Chapter XIII: Introduction (12)

Other concessions were given covering the ocean shore of Lower California, the eastern side of the gulf within the States of Sonora and Sinaloa, and the ocean shore of Mexico southward from Sinaloa. In addition to these, certain territorial rights of fishing are claimed through grants dating back very early in the history of the country. So eagerly have these concessions been sought in recent years, that there is now little pearling ground on the coast which is not under corporate or private claim. And, owing to speculation in these concessions and in the formation of companies to develop them, it is somewhat difficult to obtain wholly reliable data relative to the condition and extent of the industry.

Two species of pearl-bearing mollusks occur on the Mexican coast. The principal one is the _M. margaritifera mazatlanica_, known locally as the _concha de perla fina_. This species is closely related to the “black lip shell” of the Australian coast. It is considerably larger than the Venezuelan oyster, averaging four or five inches in diameter and attaining an extreme diameter of seven or possibly eight inches. It occurs to some extent all along the Pacific coast of Mexico, in detached beds intercalated in places. The principal reefs, which have been exploited for nearly four centuries, are in the shallow waters of the Gulf of California and especially within the 300 miles between Cape San Lucas and Mulege Bay. The fisheries have centered about the islands of Cerralvo, Espiritu Santo, Carmen, and San José, and in the bays of Mulege, Ventana, and San Lorenzo. The depth of water on the reefs ranges from two to twenty-five fathoms, with an average of probably six or eight fathoms. The species is generally isolated, and firmly attached by the byssus to the bottom rocks or the stone corals, from which it may remove in case of necessity, though it probably does not do so frequently.

The second species is known locally under the name _concha nacar_, and has been named _Margaritifera_ (_Avicula_) _vinesi_ (Rochebonne).[298] It occurs only in the northern part of the gulf near the mouth of the Colorado River. Formerly it was abundant in that region, occurring in large areas, but it has become much reduced and is now little sought after. It is claimed that this species is far more productive of pearls than the _M. margaritifera_, and that it yielded the large quantities obtained by Osio in the eighteenth century. Although iridescent, the shell is so thin and convex that it is without commercial value.

THE ADAMS GOLD VASE

Ornamented with American gems and fresh-water pearls, rock crystal,
gold quartz and agatized wood

Top of vase and side view

Now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art
]

The headquarters of the Mexican pearl fishery are at La Paz, the capital of Lower California, 240 miles northwest of Mazatlan and 150 miles north of Cape San Lucas. This “Mantle of Peace”—the literal translation of La Paz—contains about 5000 inhabitants, nearly all of whom are more or less dependent on the pearl fishery. It presents an attractive picture, with the cocoanut-palms extending down almost to the water’s edge, and the high mountains forming a background. The low, stone houses, the tile roofs, the plaza with tropical trees, and the beautiful flower beds under perennial sunny skies, give it a quaint appearance. The most conspicuous objects from the harbor are the large old warehouses, with thick walls and iron-barred windows, for the storage of the pearls and the shells. During the season, from April to November, the arrival and departure of the pearling vessels presents a scene of great animation.

The present methods of the fishery on the Mexican coast are quite different from those of thirty years ago when nude diving was the only method in vogue. Instead of the haphazard work, largely in shallow water, the industry is conducted systematically, and the limit of depth is increased, much of the diving being in depths of ten to fifteen fathoms. The fishermen operate either from a large vessel making a cruise two or three months in length, or from a camp on the shore near the reefs. A vessel visits them frequently to furnish supplies and to transport the catch to La Paz. The fishing boats are undecked craft, each equipped with an air-pump and a crew of six men: a diver, a _cabo de vida_ or life-line man, who is usually the captain, two _bomberos_ at the air-pump, and two rowers.

The greatest depth at which armored diving is attempted in Mexico rarely exceeds twenty fathoms; twenty-five fathoms is fully as deep as it is practicable to go, and it is not advisable to remain at that depth more than a very few minutes. At fifteen fathoms a diver may remain half an hour or more, and at six or eight fathoms he may work uninterruptedly for several hours. When the water is very cold, the diver comes up frequently to restore his numbed circulation by vigorous rubbing. The occupation is especially conducive to rheumatism, and paralysis is more or less general, due, not only to the compressed atmosphere, but to the abrupt changes of temperature. The work is very debilitating, with particular effect on the nerves, and partial deafness is common. It is important that the diver be careful about overeating before descending, as heavy foods, and meats especially, make respiration difficult; therefore, breakfast consists of little more than bread and coffee. The risks and dangers from sharks, devil-fish, etc., have greatly diminished since the introduction of scaphanders; for a stout diver in his waterproof dress, with leads on the breast, shoulders, and shoes, and on his head a massive helmet containing great gaping windows for eyes, is enough to cause even a hungry shark to hesitate and to seek a more digestible meal.

