Chapter XXV: Part 25

Again, Mongols are yellow because they have descended from races that were fruit-eating, and who, making their way into the deepest nooks and widest plains of Asia, developed into shepherds and lived largely on milk. Of course it is now known that milk contains a certain percentage of chlorine, and has a decidedly bleaching effect. In the case of Caucasians, they are said to have become white by adding salt to their foods, which common salt is a strong chloride, and powerful in bleaching the skin.

The Story in a Piece of Leather[9]

[9] Pictures by courtesy of Endicott, Johnson & Co.

Where Does Leather Come From?

Leather is made by treating the hides of various animals such as the calf, cow and horse. These are the principal animals from which we obtain hides for making leather to make shoes. Before the hides are fit for making shoes, they must be taken to a tannery where they are prepared and tanned.

In viewing a tannery, we enter first the enormous hide house. It is long, damp and dark. Here the hides are collected from all over the world and stored, awaiting their turn for tanning. We follow a small car of these hides into the beamhouse. We see the hides loaded into a vat. They are soaked, resoaked, softened and split into sides. This operation, while simple, holds your attention longer perhaps than any of the others. Several hides after being softened are thrown over a sort of saw-horse, the lot number is stamped on the hide in such a manner that it appears on each side after being split. With an unusually long bladed knife the workman quickly cuts down through the center and the hides which are now called sides, fall to the floor. They are next hooked together and pass on through vat after vat of lime solution which loosens the hair and superfluous flesh. At the end of this long chain of vats, we see the sides awaiting their turn at the first unhairing machine, where all the hair is removed and then to the fleshing machine, where the flesh is taken off and the sides are again loaded in a car and pass on to the tanyard.

THE TAN YARD

We resume our travels, following a car of sides from the beamhouse to the sole leather tanyard. There are about 40 operations in the tanning of sole leather, requiring about 100 days to produce first quality leather. In the tanyard, we see more than 500 vats, each holding 300 sides, weighing about 23 pounds apiece. Each vat contains about 3000 gallons of liquor at an approximate cost of $100 a vat. Here we see the sides slipped over sticks and placed in vats six feet deep, where they receive the tanning, the real tanning process which preserves the fibers giving the leather its life and long wearing qualities.

From the tanyard we go to the big wringers where the liquor is wrung out, the hides are milled, dried and loaded on cars for the drying loft, where they are allowed to dry or season preparatory to rolling. This long building is sectioned off every 50 feet into chambers, where the hides are hung in the same manner as in the vats. The temperature of each room is changed from the outside temperature to a heat of 115 degrees, at which temperature the hides are dried and are ready for rolling.]

In the upper leather tannery we see the various operations preparatory to the actual operation of tanning the hide, about the same as in the sole leather tannery, with this difference: Upper leather in this tannery is generally chrome tanned, a process requiring 30 days and instead of vats sunken in the ground we see huge rolling drums revolving at a rapid rate. This process is the most up-to-date method and absolutely insures the wearing qualities of the leather. This leather is very tough, yet is just as soft and pliable as glove leather and as comfortable to the feet. It does not harden with age, nor does it stiffen after being wet.]

One of the most interesting sight while going through the tanneries is the process of disposing of waste materials, such as hair, fleshings and the sediments from the lime and sulphur vats.

The hair is separated into white, brown and black colors, each color taking its turn through the huge mill or gin where the hair is dried and afterwards baled. The brown and black are sold to plasterers. Those who purchase the white often mix it with wool and use it for making many useful articles.

The fleshings and trimmings are sold to manufacturers of glue.]

The Story in a Pair of Shoes[10]

[10] Pictures by Courtesy of United Shoe Machinery Co.

Who Made the First Shoes?

~WHERE SHOES COME FROM~

The making of shoes is one of the oldest arts of which there is any human knowledge. Long before primitive man devised any method of recording his exploits or thoughts, he contrived--through necessity--a method of protecting his feet from the rough way or hot sands over which he was obliged to travel in his search for food and shelter.

That foot covering antedates clothing or ornaments is shown from the fact that the primitive savage to-day, devoid of clothing or ornament, is almost invariably found with a crude form of foot protection and there is scarcely a tribe or nation without it’s traditions of the shoe--its mysterious power for good or evil.

What Was the First Foot Covering Like?

The first foot covering devised was undoubtedly a simple form of sandal--a rough bit of hide, wood or plaited grass held to the foot by means of thongs, generally brought up between the toes and tied about the ankle. This form of foot covering is depicted in records of the greatest antiquity: in the ruined temples at Thebes Egypt, the ancient sandal maker is shown at his task; the Assyrian bricks show the ancient warriors and people of that time wearing the simple sandal.

The dispersion of the human races and the wandering of tribes into colder climates brought the necessity for more thorough protection for the feet and body, and that this was accomplished was shown in the gradual increase in the number of straps or thongs which held the sandal in place and, in the colder climates, in the contrivance of a bag-like foot covering--traces of which are found even now in the Indian moccasin and the foot covering of the Eskimo. In all colder countries this type of footwear is still in evidence, the seam around the outline of the foot being a relic of the puckering string which held the bag-like covering to the foot.

