain_, p. 233; J. Guevara, _Historia_, pp. 32, 265 (citing Fernandez, _Relación historial_, p. 39).

[205] Dobrizhoffer, ii, ch. viii (pp. 57-59, 64-65 quoted); ch. x (p. 94 quoted).

[206] Grubb [b], chh. xi, xii, xiv (pp. 139-41 quoted), xvi (p. 163 quoted); cf. Karsten, sections i, iii.

[207] T. Guevara [a], i, ch. viii, "Los mitos y las ideas relijiosas de los Indios," pp. 223-25. Latcham, _JAI_ xxxix, gives an account of Araucanian ideas, in general corresponding to Guevara, to whom he is apparently indebted.

[208] Molina, ch. v (pp. 84, 86, 91 quoted).

[209] Vicuña Cifuentes, especially sections vi-xi, xiv-xvi, xxi-xxiii. This work is particularly valuable in that it collects the statements of many authorities in regard to the creatures of Chilean folk-lore.

[210] Dobrizhoffer, ii. 89-90.

[211] The cosmogony is in Molina, ch. v; the tale of the two brothers in Lenz, p. 225.

[212] Pigafetta, in _The First Voyage Around the World by Magellan_ (_HS_, series i, 1874), pp. 50-55.

[213] Ib., p. 5.

[214] Dobrizhoffer, ii. 89-90.

[215] Prichard, pp. 85-86, 97-98. To Prichard's evidence may be added that of Captain R. N. Musters, another recent traveller, quoted by Church, _Aborigines of South America_, pp. 294-95: "The religion of the Tehuelches is distinguished from that of the Araucanians and Pampas by the absence of any trace of sun worship.... There is no doubt that they do believe in a good Spirit, though they think he lives 'careless of mankind'"; Captain Musters regards the _gualichu_ as a class of daemonic powers--an altogether probable interpretation.

[216] D'Orbigny, _L'Homme américain_, pp. 220, 225; _Voyage of the Beagle_, ii. 161-62; cf. also i, ch. vi.

[217] Deniker [b] gives the myth of El-lal, after Lista.

[218] Darwin, pp. 240-42; Bridges, in _RevMP_ iii, p. 24.

[219] Fitzroy, ch. ix, pp. 180-81.

[220] Hyades and Deniker, ch. v, pp. 254-57.

[221] Cooper, _63 BBE_, pp. 145 ff., summarizes the scanty gleanings from the notes of travellers and missionaries touching Fuegian religious conceptions. The reference to the Salesian fathers (p. 147) is quoted from Cojazzi (p. 124); that to Captain Low is from Fitzroy (p. 190).

[222] Cooper, _op. cit._, pp. 162-64, citing various authorities.

[223] Despard, quoted by Cooper, _op. cit._, p. 148.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. ABBREVIATIONS

_AA_ American Anthropologist.

_AnMB_ Anales del Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires.

_AnMM_ Anales del Museo Nacional de México.

_AnMG_ Annales du Musée Guimet.

_ARBE_ Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington.

_BBE_ Bulletin of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington.

_CA_ Comptes rendus du Congrès des Américanistes.

_ERE _ Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.

_HS_ Works issued by the Hakluyt Society.

_JAFL_ Journal of American Folklore.

_JAI_ Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain
and Ireland.

_JSAP_ Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris.

_MitAGW_ Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien.

_MPM_ Memoirs of the Peabody Museum, Cambridge.

_PaPM_ Papers of the Peabody Museum.

_RevMP_ Revista del Museo de La Plata.

_SocAA_ Memorias y Revista de la Sociedad científica "Antonio Alzate."

_TC_ Voyages, Relations et Mémoires originaux pour servir à
l'histoire de la découverte de l'Amérique.
H. Ternaux-Compans, editor.

_ZE_ Zeitschrift für Ethnologie.

II. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL GUIDES

_Analytical and Critical Bibliography of the Tribes of Tierra del Fuego and Adjacent Territory (63 BBE)_. By JOHN M. COOPER. Washington, 1917.

_A Study of Maya Art_, "Bibliography." By H. J. SPINDEN. In _MPM_ vi (1913).

_Bibliografía Mexicana del siglo XVI._ By JOAQUÍN GARCÍA ICAZBALCETA. Mexico, 1860.

_Bibliography of the Anthropology of Peru._ By GEO. A. DORSEY. _Publications of the Field Columbian Museum, Anthropological Series_, ii, 1898.

_Bibliography of Peru. A.D. 1526-1907._ By SIR CLEMENTS MARKHAM. _HS_, series ii, Vol. xxii. Cambridge, 1907.

_Bibliotheca Americana Vetustissima._ By H. HARISSE. New York, 1866. Additions, Paris, 1872.