There are yet many nude divers in Mexico, who operate in shallow waters, their cheap labor making them successful competitors of the armored divers. In arranging with these, the pearling company commonly grub-stakes a crew, pays a stipulated sum per hundredweight for the shells, and bargains for the pearls. If the fishermen are not satisfied with the price offered for these, they are at liberty to sell to other buyers under certain restrictions.

Nude diving is confined to the warm months, beginning about the middle of May and continuing until October. Owing to the cloudy or muddy condition of the water in the gulf, the nude diver can not inspect the bottom from the surface and select the best oysters before descending, nor can he work satisfactorily at depths greater than seven or eight fathoms. While the work is hard, it is more remunerative than the average branch of labor in this region.

Each day the boats deliver their catch of oysters at the fishing-camps or on board the receiving vessels. After they have been freed from marine growths and refuse, the mollusks are opened and searched for pearls. This operation is performed by trusted employees, usually elderly men who have become physically disqualified for diving, and who, seated together at a low table, work under the watchful eyes of overseers. A knife is introduced between the valves of the oyster, the adductor muscle is severed, and the valves are separated by breaking the hinge. The animal is removed from the shell and carefully examined with the eyes and the fingers, and then squeezed in the hands to locate any pearl which may be concealed in the organs or tissues. The debris is passed to other persons, who submit it to further examinations. A man may work all day long and find only a few seed-pearls, but occasionally there is the excitement of discovering a beautiful gem.

In some localities the flesh of the pearl-oyster is a source of profit through its sale to Chinamen, who dry and otherwise prepare it for sale among their countrymen in Mexico and America, as well as in the Orient. Frequently the large adductor muscle is dried for food, making excellent soup-stock, and, indeed, it is quite palatable when stewed.

It is difficult to approximate the output of the Mexican pearl fisheries, other than the pearl shell, because the dealers place a merely nominal value on the pearls in their invoices when sending them to Europe, an invoice of $500 sometimes representing gems valued in Paris at several thousand dollars. Furthermore, it is difficult to obtain satisfactory information from the pearling companies, owing, presumably, to the fear of developing greater competition. According to the estimates at La Paz, the local value of the pearl yield now approximates $250,000 annually, and the value of the same over the counters in Europe and America probably exceeds one million dollars.

Some remarkably large pearls have been secured in the Mexican fisheries, especially considering the small size of the oysters. In 1871 a pearl of 96 grains, pear-shaped and without a flaw, sold at La Paz for 3000 pesos. In March, 1907, a beautiful pinkish white one, found near the lower end of the peninsula, sold for 28,000 pesos or $14,000. One of the best years for choice finds was 1881, when the scaphanders were first employed to their greatest efficiency. A black pearl was then secured which weighed 112 grains, and which brought 40,000 francs in Paris. In 1882 two, weighing 124 and 180 grains respectively, sold for 11,000 pesos. In the following year a light brown pearl, flecked with dark brown, and weighing 260 grains, sold for 7500 pesos. These are the prices which the La Paz merchants received for these pearls, and not the much greater amounts for which they were finally sold by the jewelers.

One of the finest pearls was found in 1884 near Mulege. This weighed 372 grains. The Indian fisherman is said to have sold it for $90; the purchaser declined an offer of 1000 pesos, and also a second offer of 5000, and soon sold it to a La Paz dealer for 10,000 pesos. Its value in Paris was estimated at 85,000 francs. Probably the most famous of all pearls obtained from these grounds was “the 400–grain pearl” found near Loreto, and “which is now among the royal jewels of Spain.” It is said that this was offered by the lucky fisherman to the Mission of Loreto, and by the Director of Missions in Lower California was presented to the Queen of Spain.[299]

As in every other fishery, one hears in Mexico of fishermen who have grasped a prize only to lose it through inexperience or improvidence. The account given above of the sale of the 372–grain pearl found near Mulege furnishes an instance of this. It is related in La Paz that in 1883 an Indian sold for ten pesos a gem weighing 128 grains, for which the purchaser received 27,500 francs in Paris. On another occasion a Mexican sold two pearls, easily worth $4000, for $16 worth of groceries.