A flat sandal with felt sole. Also showing “Tabi” or glove-like sock worn by Japanese.]

The sandal was developed and adorned by the Greeks, but it was not until the days of the Roman Empire that anything approaching the present form of shoes was designed. In this period a form of foot covering was developed--that was appropriated by the Emperor and worn by him only--which covered the entire foot with the exception of the toes.

THE
EVOLUTION
OF THE
SANDAL
TO THE
SHOE]

Japanese Astrida or Rough Weather Clog.]

A primitive form of foot covering very generally used by Japanese at the present time.]

The Boot Developed from the Sandal.

It was but a step from this form of foot covering to the boot which covered not only the foot but the lower leg as well and which came widely into use afterwards in the form of the Jack-boot.

Up to the fourteenth century there had been little in the way of development of foot covering, but it is well established that in the year 1408 there were shoemakers’ guilds in Europe. Some of these were semi-religious in character, the members working in communities and sharing in the general product of their toil. Guilds of this period were very generally dedicated to either Saint Crispin or Saint Crispianus (the patron saint of shoemaking), and even to this day the birthday of Saint Crispin is celebrated in some of the English shoemaking guilds on October 25. The ceremonies attending the celebration in the olden days were of a very elaborate nature.

~THE SHOE WHICH THE CHURCH AND LAW FORBADE~

In the process of time the shoes began to lose the crude nature and design in which the Dark Ages had held them and developed a style the first of which was apparent in the gradual elongation of the toes, the custom said to have been introduced by Henry, Duke of Anjou, and these shoes were known as “Crakrows” or “Poulaines.” The style finally ran to such extremes that effort was made to stop it by the church and government, but with indifferent success until finally its end was accomplished by the imposing of summary fines and threat of excommunication by the church.

Immediately the style went to the other extreme and the toes became very broad, as evidenced in the period of Elizabeth, and in some instances the shoes were as broad as six inches at the toe. They were made of velvet and were slashed to show the satin lining.

Who Made the First Shoes in America?

The first shoemaking in America is recorded when Thomas Baird arrived on the second voyage of the Mayflower in 1628. Baird was under contract with the Plymouth Company to make shoes for the colonists and brought with him divers hides, etc., for this purpose. It was recorded that in 1636 a planter in Virginia employed six shoemakers to make shoes for his slaves.

That in the early history of the country the art of making shoes had become of considerable importance is shown by the very summary laws passed by the different colonies regulating the industry. Particularly was this so in the Province of Pennsylvania which, in 1721, placed upon its statute book most drastic laws regarding the making of shoes and regulating the prices to be charged therefor.

Shoemaking in New England early received impetus from the arrival of one Phillip Kirtland, a Welshman, who came to Lynn, Mass., in 1636. He was an experienced shoemaker and taught his art to many of the colonists in his vicinity.

Shoemaking in this locality was further advanced by the arrival of John Adams Dagyr, who settled in Lynn in the year 1750. Dagyr was a celebrated shoemaker and was enabled, from his own means, to secure the best examples of work from abroad. He possessed the peculiar quality of being able to teach the art to those who came under his charge.

The fame of New England made shoes was due largely to the teachings of these men and the industry has continued to be one of the first in importance. In Massachusetts alone, according to the census of 1910, over 40 per cent of the entire value of shoes in the United States was produced.

The young man of this period, who essayed to learn the shoemaking trade, was ordinarily apprenticed for a term of seven years under the most rigorous terms, as shown in some of the indentures of that period which are still in existence. He was instructed in every part of the trade and, upon completion of his term of service, it was the custom for the newly fledged shoemaker to start what was known as “whipping the cat”--which meant journeying from town to town, living with a family while making a year’s supply of shoes for each member thereof, and then leaving to fill other engagements previously made.

It was soon found that the master workman could largely increase his income by employing other men to do certain portions of the work, while he directed their efforts, and this gradually lead to a division of the labor and was the beginning of a factory system--which has been in process of development from that time.

In the year 1795 it is recorded that there were in the city of Lynn, Mass., over two hundred master workmen, employing over six hundred journeymen, and that they manufactured shoes at the rate of about one pair per day per man.

Factory buildings, as the words would be known to-day, were practically unknown at that time. The small buildings, about ten feet square, were in the back yards of many homes and in these little shops were employed from three to eight men.

Strange as it may seem, prior to the year 1845 there had been little change in the tools employed in making shoes. The workman of that period, seated at his low bench, used practically the same implements that were employed by his prototype, the ancient sandal-maker of Egypt. The lap stone, the hammer, the crude needle and the knife being practically the only tools used. Not that there had been no effort to perfect machinery for this purpose; Napoleon I, in his endeavor to secure better shoes for his soldiers, had offered great rewards for the perfecting of shoe machinery that would accomplish this purpose, but although great effort had been made there had been no successful machinery produced.

