Chapter IX: The Worship of Trees (3)

_The Classical Review_, xix. (1905) p. 331, referring to an
inscription found in Cos some years ago.

Footnote 22:

Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xv. 77; Tacitus, _Ann._ xiii. 58. The fig-tree is
represented on Roman coins and on the great marble reliefs which stand
in the Forum. See E. Babelon, _Monnaies de la République romaine_, ii.
336 _sq._; R. Lanciani, _Ruins and Excavations of Ancient Rome_
(London, 1897), p. 258; E. Petersen, _Vom alten Rom_ (Leipsic, 1900),
pp. 26, 27.

Footnote 23:

Plutarch, _Romulus_, 20.

Footnote 24:

K. Rhamm, “Der heidnische Gottesdienst des finnischen Stammes,”
_Globus_, lxvii. (1895) pp. 343, 348. This article is an abstract of a
Finnish book _Suomen suvun pakanillinen jumalen palvelus_, by J. Krohn
(Helsingfors, 1894).

Footnote 25:

“Heilige Haine und Bäume der Finnen,” _Globus_, lix. (1891) pp. 350
_sq._

Footnote 26:

P. S. Pallas, _Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen
Reichs_ (St. Petersburg, 1771-1776), iii. 60 _sq._

Footnote 27:

Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, i. 6. This was an opinion of the Stoic and
Peripatetic philosophy.

Footnote 28:

Washington Matthews, _Ethnography and Philology of the Hidatsa
Indians_ (Washington, 1877), pp. 48 _sq._

Footnote 29:

L. H. Morgan, _League of the Iroquois_ (Rochester, 1851), pp. 162,
164.

Footnote 30:

J. L. Krapf, _Travels, Researches, and Missionary Labours during an
Eighteen Years’ Residence in Eastern Africa_ (London, 1860), p. 198.

Footnote 31:

Rev. Lorimer Fison, in a letter to the author dated November 3, 1898.

Footnote 32:

J. Teit, “The Thompson Indians of British Columbia,” p. 349 (_Memoir
of the American Museum of Natural History, The Jesup North Pacific
Expedition_, vol. i. part iv.).

Footnote 33:

C. Hupe, “Over de godsdienst, zeden enz. der Dajakkers,” _Tijdschrift
voor Neêrlands Indië_, 1846 (Batavia), dl. iii. p. 158.

Footnote 34:

De la Loubere, _Du royaume de Siam_ (Amsterdam, 1691), i. 382. Compare
Mgr. Bruguière, in _Annales de l’Association de la Propagation de la
Foi_, v. (1831) p. 127.

Footnote 35:

The Buddhist conception of trees as animated often comes out in the
_Jatakas_. For examples see H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_, pp.
259 _sqq._; _The Jātaka_, bk. xii. No. 465, vol. iv. pp. 96 _sqq._
(English translation edited by E. B. Cowell).

Footnote 36:

J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, iv. (Leyden, 1901)
pp. 272 _sqq._

Footnote 37:

J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, v. (Leyden, 1907)
p. 663.

Footnote 38:

F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Südslaven_
(Münster i. W., 1890), p. 33.

Footnote 39:

A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_ (London,
1890), pp. 49 _sqq._ Compare _id._, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the
Gold Coast_ (London, 1887), pp. 34 _sqq._; _Missions Catholiques_, ix.
(1877) p. 71.

Footnote 40:

G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des peuples de l’Orient classique: les
origines_ (Paris, 1895), pp. 121 _sq._

Footnote 41:

Merolla, “Voyage to Congo,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, xvi.
236.

Footnote 42:

C. C. von der Decken, _Reisen in Ost-Afrika_ (Leipsic and Heidelberg,
1869-1871), i. 216. The writer does not describe the mode of appeasing
the tree-spirit in the case mentioned. As to the Wanika beliefs, see
above, p. 12.

Footnote 43:

Sir Harry Johnston, _The Uganda Protectorate_ (London, 1902), ii. 832.

Footnote 44:

J. B. L. Durand, _Voyage au Sénégal_ (Paris, 1802), p. 119.

Footnote 45:

S. J. Curtiss, _Primitive Semitic Religion To-day_ (Chicago, 1902), p.
94.

Footnote 46:

A. d’Orbigny, _Voyage dans l’Amérique Méridionale_ (Paris and
Strasburg, 1839-1843), ii. 157, 159 _sq._

Footnote 47:

A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _In Centraal-Borneo_ (Leyden, 1900), i. 146.