In the eighteenth century, the Notre Dame de Loreto possessed a remarkable collection of Mexican pearls, which had been presented from time to time by the fishermen. During the régime of the Jesuits, it was customary to devote the proceeds of the last day of the fishery to the decoration of the altar of that mission. After the expulsion of this religious order in 1767, the mission was pillaged and the collection dissipated. From the old aristocracy of Mexico, family heirlooms of many choice pearls were placed on the European market during the civil wars in Mexico to contribute to the support of the contending armies. One lady in Sonora is said to have disposed of her collection for 550,000 francs. A fine collection of these pearls, accumulated from 1760 to 1850, and showing them in a great variety of colors, shapes, and sizes, was in Chihuahua until recently.

AMERICAN FRESH WATERS

And my pearls are pure as thy own fair neck,
With whose radiant light they vie.

WHITTIER, _The Vaudois Teacher_.

The most recently developed pearl fisheries are within the limits of the United States, in the rivers and fresh-water lakes, and especially those in the Mississippi Valley. As an important industrial enterprise, these fisheries are less than two decades old, yet they are very productive, yielding annually above half a million dollars’ worth of pearls, many of which compare favorably in quality with those from oriental seas.

The prehistoric mounds in the Mississippi Valley present evidence of the estimation in which pearls were held by a race of men who passed away ages before America was first visited by Europeans. In some of these mounds, erected by a long-forgotten race, pearls have been found not only in hundreds and in thousands, but by gallons and even by bushels. Some of these equal three quarters of an inch in diameter, and in quantity exceed the richest individual collections of the present day. Damaged and partly decomposed by heat and through centuries of burial, they have lost their beauty, and are of value only to the archæologist and to indicate the quantity of pearly treasures possessed by these early people.

Owing to the great wealth of pearls which had been uncovered on the Spanish Main, at Panama, and in the Gulf of California, Eldorado explorers, in the sixteenth century, were particularly eager in searching for them within the present limits of the United States; in the reports of their wanderings, much space is given to these gems, and these reports aided largely in inducing and encouraging other expeditions. Some of these accounts read like the marvelous stories of Sindbad the Sailor, quantities of pearls—hundreds of pounds in some instances—being secured by the exchange of trinkets and by more questionable means. It would be easy to bring together numerous accounts of apparently reliable authorities to show that in the sixteenth century pearls were obtained here in far greater quantities than were ever known in any other part of the world; but this conclusion seems not wholly correct.

The unfortunate wanderings of Hernando de Soto from 1539 to 1542 gave rise to most of the reports of rich pearl finds within the limits of this country. Of this voyage there are three principal accounts. The first was by Luis Hernandez de Biedma, who had accompanied De Soto as factor for Charles V of Spain. His brief report was presented to the king in 1544, although it was not published until 1841, nearly three centuries later, when it appeared in a French translation.[300] The second, and in our opinion the most reliable account,[301] published at Evora in 1577, was by an unnamed Portuguese (in English editions, commonly spoken of as the Gentleman of Elvas), who was a member of the expedition. The third account,[302] by far the longest and most widely known, but which was not written until 1591, was by Garcilasso de la Vega, who represented that his information was from a Spanish cavalier who had accompanied De Soto.

The only reference made to pearls in Biedma’s report seems to be his allusion to the large quantity secured at the village of Cofaciqui, on the east bank of the Savannah River. He states: “When we arrived there, the queen ... presented the governor with a necklace of pearls of five or six rows, procured for us canoes to pass the river, and assigned the half of the village for our quarters. After having been in our company three or four days, she escaped into the forest; the governor caused search to be made after her, but without success; he then gave orders to break open a temple erected in this village, wherein the chiefs of the country were interred. We took out of it a vast quantity of pearls, which might amount to six or seven arrobas,[303] but they were spoiled by having been underground.”[304]

The Portuguese narrative alludes to the pearls at Cofaciqui, stating that the queen “took from her own neck a great cordon of pearls, and cast it about the neck of the governor.... And the lady, perceiving that the Christians esteemed the pearls, advised the governor to search certain graves in the town, where he would find many; and that if he would send to the abandoned towns, he might load all his horses. He sought the graves of that town and there found fourteen rows of pearls, and little babies and birds made of them.”[305] This account makes no further mention of pearls, except to state that at the battle of Mavilla this great collection was burned, and that when the Queen of Cofaciqui escaped from the Portuguese she carried with her a little chest full of unbored pearls, which some of the Spaniards thought were of great value;[306] and further, that on one or two other occasions a few pearls were received from the Indians as presents.