In this year 1845 the first machine to be widely adopted by the industry was perfected. It was a simple form of rolling machine, which took the place of the lap stone and hammer used by the shoemakers for toughening the leather, and it is said that a man could, in half an hour, obtain the same results from this machine that would require a day’s labor on the part of the hand workman employing the old method of pounding.

This was followed in 1848 by the very important invention by Elias Howe of the sewing machine--which was not adapted for use in connection with sewing leather until several years later. It started, however, an era of great activity among inventors and in 1857 there was perfected a machine for driving pegs, which came into successful operation.

The First Machine for Making Shoes.

This was shortly followed by a very important invention by Lyman E. Blake, of Abington, Mass., of a machine for sewing the soles of shoes and this afterwards became famous as the “McKay Sewing Machine.” This invention of Blake’s was purchased by Gordon McKay, who spent large sums of money in perfecting it, and the first machine was established in Lynn in 1861. The results obtained in the early stages of the machines were of an indifferent nature and it was only after large expenditures and the hiring of a number of different inventors to work upon it that a successful machine was produced.

FRENCH POSTILLION BOOT OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY]

~HOW SHOE MACHINERY WAS DEVELOPED~

While the quality of work was pronounced by manufacturers to be a success, few had any faith in the possibility of manufacturing shoes by machinery and McKay met with constant rebuffs in his endeavor to introduce his machine. It is recorded that in his desperation he finally offered to sell all the patent rights in machines which he owned to a syndicate of Lynn manufacturers for the sum of $250,000.00--the amount he had expended--but the offer was refused.

In his dilemma McKay at last offered to shoe manufacturers the use of his machines on a basis, which afterwards became famous and an inherent part of the shoe industry known as “royalty,” whereby McKay placed his machines with manufacturers and participated to a small extent in the amount of money saved. Owing to the fact that shoemakers were leaving rapidly for the front and that there was a great scarcity of footwear, the manufacturers gladly accepted this proposition and the machines were very rapidly introduced.

The success of his early machines accomplished, McKay set about the perfecting of others that would do different parts of the work and there was accordingly great activity on the part of inventors in their endeavor to perfect machines for the wide variety of uses made necessary in the preparation of leather for shoemaking. There were soon machines on the market for a wide variety of purposes--including the lasting of the shoe, cutting the leather and for many other processes necessary in making a complete shoe.

Contemporary with the early success of the McKay machines, a French inventor, August Destoney, conceived the idea of making a machine which would sew turned shoes--then a popular type of footwear for women. After several years of endeavor he finally secured the interest of John Hanan, a famous shoemaker of that time in New York City, and through him the interest of Charles Goodyear--nephew of Goodyear of India-rubber fame.

No sooner had the machine become perfected for the sewing of turned shoes, however, than he set to work to make changes which would fit it to sew welt shoes. (The welt shoe has always been considered the highest type of shoemaking, as, by a very ingenious process, a shoe is made which is perfectly smooth inside; all the other types having a seam of thread or tacks inside which make them of considerable disadvantage. He was able to accomplish this a few years later, although the machines were not in extended use until about 1893, when auxiliary machines for performing important parts of the work were perfected; and from that time headway was made in the manufacture of this high grade type of footwear.

The development of the industry--which has been very rapid with the introduction of machinery--suffered materially in the latter part of the last century through the bitter rivalry of machinery manufacturers, a common process being the enjoining of manufacturers from the use of machines on which it was claimed the patents were infringed and this created a state of great uncertainty in the minds of many of those manufacturing shoes.

This condition finally found its solution in the formation of one large corporation, known in the shoe industry as the “United Shoe Machinery Company,” which purchased the patents for a sufficient number of machines to form a complete system for the “bottoming”--or fastening the soles and heels of shoes--and finishing them.

These machines have been the subject of constant improvement and others have been perfected to take care of operations which, prior to their introduction, were purely hand operations. Each machine has been standardized and so adapted to meet the requirements of those used in connection with it that they collectively form the most remarkable and efficient system of machines used at the present time.

Mention is made of this company owing to the important position it has taken in the organization and advancement of the industry, the American-made shoe being the one commodity of world-wide consumption whose supremacy is not contested.

EMBROIDERED RIDING BOOT WORN BY NOBLES DURING LAST DAYS OF POLISH INDEPENDENCE]

Has wooden heel.]

CHANNEL LIP

CROSS-SECTION OF INSOLE

WOODEN LAST—DETERMINES SIZE AND SHAPE OF SHOE

AN INSOLE

AN INSOLE TACKED TO BOTTOM OF LAST

THE BEGINNING OF A SHOE]

How Shoes Are Made by Machinery

At the present time the types of shoes ordinarily made are but five: the “peg” shoe, which is the cheapest type of shoe made; the “standard screw,” which is used in the soles of the heaviest types of boots; the “McKay sewed,” which is made after the fashion established by Gordon McKay; the “turn” shoe, a light type of shoe which was invented centuries ago and which is still worn at this time to a limited extent; and the “Goodyear welt,” which has been universally adopted as the highest type of footwear.