Footnote 48:

H. H. Romilly, _From my Verandah in New Guinea_ (London, 1889), p. 86.

Footnote 49:

D. C. J. Ibbetson, _Outlines of Panjab Ethnography_ (Calcutta, 1883),
p. 120.

Footnote 50:

W. von Schulenberg, “Volkskundliche Mittheilungen aus der Mark,”
_Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie
und Urgeschichte_ (1896), p. 189. Compare A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz,
_Nord-deutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_, p. 407, § 142; E. Meier,
_Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, p. 463, § 208; A.
Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_, ii. pp. 108 _sq._,
§§ 326, 327, p. 116, §§ 356, 358; A. Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus
Schwaben_, i. pp. 464 _sq._, § 6; K. Bartsch, _Sagen, Märchen und
Gebräuche aus Meklenburg_, ii. 228 _sq._; W. Kolbe, _Hessische
Volks-Sitten und Gebräuche_, 2nd Ed., p. 29; R. Andree,
_Braunschweiger Volkskunde_ (Brunswick, 1896), p. 234; R. Wuttke,
Sächsische Volkskunde 2nd Ed., (Dresden, 1901), p. 370. The custom has
been discussed by U. Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau
und Viehzucht_ (Breslau, 1884), pp. 214-220. He comes to the
conclusion, which I cannot but regard as erroneous, that the custom
was in origin a rational precaution to keep the caterpillars from the
trees. Compare the marriage of trees, below, pp. 24 _sqq._

Footnote 51:

J. Aubrey, _Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme_ (London, 1881), p.
247.

Footnote 52:

Peter Jones, _History of the Ojebway Indians_, p. 104.

Footnote 53:

J. J. M. de Groot, _Religious System of China_, iv. 274.

Footnote 54:

A. Peter, _Volksthümliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien_ (Troppau,
1865-67), ii. 30.

Footnote 55:

P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_, ii. (Berlin, 1891) p.
56 note 1.

Footnote 56:

A. Bastian, _Indonesien_, i. 154; compare _id._, _Die Völker des
östlichen Asien_, ii. 457 _sq._, iii. 251 _sq._, iv. 42 _sq._

Footnote 57:

J. de los Reyes y Florentino, “Die religiosen Anschauungen der
Ilocanen (Luzon),” _Mittheilungen der k. k. Geograph. Gesellschaft in
Wien_, xxxi. (1888) p. 556.

Footnote 58:

F. Gardner, “Philippine (Tagalog) Superstitions,” _Journal of American
Folk-lore_, xix. (1906) p. 191. These superstitions are translated
from an old and rare work _La Pratica del ministerio_, by Padre Tomas
Ortiz (Manila, 1713).

Footnote 59:

Th. Nöldeke, “Tigre-Texte,” _Zeitschrift für Assyriologie_, xxiv.
(1910) p. 298, referring to E. Littmann, _Publications of the
Princeton Expedition to Abyssinia_ (Leyden, 1910).

Footnote 60:

J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 394-396.

Footnote 61:

J. H. Neumann, “De _tĕndi_ in verband met Si Dajang,” _Mededeelingen
van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlviii. (1904) pp.
124 _sq._

Footnote 62:

From a letter of the Rev. J. Roscoe, written in Busoga, 21st May,
1908.

Footnote 63:

_Satapatha-Brâhmana_, translated by J. Eggeling, Part II. pp. 165
_sq._ (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xxvi.); H. Oldenberg, _Die
Religion des Veda_, pp. 256 _sq._

Footnote 64:

De la Loubere, _Du royaume de Siam_ (Amsterdam, 1691), i. 383.

Footnote 65:

G. Turner, _Samoa_, p. 63.

Footnote 66:

I. v. Zingerle, “Der heilige Baum bei Nauders,” _Zeitschrift für
deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (1859), pp. 33 _sqq._
According to Lucan (_Pharsal._ iii. 429-431), the soldiers whom Caesar
ordered to cut down the sacred oak-grove of the Druids at Marseilles
believed that the axes would rebound from the trees and wound
themselves.

Footnote 67:

W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_, pp. 198 _sq._ As to the durian-tree and
its fruit, see A. R. Wallace, _The Malay Archipelago_ 6th Ed.,
(London, 1877), pp. 74 _sqq._

Footnote 68:

W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), p. 165.

Footnote 69:

F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Südslaven_, p.
34; A. Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipsic, 1898), p. 352. Compare R. F.
Kaindl, “Aus der Volksüberlieferung der Bojken,” _Globus_, lxxix.
(1901) p. 152.

Footnote 70:

G. Pitrè, _Spettacoli e feste popolari_ (Palermo, 1881), p. 221;
_id._, _Usi e costumi, credenze e pregiudizi del popolo siciliano_,
iii. (Palermo, 1889) p. 111; G. Vuillier, “Chez les magiciens et les
sorciers de la Corrèze,” _Tour du monde_, N.S. v. (1899) p. 512.

Footnote 71:

M. Tchéraz, “Notes sur la mythologie Arménienne,” _Transactions of the
Ninth International Congress of Orientalists_ (London, 1893), ii. 827.
Compare M. Abeghian, _Der armenische Volksglaube_ (Leipsic, 1899), p.
60.

Footnote 72:

G. Finamore, _Credenze, usi, e costumi abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890), pp.
162 _sq._

Footnote 73:

Georgeakis et Pineau, _Folk-lore de Lesbos_ (Paris, 1894), p. 354.

Footnote 74:

Boecler-Kreutzwald, _Der Ehsten abergläubische Gebräuche, Weisen und
Gewohnheiten_ (St. Petersburg, 1854), p. 134.

Footnote 75:

M. J. van Baarda, “Fabelen, Verhalen, en Overleveringen der
Galelareezen,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van
Nederlandsch-Indië_, xlv. (1895) p. 511.