_Bibliothèque américaine ou catalogue des ouvrages relatifs à l'Amérique qui ont paru depuis sa découverte jusqu'à l'an 1700._ By H. TERNAUX-COMPANS. Paris, 1837.

_Catalogue de livres rares et précieux, manuscrits et imprimés, principalement sur l'Amérique et sur les langues du monde entier, composant la bibliothèque de M. Alph.-L. Pinart._ Paris, 1883.

_Dictionary of Works Relating to America from the Discovery to the Present Time._ By JOSEPH SABIN. Vols. i-xx. New York, 1868-92.

_Die Mythen und Legenden der südamerikanischen Urvölker._ "Literaturverzeichnis." By PAUL EHRENREICH. Berlin, 1905.

_Ensayo bibliográfico Mexicano del siglo XVII._ By VINCENTE DE P. ANDRADE. Mexico, 1900.

"Ergebnisse und Aufgaben der mexikanistischen Forschung." By WALTER LEHMANN. In _Archiv für Anthropologie_, neue Folge, Band vi (1907). Tr. SEYMOUR DE RICCI, _Methods and Results in Mexican Research_, Paris, 1909.

_Essai sur les sources de l'histoire des Antilles française (1492-1664)._ By Jacques de Dampierre. Paris, 1904.

_Historiadores de Yucatan._ By GUSTAVO MARTÍNEZ ALOMÍA. Campeche, 1906.

_History of Spanish Literature._ By GEORGE TICKNOR. 3 vols. Boston, 1854. 4th ed., Boston, no date.

_Idea de una nueva historia general de la America septentrional,_ with _Catálogo del Museo Histórico Indiano._ By LORENZO BOTURINI BENADUCCI. Madrid, 1746; also, Mexico, 1887.

_Las Publicaciones del Museo Nacional de Arqueología._ By JUAN B. IGUÍNEZ. Mexico, 1913.

_List of Publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology (58 BBE)._ Washington, 1914.

_Manuel d'archéologie américaine._ "Bibliographie." By H. BEUCHAT. Paris, 1912.

_"Museo Mitre," Catálogo de la biblioteca._ Published by the Ministerio de Justicia é Instrucción Pública. Buenos Aires.

_Narrative and Critical History of America._ By JUSTIN WINSOR. Vol. i, _Aboriginal America_, "Bibliographical Appendix." Boston, 1889.

_Native Races of the Pacific States of North America._ By H. H. BANCROFT. Vol. i, "Authorities Quoted." New York, 1785.

"Notes on the Bibliography of Yucatan and Central America." By A. F. BANDELIER. In _American Antiquarian_, new series, i (1882).

"Recent Literature on the South American Amazons." By A. F. CHAMBERLAIN. In _JAFL_, xxiv (1911).

Note.--Where important bibliographies are attached to works here below listed the fact is indicated: ¶Bibliography.

III. ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL GUIDES

_Aborigines of South America._ By COL. G. E. CHURCH. London, 1912.

"A list of the Tribes of the Valley of the Amazons." By SIR CLEMENTS MARKHAM. In _JAI_ xl (1910).

_Ancient Civilizations of Mexico and Central America (American Museum of Natural History, Handbook Series, No. 3)._ By H. J. SPINDEN. New York, 1917.

"Areas of American Culture." By W. H. HOLMES. In _AA_, new series, xvi (1914). Also in _Anthropology in North America_, by F. BOAS and others; New York, 1915. With map.

_A Study of Maya Art._ By H. J. SPINDEN. In _MPM_ vi (1913).

_Beiträge zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas._ By C. P. VON MARTIUS. Leipzig, 1867.

_Biología Centrali-Americana. Archaeology._ By A. P. MAUDSLEY. 4 vols. London, 1889-1902.

_Catálogo de la colección de Antropología del Museo Nacional._ By ALONSO HERRERA and RICARDO E. CICERO. Mexico. 1895.

_Central and South America._ By A. H. KEANE. 2 vols. London, 1901.

_Early Man in South America (52 BBE)._ By ALES HRDLICKA. Washington, 1912.

_Familias linguísticas de Mexico._ By NICOLÁS LEÓN. Mexico, 1877; 2d éd., 1902. Also in _AnMM_ vii (1903). With map.

_Geografía, de las lenguas y carta etnográfica de México._ By MANUEL OROZCO Y BERRA. Mexico, 1864. With map.

_Indian Languages of Mexico and Central America (44 BBE)._ By CYRUS THOMAS and JOHN R. SWANTON. Washington, 1911. ¶Bibliography and map.

_In Indian Mexico._ By FREDERICK STARR. Chicago, 1908. Also, _Notes Upon the Ethnography of Southern Mexico_ (_Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Science_, ix). Davenport, 1902.