For this reason, this type of shoe has been selected to show the methods employed in making shoes.

THE GOODYEAR WELT SHOE.--A Goodyear Welt shoe in its evolution from the embryonic state in which it is “mere leather and thread” to the completed product, passes through one hundred and six different pairs of hands and is obliged to conform to the requirements of fifty-eight different machines, each performing with unyielding accuracy the various operations for which they were designed.

It might seem that in all this multiplicity of operations confusion would occur, and that the many details and specifications regarding material and design of any given lot of shoes in process of manufacture would become hopelessly entangled with those of similar lots undergoing the same operations. But such is not the case; for, when an order is received in any modern and well-organized factory, the factory management promptly take the precaution to see that all the details regarding the samples to which the finished product is to conform are set down in the order book. Each lot is given an order number and this number, together with the details affecting the preparation of the shoe upper, are written on tags--one for each two dozen shoes--which are sent to the foreman of the cutting room. Others containing details regarding the sole leather are sent to the sole leather room, while a third lot is made out for the guidance of the foreman of the making or bottoming room, when the different parts which have received attention and been prepared according to specifications in the cutting and sole leather rooms are ready to be assembled for the making or bottoming process. If the tags which were sent to the cutting room were followed, it would be found that on their receipt the foreman of this department figured out the amount and kind of leather required, the kind of linings, stays, etc., and that the leather, together with the tags which gave directions regarding the size, etc., was sent to one of the operators of the Ideal Clicking Machine.

~SHOEMAKING MACHINERY IS ALL BUT HUMAN~

This machine has been pronounced one of the most important innovations that have been made in the shoe manufacturing industry during recent years, as it performs an operation which has heretofore successfully withstood every attempt at mechanical aid. Prior to its introduction, the cutting of upper leather was accomplished by the use of patterns made with metal edges, which were laid upon the leather by cutter, who then ran a small sharp knife along the edges of the pattern, cutting the leather to conform to it. This was a slow and laborious process, and if great care was not taken, there was a tendency to cut away from the pattern; and in many cases, through some slip of the knife, the leather was cut beyond the required limits.

This machine has a cutting board very similar to those which were used by the hand workman and over it is a beam which can be swung either to the right or to the left, as desired, and over any portion of the board. Any kind of skin to be cut is placed on the board, and the operator places a die of unusual design on it. Grasping the handle, which is a part of the swinging beam, he swings the beam over the die, and on downward pressure of the handle a clutch is engaged which brings the beam downward, pressing the die through the leather. As soon as this is accomplished, the beam automatically returns to its full height and remains there until the handle is again pressed.

The dies used are but three-quarters of an inch in height and are so light that they do not mar the most delicate leather when placed upon it. They enable the operator to see clearly the entire surface of the leather he is cutting out, and it is obvious that the pieces cut by the use of any given die must be identically the same.

After the different parts required by the tag have been cut out by the operator of the Clicking Machine, some of the edges which show in the finished shoe must be skived or thinned down to a beveled edge. This work is performed by the Amazeen Skiving Machine--a wonderful little machine in which the edge to be skived is fed to a sharp revolving disk that cuts it down to the desired bevel. The machine does the work in a very efficient manner, conforming to all the curves and angles. This skiving is done in order that the edges may be folded, to give the particular edge on which it is performed a more finished appearance. The skived edges are then given a little coating of cement and afterwards folded on a machine which turns back the edge and incidentally pounds it down, so that it presents a very smooth and finished appearance.

Aside from the work of skiving toe caps and folding them, there is generally a series of ornamental perforations cut along the edge of the cap. This is done very often by the Power Tip Press, by means of which the piece to be perforated is placed under a series of dies which cuts the perforations in the leather according to a predetermined design, doing the work all at one time. The number of designs used for this purpose are many and varied, combinations of different sized perforations being worked out in innumerable designs.

On one of the top linings of each shoe there has been stamped the order number, together with the size of the shoe for which the linings were intended. After all the linings have been prepared in accordance with the instructions on the tag, they, in connection with the various parts of the shoe, receive attention from the Stitchers, where all the different parts of the upper are united. The work is performed on a range of wonderful machines, which perform all the different operations with great rapidity and accuracy.

At the completion of these operations the shoe is ready to receive the eyelets, which are placed with remarkable speed and accuracy by the Duplex Eyeletting Machine. This machine eyelets both sides of the shoe at one time with bewildering rapidity. The eyelets are securely placed and accurately spaced; and as both sides of the upper are eyeletted at one time, the eyelets are placed directly opposite each other, which greatly helps the fitting of the shoe, as thereby the wrinkling of the shoe upper is avoided.

With the completion of this operation, the preparation of the shoe upper is finished, and the different lots with their tags are sent to the bottoming room to await the coming of the different sole leather portions of the shoe. These have been undergoing preparation in the sole leather room, where on receipt of tag the foreman has given directions for the preparation of outsoles, insoles, counters, toe boxes and heels, to conform with the requirements of the order.