Footnote 76:

A. G. Vorderman, “Planten-animisme op Java,” _Teysmannia_, No. 2,
1896, pp. 59 _sq._; _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, ix.
(1896) p. 175.

Footnote 77:

A. G. Vorderman, _op. cit._ p. 60; _Internationales Archiv für
Ethnographie_, ix. (1896) p. 176.

Footnote 78:

A. G. Vorderman, _op. cit._ pp. 61-63.

Footnote 79:

A. de Humboldt, _Voyage aux régions équinoxiales du Nouveau
Continent_, ii. (Paris, 1819) pp. 369 _sq._, 429 _sq._

Footnote 80:

Elsdon Best, “Maori Nomenclature,” _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 197.

Footnote 81:

Herodotus, i. 193; Theophrastus, _Historia plantarum_, ii. 8. 4;
Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xiii. 31, 34 _sq._ In this passage Pliny states
that naturalists distinguished the sexes of all trees and plants. On
Assyrian monuments a winged figure is often represented holding an
object which looks like a pine-cone to a palm-tree. The scene has been
ingeniously and with great probability explained by Professor E. B.
Tylor as the artificial fertilisation of the date-palm by means of the
male inflorescence. See his paper in _Proceedings of the Society of
Biblical Archaeology_, xii. (1890) pp. 383-393. On the artificial
fertilisation of the date-palm, see C. Ritter, _Vergleichende Erdkunde
von Arabien_ (Berlin, 1847), ii. 811, 827 _sq._

Footnote 82:

D. Chwolsohn, _Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus_ (St. Petersburg, 1856),
ii. 36, 251. Mohammed forbade the artificial fertilisation of the
palm, probably because of the superstitions attaching to the ceremony.
But he had to acknowledge his mistake. See D. S. Margoliouth,
_Mohammed and the Rise of Islam_, p. 230 (a passage pointed out to me
by Dr. A. W. Verrall).

Footnote 83:

Sir W. H. Sleeman, _Rambles and Recollections of an Indian Official_
(Westminster, 1893), i. 38 _sq._; compare _Census of India, 1901_,
vol. xiii., _Central Provinces_, part i. p. 92.

Footnote 84:

_Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, lxxii., part iii.
(Calcutta, 1904) p. 42.

Footnote 85:

J. A. Dubois, _Mœurs, institutions et cérémonies des peuples de
l’Inde_ (Paris, 1825), ii. 448 _sq._; Monier Williams, _Religious Life
and Thought in India_, pp. 333-335; W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and
Folklore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 110 _sq._
According to another account, it is Vishnu, not Krishna, to whom the
holy plant is annually married in every pious Hindoo family. See
_Census of India, 1901_, vol. xviii., _Baroda_, p. 125.

Footnote 86:

Sir Henry M. Elliot, _Memoirs on the History, Folklore, and
Distribution of the Races of the North-western Provinces of India_,
edited by J. Beames (London, 1869), i. 233 _sq._

Footnote 87:

W. Crooke, _op. cit._ i. 49.

Footnote 88:

Sir W. H. Sleeman, _Rambles and Recollections of an Indian Official_
(Westminster, 1893), i. 147-149, 175. The _Salagrama_ is commonly
perforated in one or more places by worms or, as the Hindoos believe,
by the legendary insect Vajrakita or by Vishnu himself. The value of
the fossil shell depends on its colour, and the number of its
convolutions and holes. The black are prized as gracious embodiments
of Vishnu; the violet are shunned as dangerous avatars of the god. He
who possesses a black _Salagrama_ keeps it wrapped in white linen,
washes and adores it daily. A draught of the water in which the shell
has been washed is supposed to purge away all sin and to secure the
temporal and eternal welfare of the drinker. These fossils are found
in Nepaul, in the upper course of the river Gandaka, a northern
tributary of the Ganges. Hence the district goes by the name of
Salagrami, and is highly esteemed for its sanctity; a visit to it
confers great merit on a man. See Sonnerat, _Voyage aux Indes
Orientales et à la Chine_ (Paris, 1782), i. 173 _sq._; J. A. Dubois,
_Mœurs, institutions et cérémonies des peuples de l’Indie_ (Paris,
1825), ii. 446-448; Sir W. H. Sleeman, _op. cit._ i. 148 _sq._, with
the editor’s notes; Monier Williams, _Religious Thought and Life in
India_, pp. 69 _sq._; G. Watt, _Dictionary of the Economic Products of
India_, vi. Part II. (London and Calcutta, 1893) p. 384; W. Crooke,
_op. cit._ ii. 164 _sq._; _Indian Antiquary_, xxv. (1896) p. 146; G.
Oppert, _On the Original Inhabitants of Bharatavarsa or India_
(Westminster and Leipsic, 1893), pp. 337-359; _id._, “Note sur les
Sālagrāmas,” _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Inscriptions et
Belles-Lettres_ (Paris, 1900), pp. 472-485. The shell derives its name
of ammonite from its resemblance to a ram’s horn, recalling the
ram-god Ammon.

Footnote 89:

_Die gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie_ (Chemnitz, 1759), pp. 239 _sq._;
U. Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht_,
pp. 214 _sqq._ See above, p. 17.