_Introduction to the Study of North American Archeology._ By CYRUS THOMAS. Cincinnati, 1903.

"Kulturkreise und Kulturschichten in Südamerika." By W. SCHMIDT. In _ZE_ xlv (1913). ¶Bibliography and map.

_L'Homme Américain._ By ALCIDE DESSALINES D'ORBIGNY. Tome iv of _Voyage dans l'Amérique méridionale ... éxecuté pendant les années 1826-1833_; 9 vols., Paris, 1835-47.

"Linguistic Stocks of South American Indians." By A. F. CHAMBERLAIN. In _AA_, new series, xv (1913). Also, "South American Linguistic Stocks," in _CA_ xv. 2 (1908).

_Manuel d'archéologie américaine._ By H. BEUCHAT. Paris, 1912.

_Moseteno Vocabulary and Treatises._ By BENIGNO BIBOLOTTI; with introduction by R. SCHULLER. Evanston and Chicago, 1917. ¶Bibliography and map (Bolivian Indians).

"Orígenes Etnográficos de Colombia." By CARLOS CUERVO MÁRQUEZ. In _Proceedings of the Second Pan American Scientific Congress_, Vol. i. Washington, 1917.

_Pre-Historic America._ By the MARQUIS DE NADAILLAC; ed. W. H. DALL, London and New York, 1884.

_South American Archaeology_, London, 1912; _Mexican Archaeology_, London, 1914; _Central American and West Indian Archaeology_, London, 1916. By T. A. JOYCE.

_The American Indian. An Introduction to the Anthropology of the New World._ By Clark Wissler. New York, 1917.

"The Indian Linguistic Stocks of Oaxaca, Mexico." By WM. H. MECHLING. In _AA_, new series, xiv (1912). ¶Bibliography.

"The Origin and Distribution of Agriculture in America." By H. J. SPINDEN. In _CA_ xix (Washington, 1917).

IV. GENERAL WORKS

_(a) Critical and Comparative_

BANCROFT, H. H., _The Native Races of the Pacific States_. 5 vols. New York, 1875.

BASTIAN, A., _Die Culturländer des Alten America_. 3 vols. Berlin, 1878-89.

BOAS, FRANZ, _The Mind of Primitive Man._ New York, 1911.

BRINTON, DANIEL G., [a], _Myths of the New World_. 3d ed. Philadelphia, 1896. ----[b], _American Hero Myths_. Philadelphia, 1882. ----[c], _Essays of an Americanist_. Philadelphia, 1890.

EHRENREICH, PAUL, [a], _Die allgemeine Mythologie und ihre ethnologischen Grundlagen._ Leipzig, 1910.

FALIÉS, LOUIS, _Études historiques et philosophiques sur les civilisations_. 2 vols. Paris, no date.

GRAEBNER, FRITZ, _Methode der Ethnologie_. Heidelberg, 1911.

LAFITAU, J. F., _Moeurs des sauvages amériquains_. Tomes i-ii. Paris, 1724. (An edition in 4 vols. was issued simultaneously.)

MÜLLER, J. G., _Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen_. Basel, 1867.

NUTTALL, ZELIA, [a], _The Fundamental Principles of Old and New World Civilizations_ (_PaPM_ ii). Cambridge, 1901.

PAYNE, EDWARD J., _History of the New World called America_. 2 vols. Oxford and New York, 1892, 1899.

SAPIR, E., _Time Perspective in Aboriginal American Culture, A Study in Method (G. S. C., Anthropological Series, No. 13)_. Ottawa, 1916.

THEVET, ANDRÉ, _Cosmographie universelle._ Paris, 1575.

_(b) Important Collections_

_Anales del Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires._ Vols. i-iii, 1864-91; second series, Vols. i-iv, 1895-1902; third series, Vols. i ff., 1902 ff. Buenos Aires.

_Anales del Museo Nacional de Mexico._ Vols. i-vii, 1877-1903; second series, Vols. i-v, 1903-09; third series, Vols. i ff., 1909 ff. Mexico.

_Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology (Smithsonian Institution)._ Washington, 1881 ff.

_Anthropological Publications, University of Pennsylvania, The Museum._ Vols. i ff., 1909 ff. Philadelphia.

_Antiquities of Mexico, comprising facsimiles of Ancient Mexican Paintings and Hieroglyphics ... together with the Monuments of New Spain, by M. Dupaix ... the whole illustrated by many valuable inedited manuscripts, by Lord Kingsborough._ Vols. i-ix. London, 1831-48.

_Biblioteca marítima española._ Ed. MARTÍN FERNÁNDEZ DE NAVARRETE. 2 vols. Madrid, 1851.

_Bibliothèque de linguistique et d'ethnographie américaines._ Ed. A. PINART. Vols. i-iv. San Francisco, 1876-82.