The soles are roughly died out from sides of sole leather on large Dieing-out Machines, which press heavy dies down through the leather; but to make them conform exactly to the required shape, they are generally rounded out on a machine known as the “Planet Rounding Machine,” in which the roughly died-out piece of leather is held between clamps, one of which is the exact pattern of the sole. On starting the machine, a little knife darts around this pattern, cutting the sole exactly to conform with it.

The outsole is now passed to a heavy Rolling Machine, where it is subjected to tons of pressure between heavy rolls. This takes the place of the hammering which the old-time shoemaker gave his leather and brings the fibres very closely together, greatly increasing its wear.

This sole is next fed to a machine called the “Summit Splitting Machine--Model M,” which reduces it to an exactly even thickness. The insole--which is made of very much lighter leather--is prepared in much the same manner, and in this way it will be noticed that both the insole and outsole are reduced to an absolutely uniform thickness.

The insole also receives further preparation; it is channeled on the Goodyear Channeling Machine. This machine cuts a little slit along the edge of the insole, extending about one-half inch towards its center. It also cuts a small channel along the surface.

The lip which has been formed by the Goodyear Channeling Machine is now turned up on the Goodyear Lip Turning Machine, so that it extends out at a right angle from the insole, forming a lip or shoulder against which the welt is sewed. The cut which has been made on the surface inside this lip serves as a guide for the operator of the Welt Sewing Machine, when the shoe reaches that stage.

The heels to be used on these shoes have also been formed from different lifts of leather which are cemented together. The heel is then placed under great pressure, giving it exact form and greatly increasing its wear.

~THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE SHOE COME TOGETHER~

The counters are also prepared in this room, as well as the toe boxes or stiffening, which is placed between the toe cap and the vamp of the shoe. When these are all completed, they are sent to the making or bottoming room, where the completed shoe upper is awaiting them. Here a wonderfully ingenious little machine called the “Ensign Lacing Machine,” passes strong twine through the eyelets and in a twinkling ties it automatically. This is done so that all parts of the shoe will be held in their normal position while the shoe is being made. The knot tied by this machine is perfect and is performed with mechanical exactness. On high-grade shoes this work was formerly performed by hand and it will be readily recognized how difficult it was to obtain uniformity. The spread of the upper at the throat can be regulated perfectly when this machine is used. The different parts of the shoe now commence to come together. The workman places the toe box, or stiffening, in the proper location as well as the counter at the heel, and draws the upper over the last. To the bottom of this last has already been tacked by means of the U. S. M. Co. Insole Tacking Machine--which drives tacks automatically--the insole, which, it will be noticed, conforms exactly to the shape of the bottom of the last. This last, made of wood, is of the utmost importance, for upon the last depends the shape of the shoe.

ASSEMBLING MACHINE

Operator locates back seam of upper on last. Machine drives two tacks which hold it in place.]

The shoe as completed up to this point with the parts mentioned fastened together as shown, is now ready for assembling. The workman, after placing the last inside the shoe upper, puts it on the spindle of the Rex Assembling Machine, where he takes care that the seam at the heel is properly located. He presses a foot lever and a small tack is driven part way in, to hold the upper in place. He then hands it over to the operator of the Rex Pulling-Over Machine.

Draws shoe upper smoothly down to last. Operator adjusts it so that each seam occupies correct position on last. Machine automatically drives back to hold it in place.]

This machine is a very important one; for as the parts of the shoe upper have been cut to exactly conform to the shape of the last, it is necessary that they should be correctly placed on the last to secure the desired results. The pincers of this machine grasp the leather at different points on each side of the toe; and the operator, standing in a position from which he can see when the upper is exactly centered, presses a foot lever, the pincers close and draw the leather securely against the wood of the last. At this point the operation of the machine halts. By moving different levers, the workman is able to adjust the shoe upper accurately, so that each part of it lies in the exact position it was intended when the shoe was designed. When this important operation has been completed, the operator again presses a foot lever, the pincers move toward each other, drawing the leather securely around the last, and at the same time there are driven automatically two tacks on each side and one at the toe, which hold the upper securely in position. These tacks are driven but part way in, so that they may be afterward removed.

HAND METHOD LASTING MACHINE

Last sides of shoe.]

Last toe and heel of shoe.]

The shoe is now ready for lasting. This is one of the most difficult and important parts of the shoemaking process, for upon the success of this operation depends in a great measure the beauty and comfort of the shoe. The Consolidated Hand Method Welt Lasting Machine, which is used for this purpose, takes its name from the almost human way in which it performs this part of the work. It is wonderful to observe how evenly and tightly it draws the leather around the last. At each pull of the pincers a small tack driven automatically part way in holds the edge of the upper exactly in place, so that in the finished shoe every part of the upper has been stretched in all directions equally. The toe and heel of the shoe are considered particularly difficult portions to last properly. This important part of the work is now being very generally performed on the U. S. M. Co. Lasting Machine--No. 5, a machine of what is known as the “bed type.” It is provided with a series of wipers for toe and heel, which draw the leather simultaneously from all directions. There can be no wrinkles at the toe or heel of shoe on which it is properly used and the quality of work produced by it has been very generally recognized as a distinct advance in this important part of shoemaking. After the leather has been brought smoothly around the toe it is held there by a little tape fastened on each side of the toe and which is held securely in place by the surplus leather crimpled in at this point. The surplus leather crimpled in at the heel is forced smoothly down against the insole and held there by tacks driven by a very ingenious hand tool in which there is a constantly renewed supply of tacks.