Footnote 90:

Van Schmid, “Aanteekeningen nopens de zeden, gewoonten en gebruiken,
etc., der bevolking van de eilanden Saparoea, etc.” _Tijdschrift voor
Neêrlands Indië_, 1843 (Batavia), dl. ii. p. 605; A. Bastian,
_Indonesien_, i. 156.

Footnote 91:

G. W. W. C. Baron van Hoëvell, _Ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de
Oeliasers_ (Dordrecht, 1875), p. 62.

Footnote 92:

G. A. Wilken, “Het animisme bij de volken van het Indischen archipel,”
_De Indische Gids_, June 1884, p. 958; _id._, _Handleiding voor de
vergelijkende Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië_ (Leyden, 1893), pp.
549 _sq._

Footnote 93:

E. L. M. Kühr, “Schetsen uit Borneo’s Westerafdeeling,” _Bijdragen tot
de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, xlvii. (1897)
pp. 58 _sq._

Footnote 94:

A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de
Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) p. 221.

Footnote 95:

D. Grangeon, “Les Cham et leur superstitions,” _Missions Catholiques_,
xxviii. (1896) p. 83.

Footnote 96:

_Indian Antiquary_, i. (1872) p. 170.

Footnote 97:

A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en
maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” _Mededeelingen van wege
het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) pp. 22, 138.

Footnote 98:

_Id._, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de Toboengkoe en
Tomori,” _ib._, xliv. (1900) p. 227.

Footnote 99:

C. Snouck Hurgronje, _Het Gajōland en zijne Bewoners_ (Batavia, 1903),
pp. 344, 345.

Footnote 100:

S. Gason, “The Dieyerie Tribe,” _Native Tribes of South Australia_, p.
280; A. W. Howitt, “The Dieri and other kindred Tribes of Central
Australia,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891) p.
89.

Footnote 101:

F. Blumentritt, “Der Ahnencultus und die religiöse Anschauungen der
Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,” _Mittheilungen der Wiener Geogr.
Gesellschaft_ (1882), pp. 159 _sq._; _id._, _Versuch einer
Ethnographie der Philippinen_ (Gotha, 1882), pp. 13, 29 (_Petermann’s
Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft_, No. 67); J. Mallat, _Les Philippines_
(Paris, 1846), i. 63 _sq._

Footnote 102:

A. Schadenberg, “Beiträge zur Kenntnis der im Innern Nordluzons
lebenden Stämme,” _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für
Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte_ (1888), p. 40.

Footnote 103:

F. Grabowsky, “Der Tod, etc., bei den Dajaken,” _Internationales
Archiv für Ethnographie_, ii. (1889) p. 181.

Footnote 104:

H. Low, _Sarawak_ (London, 1848), p. 264.

Footnote 105:

Mrs. Bishop, _Korea and her Neighbours_ (London, 1898), i. 106 _sq._

Footnote 106:

J. J. M. de Groot, _Religious System of China_, ii. 462 _sqq._, iv.
277 _sq._

Footnote 107:

_La Mission lyonnaise d’exploration commerciale en Chine 1895-1897_
(Lyons, 1898), p. 361.

Footnote 108:

“Der Muata Cazembe und die Völkerstämme der Maravis, Chevas, Muembas,
Lundas und andere von Süd-Afrika,” _Zeitschrift für allgemeine
Erdkunde_, vi. (1856) p. 273.

Footnote 109:

Major A. G. Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_ (London, 1906),
pp. 298 _sqq._

Footnote 110:

Ch. Partridge, _Cross River Natives_ (London, 1905), pp. 272 _sq._

Footnote 111:

Ch. Partridge, _op. cit._ pp. 5, 194, 205 _sq._

Footnote 112:

F. S. A. de Clercq, “De Westen Noordkust van Nederlandsch
Nieuw-Guinea,” _Tijdschrift van het kon. Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig
Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, x. (1893) p. 199.

Footnote 113:

“Shamanism in Siberia and European Russia,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxiv. (1895) p. 136.

Footnote 114:

Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, p.
28 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British Association for
1890_).

Footnote 115:

F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Südslaven_, p.
36.

Footnote 116:

F. S. Krauss, _loc. cit._

Footnote 117:

_Aeneid_, iii. 22 _sqq._

Footnote 118:

Philostratus, _Imagines_, ii. 29.

Footnote 119:

A. Landes, “Contes et légendes annamites,” No. 9, in _Cochinchine
française: excursions et reconnaissances_, No. 20 (Saigon, 1885), p.
310.

Footnote 120:

A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West
Africa_, pp. 134-136.

Footnote 121:

B. C. A. J. van Dinter, “Eenige geographische en ethnographische
aanteekeningen betreffende het eiland Siaoe,” _Tijdschrift voor
Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xli. (1899) pp. 379 _sq._

Footnote 122:

E. Modigliani, _Un Viaggio a Nías_ (Milan, 1890), p. 629.

Footnote 123:

O. Baumann, _Usambara und seine Nachbargebiete_ (Berlin, 1891), pp. 57
_sq._

Footnote 124:

Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 162,
330 _sq._

Footnote 125:

Ph. Paulitschke, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: Die geistige Cultur
der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl_ (Berlin, 1896), pp. 34 _sq._ On the
Galla worship of trees, see further Mgr. Massaja, in _Annales de la
Propagation de la Foi_, xxx. (1858) p. 50; Coulbeaux, “Au pays de
Menelik,” _Missions Catholiques_, xxx. (1898) p. 418.