_Bulletin of the Bureau of American Ethnology (Smithsonian Institution)._ Washington, 1887 ff.

_Colección de documentos inéditos para la historia de España y de sus Indias._ Vols. i-xlii, 1864-84; second series, Vols. i-xiii, 1885-1900. Madrid. Also, _Nueva colección_, etc., Vols. i-vi, 1892-96. Madrid.

_Colección de documentos inéditos relativos al descubrimiento, conquista, y organización de las antiguas posesiones españolas de América y Oceania._ Vols. i.-xlii. Madrid, 1864-84. Second series [_Colección de documentos inéditos ... de ultramar_], Vols. i ff., 1885 ff.

_Colección de documentos inéditos para la historia de España._ Vols. i-cxii. Ed. M. F. DE NAVARRETE and others. Madrid, 1842-95.

_Colección de libros raros ó curiosos que tratan de América._ Vols. i ff. Madrid, 1891 ff.

_Colección de los viages y descubrimientos que hicieron por mar los Españoles desde fines del siglo XV._ ED. MARTÍN FERNÁNDEZ DE NAVARRETE. 5 vols. Madrid, 1835-37.

_Colección de documentos para la historia de México._ Ed. J. GARCÍA ICAZBALCETA. 2 vols. Mexico, 1858, 1866. Also, _Nueva Colección_, etc., 4 vols., Mexico, 1886-1892; and ed. A. PEÑAFIEL, _Colección de documentos para la historia mexicana_, Vols. i-vi. Mexico, 1897-1903.

_Comptes rendus du Congrès international des Américanistes._ Paris and elsewhere (biennially), 1878 ff.

_Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics._ Ed. JAS. HASTINGS. Vols. i ff., 1908 ff. Edinburgh and New York.

_Hakluyt's Voyages._ Vols. i-xii. Glasgow, 1904.

_Hakluytus Posthumus, or Purchas his Pilgrimes._ Vols. i-xx. Glasgow, 1905-1907.

_Historiadores de las Indias._ (_Nueva biblioteca de autores Españoles_, Nos. 13, 14.) Ed. MANUEL SERRANO Y SANZ. 2 vols. Madrid, 1909. Tomo i, _Apologética historia de las Indias, de Fr. Bartolomé de las Casas_. Tomo ii, _Guerra de Quito, de Cieza de León; Jornada del Rio Marañón, de Toribio de Ortiguera; Jornada de Omagua y Dorado; Descripción del Perú, Tucumán, Rio de la Plata y Chile, de Fr. Reginaldo de Lizárraga_.

_Historiadores primitivos de las Indias Occidentales._ Ed. A. G. BARCIA. 3 vols. Madrid, 1749.

_Historiadores primitivos de Indias (Biblioteca de autores Españoles)._ ED. ENRIQUE DE VEDIA. 2 vols. Madrid, 1852, 1862. Tomo i, _Cartas de relación, de Cortés; Hispania Victrix, de López de Gómara; Natural historia de las Indias, de Oviedo y Valdés;_ etc. Tomo ii, _Verdadera historia, de Bernal Diaz del Castillo; Conquista del Perú, de Francisco de Jerez; Crónica del Perú, de Cieza de León; Historia ... del Perú, de Augustin de Zárate_.

_Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris._ Vols. i-v, 1895-1904; new series, Vols. i ff., 1908 ff. Paris.

_Library of Aboriginal American Literature._ Ed. DANIEL G. BRINTON. 8 vols. Philadelphia, 1882-90.

_Memoirs of the Peabody Museum._ Cambridge, 1896 ff.

_Papers of the Peabody Museum._ Cambridge, 1888 ff.

_Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society._ New series. Worcester, 1882 ff.

_Proceedings of the Second Pan American Scientific Congress._ Vol. i. _Section I, Anthropology._ Washington, 1917.

_Publications of the Field Columbian Museum, Anthropological Series._ Vols. i ff. Chicago, 1895 ff.

_Relaciones históricas de América. Primera mitad del siglo XVI._ With introduction by MANUEL SERRANO Y SANZ. Madrid, 1916.

_Relaciones históricas y geográficas de América Central._ With introduction by MANUEL SERRANO Y SANZ. Madrid, 1908.

_Revista del Museo de la Plata._ La Plata, 1890 ff.

_Voyages, relations et mémoires originaux pour servir à l'histoire de la découverte de l'Amérique._ Ed. H. TERNAUX-COMPANS. Vols. i-xx. Paris, 1837-41. Also, with other editors, _Nouvelles annales des Voyages_, etc., in six series, Paris, 1819-65.

_Works Issued by the Hakluyt Society._ Vols. i-c. London, 1847-98. Second series, Vols. i ff., 1899 ff.

V. SELECT AUTHORITIES