UPPER STAPLING MACHINE

Forms small staples from wire.

Holds shoe upper to lip of insole.]

Trims off surplus part of shoe upper and lining.]

In all of the lasting operations the tacks are driven but part way in, except at the heel portion of the shoe, where they are driven through the insole and clinched on the iron heel of the last. The tacks are driven only part way in, in order that they may be afterward withdrawn so as to leave the inside of the shoe perfectly smooth. In making shoes other than Goodyear Welts, with the exception of the Goodyear Turn Shoe, it is necessary to drive the tacks through the insole and clinch them inside the shoe, so that the different portions of the sole inside the shoe have clinched tacks. These are left even after the shoe is finished. This smooth interior of the shoe is one of the essential features of the Goodyear Welt Process.

In the lasting operation there is naturally a surplus amount of leather left at the toe and sometimes around the sides of the shoe, and this is removed on the Rex Upper Trimming Machine in which a little knife cuts away the surplus portion of the leather very smoothly and evenly, and simultaneously a small hammer operating in connection with the knife pounds the leather smooth along the sides and the toe of the shoe. The shoe then passes to the Rex Pounding Machine, in which a hammer pounds the leather and counter around the heel so that the stiff portion of the shoe conforms exactly to the shape of the last.

The shoe is now ready to receive the welt, which is a narrow strip of leather that is sewed along the edge of the shoe, beginning where the heel is placed and ending at the same spot on the opposite edge. This welt is sewed from the inside lip of the insole, so that the needle passes through the lip, upper and welt, uniting all three securely and allowing the welt to protrude evenly along the edge. The needle in making this stitch does not go inside the shoe, but passes through only a portion of the insole, leaving the inside perfectly smooth. This part of the work was formerly one of the most difficult and laborious tasks in shoemaking. As it was performed entirely by hand, the drawing of each stitch depended upon the strength and mood of the workman. It is of course obvious that with different operators stitches were oftentimes of different lengths and drawn at different tensions; for human nature is much the same everywhere, and it is impossible for a workman who has labored hard all day to draw a stitch with the same tension at night as might have been possible in the morning.

WELT AND TURNED SHOE SEWING MACHINE

Upper portion shows operator at machine. The lower shows formation and location of stitch formed by this machine.

Welt Stitch

Welt]

It is surprising how quickly and easily the work is done on the Goodyear Welt Sewing Machine. This famous machine has been the leading factor in the great revolution that has taken place in shoe manufacturing. Its work should be carefully noted--all stitches of equal length and measured automatically, the strong linen thread thoroughly waxed and drawn evenly and tightly; for the machine never tires, and it draws the thread as strongly in the evening as in the morning. Every completed movement of the needle forms a stitch of great strength, which holds the welt, upper and insole securely together.

As the lasting tacks as well as the tacks which hold the insole in place on the last were withdrawn just prior to this operation, it will be seen that the inside of the shoe is left perfectly smooth. After this process the surplus portions of the lip, upper and welt which protrude beyond the stitches made by the Goodyear Welt Machine are trimmed off by the Goodyear Inseam Trimming Machine--a most efficient machine, in which a revolving cup-shaped knife comes in contact with the surplus portions of the leather and trims them off very smoothly down to the stitches.

INSEAM TRIMMING MACHINE.

Trims shoe upper lining and lip of insole smooth down to stitches.]

Beats welt so that it stands out evenly round edge of shoe.]

Workman tacks shank in place and fills bottom with ground cork and rubber cement.]

At this stage the shoe is passed to the Universal Welt Beater, in which a little hammer vibrating very rapidly beats the welt so that it stands out evenly from the side of the shoe. As the leather is bent around the toe, it is the natural tendency of the welt to draw more tightly at that place, and this is taken care of by a little knife which the operator forces into operation, in the beating process, the toe is being taken care of, and it makes a series of little cuts diagonally along the edge of it. The insole and welt now receive a coating of rubber cement. This cement is contained in an air-tight tank and is applied by means of a revolving brush, which takes its supply of cement, as required, from a can.

In this way, an even coating of any desired thickness is given to the insole and welt. This machine has many advantages; the cement being closely confined in the tank, there is almost no waste in its use. Formerly, when this was done by hand, the waste through evaporation or lack of care on the part of the workman was very material.