Footnote 126:

J. Kubary, “Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian’s _Allerlei aus
Volks- und Menschenkunde_, i. 52; _id._, _Beiträge zur Kenntnis des
Karolinen Archipels_, iii. (Leyden, 1895) p. 228.

Footnote 127:

A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, p. 115.

Footnote 128:

A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en
maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” _Mededeelingen van wege
het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xl. (1896) pp. 28 _sq._

Footnote 129:

A. C. Kruijt, “Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de
Toboengkoe en de Tomori,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) pp. 220 _sq._

Footnote 130:

A. C. Kruijt, _op. cit._ p. 242.

Footnote 131:

J. Habbema, “Bijgeloof in de Preanger-Regentschappen,” _Bijdragen tot
de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, xli. (1900) pp.
113, 115.

Footnote 132:

G. Heijmering, “Zeden en Gewoonten op het eiland Rottie,” _Tijdschrift
voor Neêrlands Indië_ (1844), dl. i. p. 358.

Footnote 133:

C. Snouck Hurgronje, _Het Gajōland en zijne Bewoners_ (Batavia, 1903),
p. 351.

Footnote 134:

Th. A. L. Heyting, “Beschrijving der onder-afdeeling Groot-mandeling
en Batang-natal,” _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig
Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, xiv. (1897) pp. 289 _sq._

Footnote 135:

F. Blumentritt, _Versuch einer Ethnographie der Philippinen_ (Gotha,
1882), p. 13 (_Petermanns Mittheilungen, Ergänzungheft_, No. 67). See
above, pp. 18 _sq._

Footnote 136:

Crossland, quoted by H. Ling Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and British
North Borneo_, i. 286; compare _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xxi. (1892) p. 114.

Footnote 137:

“Lettre du curé de Santiago Tepehuacan à son évêque,” _Bulletin de la
Société de Géographie_ (Paris), IIme. Série, ii. (1834) pp. 182 _sq._

Footnote 138:

J. T. Bent, _The Cyclades_, p. 37.

Footnote 139:

A. L. Van Hasselt, _Volksbeschrijving van Midden-Sumatra_ (Leyden,
1882), p. 156.

Footnote 140:

W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), ii. 87.

Footnote 141:

I. M. van Baarda, “Île de Halma-heira,” _Bulletins de la Société
d’Anthropologie de Paris_, iv. (1893) p. 547.

Footnote 142:

L. Sternberg, “Die Religion der Gilyak,” _Archiv für
Religionswissenschaft_, viii. (1905) p. 246.

Footnote 143:

W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 83.

Footnote 144:

_Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, vii. (1843) p. 29.

Footnote 145:

A. Bastian, _Indonesien_, i. 17.

Footnote 146:

J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of the
Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 10 (Dec. 1882), p. 217; H. Ling Roth, _The
Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_, i. 184.

Footnote 147:

W. Kükenthal, _Forschungsreise in den Molukken und in Borneo_
(Frankfort, 1896), pp. 265 _sq._

Footnote 148:

_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxv. (1896) p. 170.

Footnote 149:

E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_, pp. 186, 188; compare
A. Bastian, _Völkerstämme am Brahmaputra_, p. 9.

Footnote 150:

E. T. Dalton, _op. cit._ p. 33; A. Bastian, _op. cit._ p. 16. Compare
L. A. Waddell, “The Tribes of the Brahmaputra Valley,” _Journal of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal_, lxix. (1901) Part III. p. 16; W. Robertson
Smith, _The Religion of the Semites_, 2nd Ed., pp. 132 _sq._

Footnote 151:

E. T. Dalton, _op. cit._ p. 25; A. Bastian, _op. cit._ p. 37.

Footnote 152:

A. C. Kruijt, “Het koppensnellen der Toradja’s van Midden-Celebes en
zijne beteekenis,” _Verslagen en Mededeelingen der konink. Akademie
van Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde, IV. Reeks, iii. (1899) p.
195.

Footnote 153:

A. W. Niewenhuis, _In Centraal-Borneo_ (Leyden, 1900), i. 146; _id._,
_Quer durch Borneo_, i. (Leyden, 1904) p. 107.

Footnote 154:

_Id._, “Tweede Reis van Pontianak naar Samarinda,” _Tijdschrift van
het konink. Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, II. Serie,
xvii. (1900) p. 427.

Footnote 155:

J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of the
Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 10 (December 1882), p. 217; H. Ling Roth,
_The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_, i. 184.

Footnote 156:

B. Hagen, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Battareligion,” _Tijdschrift
voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxviii. 530, note.

Footnote 157:

W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_, p. 202.

Footnote 158:

E. Young, _The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe_ (Westminster, 1898), pp.
192 _sq._

Footnote 159:

J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan
States_, Part I. vol. i. (Rangoon, 1900) pp. 518 _sq._

Footnote 160:

Captain Macpherson, in _North Indian Notes and Queries_, ii. 112 §
428.

Footnote 161:

W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), ii. 91.

Footnote 162:

A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, i. 134. The authority
quoted by Bastian calls the people Curka Coles. As to the Larka Kols,
see E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_, pp. 177 _sqq._

Footnote 163:

W. Crooke, _Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and
Oudh_, iv. 130.

Footnote 164:

S. Mateer, _The Land of Charity_ (London, 1871), p. 206.

Footnote 165:

B. A. Hely, in _Annual Report on British New Guinea for 1894-95_, p.
57.

Footnote 166:

T. J. Hutchinson, _Impressions of Western Africa_ (London, 1858), pp.
130 _sq._

Footnote 167:

Gallieni, “Mission dans le Haut Niger et à Ségou,” _Bulletin de la
Société de Géographie_ (Paris), viiime Série, v. (1883) pp. 577 _sq._

Footnote 168:

Ch. M. Doughty, _Travels in Arabia Deserta_ (Cambridge, 1888), i. 365.

Footnote 169:

Th. Bent, “The Yourouks of Asia Minor,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891) p. 275.

Footnote 170:

Erasmus Stella, “De Borussiae antiquitatibus,” in Simon Grynaeus’s
_Novus Orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum_ (Paris,
1532), p. 510; J. Lasicius (Lasiczki), “De diis Samagitarum
caeterorumque Sarmatarum,” in _Respublica sive Status regni Poloniae,
Lituaniae, Prussiae, Livoniae, etc._ (Leyden, 1627), pp. 299 _sq._; M.
C. Hartknoch, _Alt und neues Preussen_ (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1684),
p. 120. Lasiczki’s work has been reprinted by W. Mannhardt, in
_Magazin herausgegeben von der lettisch-lite-rärischen Gesellschaft_,
xiv. 82 _sqq._ (Mitau, 1868).

Footnote 171:

Mathias Michov, in Simon Grynaeus’s _Novus Orbis regionum ac insularum
veteribus incognitarum_ (Paris, 1532), p. 457.

Footnote 172:

J. G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_ (Dresden and
Leipsic, 1841), ii. 277.

Footnote 173:

Capt. E. C. Luard, _in Census of India, 1901_, xix. (Lucknow, 1902) p.
76.

Footnote 174:

J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, 4th ed., i. 497; compare _id._ ii.
540, 541.

Footnote 175:

Max Buch, _Die Wotjäken_ (Stuttgart, 1882), p. 124.

Footnote 176:

P. v. Stenin, “Ein neuer Beitrag zur Ethnographie der Tscheremissen,”
_Globus_, lviii. (1890) p. 204.

Footnote 177:

J. G. Dalyell, _Darker Superstitions of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1834),
p. 400.

Footnote 178:

J. G. Dalyell, _loc. cit._

Footnote 179:

J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_, p. 116.

Footnote 180:

H. R. Tate, “Further Notes on the Kikuyu Tribe of British East
Africa,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxiv. (1904) p.
263; _id._ “The Native Law of the Southern Gikuyu of British East
Africa,” _Journal of the African Society_, No. 35 (April 1910), pp.
242 _sq._

Footnote 181:

On the representations of Silvanus, the Roman wood-god, see H. Jordan
in L. Preller’s _Römische Mythologie_, 3rd Ed., i. 393 note; A.
Baumeister, _Denkmäler des classischen Altertums_, iii. 1665 _sq._ A
good representation of Silvanus bearing a pine branch is given in the
Sale Catalogue of H. Hoffmann, Paris, 1888, pt. ii.

Footnote 182:

Aeneas Sylvius, _Opera_ (Bâle, 1571), p. 418 [wrongly numbered 420];
compare Erasmus Stella, “De Borussiae antiquitatibus,” in _Novus Orbis
regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum_, p. 510.

Footnote 183:

E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 186.

Footnote 184:

J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burmah and the
Shan States_, Part II. vol. iii. (Rangoon, 1901), pp. 63 _sq._

Footnote 185:

E. Aymonier, in _Cochinchine française: excursions et
reconnaissances_, No. 16 (Saigon, 1883), pp. 175 _sq._

Footnote 186:

L. Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (London, 1898), p. 489.

Footnote 187:

H. Schinz, _Deutsch-Südwest-Afrika_, pp. 295 _sq._

Footnote 188:

See above, vol. i. pp. 248, 250, 309.

Footnote 189:

Above, vol. i. p. 284.

Footnote 190:

W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_ (Berlin, 1875), pp. 158, 159, 170, 197,
214, 351, 514.

Footnote 191:

E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 188.

Footnote 192:

Villault, _Relation des costes appellées Guinée_ (Paris, 1669), pp.
266 _sq._; _Labat, Voyage du chevalier des Marchais en Guinée, isles
voisines, et à Cayenne_ (Paris, 1730), i. 338.

Footnote 193:

O. Baumann, _Usambara und seine Nachbargebiete_ (Berlin, 1891), p.
142.

Footnote 194:

C. E. X. Rochet d’Hericourt, _Voyage sur la côte orientale de la Mer
Rouge dans le pays d’Adel et le royaume de Choa_ (Paris, 1841), pp.
166 _sq._

Footnote 195:

L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), p. 266.