The heavy outsole of the shoe also receives at this time proper attention. The flesh side of this sole, or the side next to the animal, receives a coating of rubber cement, and after it has dried slightly the operator of the Goodyear Improved Twin Sole Laying Machine takes the work in hand. In this machine there is a rubber pad, or mould, which has been made to conform to the curve in the sole of the shoe. After placing the last on the spindle, which is suspended from the machine and hangs over the rubber mould, the outsole having been previously pressed against the bottom of the shoe, the operator by pressing the foot lever causes this arm to descend, forcing the shoe down into the mould, so that every portion of the sole is pressed against the bottom of the shoe and welt. Here they are allowed to remain for a sufficient length of time for the cement to properly set, the operation being repeated on a duplicate part of the machine, the operator leaving one shoe under pressure while he is preparing another.

SOLE LAYING MACHINE.

Presses outsole to bottom of shoe where it is held by rubber cement.]

Roughly rounds outsole and welt to conform to shape of last. Cuts small channel along edge for stitches.]

The next operation is that of trimming the sole and welt so that they will protrude a uniform distance from the edge of the shoe. This work is performed on the Goodyear Universal Rough Rounding Machine, which gauges the distance exactly from the edge of the last. It is often desired to have the edge extended further on the outside of the shoe than it does on the inside and also that the width of the edge should be considerably reduced in the shank of the shoe. This is taken care of with great accuracy by the use of this machine. The operator is able to change the width at will. By the use of this remarkable machine the operator is also enabled to make the sole of the shoe conform exactly to all others of similar size and design.

Turns back lip of channel preparatory to stitching.]

Coats surface of channel so it may be laid to cover stitches.]

The surplus portion of the leather is now trimmed off on the Heel-Seat Rounding Machine, and the channel cut by the knife on the Rough Rounding Machine is turned up so that it leaves the channel open. This is done by the Goodyear Universal Channel Opening Machine, in which a little wheel, turning very rapidly, lays the lip smoothly back.

~SEWING THE SOLE TO THE SHOE~

The outsole is now sewed to the welt. This operation is performed on the Goodyear Outsole Rapid Lockstitch Machine, which is very similar in operation to the Goodyear Welt Sewing Machine used in sewing the welt to the shoe. The stitch, however, is finer and extends from the channel which was cut for it to the upper side of the welt, where it shows after the shoe has been finished. The lockstitch formed by this machine is a most durable one. Using a thoroughly waxed thread, it holds the outsole securely in place, even after the connecting stitches have been worn off. This is one of the most important machines in the shoemaking process. It is able to sew even in the narrow shank, where a machine using a straight needle could not possibly place its stitch.

The “Star Channel Cementing Machine--Model A” is again called into operation for the purpose of coating with cement the inside of the channel in which this stitch has been made. A special brush with guard is used for this purpose, and the operation is very quickly performed by the skilled operator.

After this cement has been allowed to set a sufficient length of time, the channel lip, which has previously been laid back against the sole, is again forced into its former position and held securely in place by rubber cement. This work is done by the Goodyear Channel Laying Machine, in which a rapidly revolving wheel provided with a peculiar arrangement of flanges forces back into place, securely hiding the stitches from observation on this portion of the shoe.

CHANNEL LAYING MACHINE.

Rubs channel lip down to cover stitches.]

Drives small nails which hold outsole in place at heel.]

The next operation is that of leveling, which is performed on the Automatic Sole Levelling Machine--one of the most interesting used in the shoemaking process. This is a double machine provided with two spindles, on one of which the operator places a shoe to be levelled. It is securely held by the spindle and a toe rest, and on the operator’s pressing a foot lever, the shoe passes automatically beneath a vibrating roll under heavy pressure. This roll moves forward with a vibrating motion over the sole of the shoe down into the shank, passes back again to the toe, then cants to the right, and repeats the operation on that side of the shoe, returning to the toe and canting to the left, repeating the operation on that side; after which the shoe automatically drops forward and is relieved from pressure. This rolling motion removes every possibility of there being any unevenness in the bottom of the shoe, and while one shoe is under pressure the operator is preparing a second one for the operation.

Rolls out any unevenness in soles.]

TOP LIFT

COMPRESSED HEEL

BEFORE OPERATION
AFTER OPERATION

Heel Attaching

WORK PERFORMED BY HEELING MACHINES.]

Drives small pieces of ornamental metal which protect the heel.]

Trims rough lifts of heel to desired shape.]

Cuts the breast of the heel to correct angle and curve.]

Trims edge of outsole smoothly.]

Paper such as found in this book is made from trunks and limbs of trees.

The use of good fibers in book paper is a guarantee of quality and durability. The above illustration represents a lump of this pulp prepared for the beaters.]

How the Paper in this Book is Made

Where Does Paper Come From?

Egyptians were the first people to make what would today be called paper. They made it from a plant called papyrus and that is where the name comes from.

This plant is a species of reed. The Egyptians took stalks of reed cut into as thin slices as they could, laid them side by side; then they arranged another layer on top with the slices the other way and put this in a press. When dried and rubbed until smooth, it made a kind of paper, which could be written upon.