Footnote 196:

W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 190 _sqq._

Footnote 197:

W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_ (Berlin, 1877), pp. 212
_sqq._

Footnote 198:

H. Low, Sarawak, p. 274; _id._, in _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xxv. (1896) p. 111.

Footnote 199:

T. H. Lewin, _Wild Races of South-Eastern India_ (London, 1870), p.
270.

Footnote 200:

J. Mackenzie, _Ten Years North of the Orange River_ (Edinburgh, 1871),
p. 385.

Footnote 201:

J. Campbell, _Travels in South Africa, Second Journey_ (London, 1822),
ii. 203.

Footnote 202:

Rev. J. Macdonald, MS. notes; compare _id._, _Light in Africa_, p.
210; _id._, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891)
p. 140. The Nubas will not cut shoots of the _nabac_ (a thorn-tree)
during the rainy season (_Missions Catholiques_, xiv. (1882) p. 460).
Among some of the hill-tribes of the Punjaub no one is allowed to cut
grass or any green thing with an iron sickle till the festival of the
ripening grain has been celebrated; otherwise the field-god would be
angry and send frost to destroy or injure the harvest (D. C. J.
Ibbetson, _Outlines of Panjab Ethnography_, p. 121).

Footnote 203:

“Ueber die Religion der heidnischen Tscheremissen im Gouvernement
Kasan,” _Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde_, N. F. iii. (1857) p.
150.

Footnote 204:

J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_, pp. 103 _sq._

Footnote 205:

J. Biddulph, _op. cit._ pp. 106 _sq._

Footnote 206:

W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), ii. 102. See also Sir H. M. Elliot, _Memoirs on
the History, Folk-lore, and Distribution of the Races of the
North-Western Provinces of India_, edited by J. Beames, ii. 217,
where, however, the object of the prayers is said to be the
fruitfulness of the tree itself, not the fruitfulness of women,
animals, and cattle.

Footnote 207:

W. Crooke, _op. cit._ ii. 106.

Footnote 208:

Th. J. Hutchinson, _Impressions of Western Africa_, p. 128.

Footnote 209:

W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 161; E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten
und Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, p. 397; A. Peter, _Volksthümliches aus
Österreichisch-Schlesien_, ii. 286.

Footnote 210:

W. Camden, _Britannia_, ed. R. Gough (London, 1779), iii. 659.
Camden’s authority is Good, a writer of the sixteenth century.

Footnote 211:

_County Folk-lore: Suffolk_, collected and edited by Lady Eveline
Camilla Gurdon (London, 1893), p. 117.

Footnote 212:

Mr. E. F. Benson, in a letter to the author dated December 15, 1892.

Footnote 213:

_Memoirs of Samuel Pepys, Esq._, edited by Lord Braybrooke, Second
Edition (London, 1828), ii. 209, under May 1st, 1667.

Footnote 214:

Lady Wilde, _Ancient Legends, Mystic Charms, and Superstitions of
Ireland_ (London, 1887), i. 196 _sq._ If an Irish housewife puts a
ring of rowan-tree or quicken, as it is also called, on the handle of
the churn-dash when she is churning, no witch can steal her butter (P.
W. Joyce, _Social History of Ancient Ireland_ (London, 1903), i. 236
_sq._).

Footnote 215:

W. Camden, _loc. cit._

Footnote 216:

W. Gregor, _Folk-lore of the North-east of Scotland_ (London, 1881),
p. 188.

Footnote 217:

J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and
Islands of Scotland_, p. 270, compare _ib._, pp. 7 _sqq._

Footnote 218:

J. G. Campbell, _op. cit._ pp. 11 _sq._ In Germany also the rowan-tree
is a charm against witchcraft (A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche
Volksaberglaube_, 2nd Ed., p. 106, § 145).

Footnote 219:

Sir John Rhys, “The Coligny Calendar,” _Proceedings of the British
Academy_, vol. iv. pp. 55 _sq._ of the offprint.

Footnote 220:

A. Kuhn, _Herabkunft des Feuers_ 2nd Ed., (Gütersloh, 1886), pp. 178
_sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Germanische Mythen_ (Berlin, 1858), pp. 17 _sq._

Footnote 221:

J. D. H. Temme, _Die Volkssagen der Altmark_ (Berlin, 1839), p. 85; E.
Sommer, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Sachsen und Thüringen_
(Halle, 1846), p. 149; A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus
Westfalen_, ii. p. 154, § 432, p. 155, § 436; A. Schleicher,
_Volkstümliches aus Sonnenberg_ (Weimar, 1858), p. 139; A. Peter,
_Volksthümliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien_ (Troppau, 1865-67), ii.
252; R. Eisel, _Sagenbuch des Voigtlandes_ (Gera, 1871), p. 210;
Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_, p. 210; P.
Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_, i. (Leipsic,
1903) p. 109.

Footnote 222:

A. Kuhn, _Herabkunft des Feuers_, 2nd Ed., p. 166.

Footnote 223:

P. Drechsler, _op. cit._ i. 109 _sq._ Compare A. Peter, _loc. cit._

Footnote 224:

W. Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_ (Vienna
and Olmütz, 1893), p. 324.

Footnote 225:

Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_, p. 210.

Footnote 226:

W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 174.

Footnote 227:

J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen
Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. No. 2 (Dorpat, 1872), pp. 10 _sq._; W.
Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 407 _sq._

Footnote 228:

Potocki, _Voyage dans les steps d’Astrakhan et du Caucase_ (Paris,
1829), i. 309.

Footnote 229:

W. Foy, in _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, x. (1907) p. 551. For
details of the evidence see W. H. Goldie, M.D., “Maori Medical Lore,”
_Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute_, xxxvii.
(1904) pp. 93-95.

Footnote 230:

W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 163 _sqq._ To his authorities add for
France, A. Meyrac, _Traditions, coutumes, légendes et contes des
Ardennes_, pp. 84 _sqq._; L. F. Sauvé, _Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_,
pp. 131 _sq._; Bérenger-Féraud, _Superstitions et survivances_, v. 309
_sq._; Ch. Beauquier, _Les Mois en Franche-Comté_ (Paris, 1900), pp.
69-72; F. Chapiseau, _Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche_ (Paris,
1902), ii. 109-111; for Silesia, F. Tetzner, “Die Tschechen und Mährer
in Schlesien,” _Globus_, lxxviii. (1900) p. 340; P. Drechsler, _Sitte,
Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_, i. 112 _sq._; for Moravia, W.
Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_, p. 26; for
Sardinia, R. Tennant, _Sardinia and its Resources_ (Rome and London,
1885), pp. 185 _sq._ In Brunswick the custom is observed at
Whitsuntide (R. Andree, _Braunschweiger Volkskunde_, p. 248).

Footnote 231:

_Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, i. 373.

Footnote 232:

F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Südslaven_, p.
35.

Footnote 233:

W. Radloff, _Proben der Volkslitteratur der nördlichen Türkischen
Stämme_, v. 2 (St. Petersburg, 1885).

Footnote 234:

E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 194; a similar
custom is practised among the Kurmis, _ibid._, p. 319. Among the
Mundas the custom seems now to have fallen into disuse (H. H. Risley,
_Tribes and Castes of Bengal: Ethnographic Glossary_, ii. 102).

Footnote 235:

The explanation has been suggested by Mr. W. Crooke (_Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxviii. (1899) p. 243). There are other
facts, however, which point to a different explanation, namely, that
the practice is intended to avert possible evil consequences from
bride or bridegroom. For example, “the superstition regarding a man’s
third marriage, prevalent in Barār and, I believe in other parts of
India, is not despised by the Vēlamās. A third marriage is unlucky.
Should a man marry a third wife, it matters not whether his former
wives be alive or not, evil will befall either him or that wife. No
father would give his girl to a man whose third wife she would be. A
man therefore, who has twice entered the married state and wishes to
mate yet once again, cannot obtain as a third wife any one who has
both the wit and the tongue to say no; a tree has neither, so to a
tree he is married. I have not been able to discover why the tree, or
rather shrub, called in Marāthī _ru’i_ and in Hindūstānī _madar_
(_Asclepias gigantea_), is invariably the victim selected in Barār,
nor do I know whether the shrub is similarly favoured in other parts
of India. The ceremony consists in the binding of a _mangal sūtra_
round the selected shrub, by which the bridegroom sits, while
turmeric-dyed rice (_akṣata_) is thrown over both him and the shrub.
This is the whole of the simple ceremony. He has gone through his
unlucky third marriage, and any lady whom he may favour after this
will be his fourth wife” (Captain Wolseley Haig, “Notes on the Vēlamā
Caste in Bārār,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, lxx. part
iii. (1901) p. 28). Again, the Vellalas of Southern India “observe a
curious custom (derived from Brāhmans) with regard to marriage, which
is not unknown in other communities. A man marrying a second wife
after the death of his first has to marry a plantain tree, and cut it
down before tying the _tāli_, and, in case of a third marriage, a man
has to tie a _tāli_ first to the erukkan (arka: _Calotropis gigantea_)
plant. The idea is that second and fourth wives do not prosper, and
the tree and the plant are accordingly made to take their places.”
(Mr. Hemingway, quoted by E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern
India_, vii. 387). Tying the _tali_ to the bride is the common Hindoo
symbol of marriage, like giving the ring with us. As to these Indian
marriages to trees see further my _Totemism and Exogamy_, i. 32 _sq._,
iv. 210 _sqq._; _Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. § 252, iii. §§ 12, 90,
562, iv. § 396; _North Indian Notes and Queries_, i. § 110; D. C. J.
Ibbetson, _Settlement Report of the Karnal District_, p. 155; H. H.
Risley, _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, i. 531; Capt. E. C. Luard, in
_Census of India, 1901_, vol. xix. 76; W. Crooke, _Tribes and Castes
of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh_, ii. 363; _id._, _Popular
Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii.
115-121. I was formerly disposed to connect the custom with totemism,
but of this there seems to be no sufficient evidence.

Footnote 236:

W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 51 _sq._

Footnote 237:

Merolla, “Voyage to Congo,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, xvi.
236 _sq._

Footnote 238:

C. Bötticher, _Der Baumkultus der Hellenen_ (Berlin, 1856), pp. 30
_sq._