One of the first substances used for making the kind of paper we have today was cotton. Paper was made from cotton about 1100 A. D. From this thin cotton paper our present papers are a development, i.e., paper today is largely made of vegetable fibers. Vegetable fibers consist mostly of cellulose surrounded by other things which hold the short vegetable fibers together.

The fibers best adapted for making paper are those of the cotton and flax plants, and while the uses of paper were few, no other material was needed when it was once learned that cotton and linen fibers would do for making paper. All we had to do was to save all the old rags and sell them to the paper man.

In making paper from rags, the rags were allowed to rot to remove the substances that incrust the cellulose, and then beaten into a pulp, to which a large quantity of water was added. This pulp was put into a sieve, until the greater part of the water had been drained off by shaking, and the fibers remaining formed a thin layer on the bottom of the sieve. This layer of fiber was put into a pile with other similar layers, and the whole pile was placed under a press, where more of the water was removed. When they were dry, we had a very fair kind of paper which was, however, not much better than blotting paper and could not be written on with ink because it was loose in texture and very absorbent.

To give it good writing surface it was necessary to fill the pores. This was done by sizing which gave the paper great firmness. Paper was sized by drawing the layers of paper through a solution of alum and glue, or some similar substances, and then drying them, then finally passed between highly polished rollers to iron it. This gave it the necessary smooth hard surface.

In the modern method of making rag paper by machinery, the rags are boiled with caustic soda, which separates the cellulose fibers, and placed in a machine in which rollers set with knives tear the rags to pieces and mix them with water to form a pulp. This is called a breaker. The pulp is then bleached with chloride of lime, and is passed on to the sizing machine. This machine mixes the pulp with alum and with a kind of soap, made from suitable resins which serves the purpose better than glue.

This shows the great piles of trunks and limbs of trees near a wood pulp paper mill used in making paper for newspapers, books, magazines, etc.]

How Is the Water Mark Put Into Paper?

The pulp, which is now ready to be made into paper, is poured out upon an endless cloth made of fine brass wire. This cloth travels constantly in one direction, by means of rollers, and is given at the same time a sort of vibratory motion, to cause the paper fibers to become more closely felted together. On the wire cloth web are usually woven words, or designs, in wire, that rise above the rest of the surface. These are transferred to the paper, and are called water marks. The machine then winds the finished paper into rolls, so that it may be handled conveniently.

~HOW PAPER IS NOW MADE FROM WOOD~

During the past few years the uses for paper have increased so greatly that there have not been enough rags available to meet the demand for material, and a successful effort was made to find other material from which paper could be made. Many fibers were tried before it was found that wood pulp could be used. Straw and esparto grass, a plant that grows wild in North America, were found to yield cellulose having the desired qualities and were used to some extent. But the problem was solved when it was learned that pulp made from trunks and limbs of trees would serve even then. At first the powder formed by grinding up logs was used, but the paper produced was not strong, and could be used for very few purposes.

PAPER TREES.

This picture shows the trees as they grow in the woods. These trees are good for making paper. Your morning paper, may some morning be printed on what is left of one of these trees.]

It was discovered finally that if wood shavings were boiled in strong solutions of caustic soda, in receptacles that would withstand very high pressure, the wood fibers were separated, and a very good quality of cellulose for paper manufacture produced, provided it was bleached before being made into paper, and most of our paper to-day is, therefore, made of wood.

Later on this process gave way to the sulphite process. In the sulphite process, a solution of sulphite of lime is used. Acid sulphite of lime results when the fumes from burning sulphur are passed through chimneys filled with lime. By this process the separation of the fibers and the bleaching are done at the same time and an even whiter paper making material is obtained.

The sulphite process is now used almost exclusively in making paper from wood.

In this picture we see how the trees are first cut into smaller chunks before being reduced to chips for making pulp.]

The discovery of the process of making paper from wood has led to the use of paper for many purposes for which it could otherwise never have been used. The wood pulp is also used in the form of papier-mâché, a tough, plastic substance, which is made by mixing glue with it, or by pressing together a number of layers of paper having glue between. Papier-mâché can easily be molded into almost any form, and after drying forms a very tough substance and one that will stand rough usage. It has been employed for making dishes, water baskets and utensils of many other kinds, for making the matrices for and from electrotype plates, for car wheels, and many other purposes.

MIXING ROOM.

The wood fiber must be mixed with other ingredients when paper is made from it. This shows a corner of the large electro-chemical department for the production of bleach and soda used in the preparation of rag and wood fibres.]

A good deal of water is needed in making paper. From twelve to fifteen million gallons daily are drawn from the river and filtered through this plant in Maine; clean paper of bright color being dependent upon the use of pure water.]

BEATER ROOM.

The ingredients for making paper are first mixed thoroughly in machines called “beaters” before going to the paper making machines. The operation of beating is one of the most important in paper making.]

As the paper progresses through the machines, it passes over a long series of heated cylinders, drying and hardening the stock until it reaches the finished end. This illustration shows a web 135 inches wide being cut into two rolls. The air pressure in the machine room is slightly greater than the atmospheric pressure outside, preventing dust from entering.]

PAPER MAKING MACHINES.