The account of De Soto’s wanderings, given by Garcilasso, the Peruvian historian, contains many references to pearls, which read more like romance than reality. With his knowledge of the jewels, temples, etc., in Mexico and Peru, and recognizing some similarities in the manners of the people of those countries and the ones with whom De Soto came in contact, Garcilasso was easily led to statements which, though possibly true in the one case, seem fictitious in the other.

He gives the story of the Queen of Cofaciqui, with some additional particulars. The string of pearls which she presented to the governor made three circuits of her neck and descended to her waist. In his account, the graves in Cofaciqui became a temple containing, among other riches, more than a thousand measures of pearls, of which they took only two. Near Cofaciqui was the temple of Talomeco, over a hundred steps long by forty broad, with the walls high in proportion. Upon the roof of the temple were shells of different sizes, placed with the inside out, to give more brilliancy, and with the intervals “filled with many strings of pearls of divers sizes, in the form of festoons, from one shell to the other, and extending from the top of the roof to the bottom.” Within the temple, festoons of pearls hung from the ceiling and from all other parts of the building. In the middle were three rows of chests of graded sizes, arranged in pyramids of five or six chests each, according to their sizes. “All these chests were filled with pearls, in such a manner that the largest contain the largest pearls, and thus, in succession, to the smallest, which were full of seed-pearls only. The quantity of pearls was such, that the Spaniards avowed, that even if there had been more than nine hundred men and three hundred horses, they all together could not have carried off at one time all the pearls of this temple. We ought not to be too much astonished at this, if we consider that the Indians of the province conveyed into these chests, during many ages, all the pearls which they found, without retaining a single one of them.”[307] In the armory attached to this temple were long pikes, maces, clubs, and other weapons mounted with links and tassels of pearls.

Garcilasso has an interesting story of an incident said to have occurred a few days after leaving Cofaciqui, when the troops were passing through the wilderness.

Negro pearling camp on bank of an Arkansas river
]

Group of Arkansas pearl fishermen; photographed shortly after the
woman in the center of the group had found a pearl for which she
received $800
]

Juan Terron, one of the stoutest soldiers of the army, toward noon,
drew from his saddle-bags about six pounds of pearls, and pressed a
cavalier, one of his friends, to take them. The cavalier thanked him
and told him that he ought to keep them, or rather, since the report
was current that the general would send to Havana, send them there
to buy horses and go no longer afoot. Offended at this answer,
Terron replied that “these pearls then shall not go any farther,”
and thereupon scattered them here and there upon the grass and
through the bushes. They were surprised at this folly, for the
pearls were as large as hazel-nuts, and of very fine water, and
because they were not pierced they were worth more than six thousand
ducats. They collected about thirty of these pearls, which were so
beautiful that it made them regret the loss of the others, and say,
in raillery, these words, which passed into a proverb with them,
“There are no pearls for Juan Terron.”[308]

At the capital of Iciaha, De Soto received from the cacique or chief, a string, five feet in length, of beautiful and well-matched pearls as large as filberts. Upon De Soto’s expressing a desire to learn how the gems were extracted from the shells, the chief immediately ordered four boats to fish all night and return in the morning.

In the meantime they burnt a great deal of wood upon the shore, in
order to make there a great bed of live coals, that at the return of
the boats they might put thereon the shells, which would open with
the heat. They found, at the opening of the first shells, ten or
twelve pearls of the size of a pea, which they took to the cacique,
and to the general who was present, and who found them very
beautiful, except that the fire had deprived them of a part of their
lustre. When the general had seen what he wished, he returned to
dine; and immediately after, a soldier entered, who instantly said
to him that, in eating oysters which the Indians had caught, his
teeth had encountered a very beautiful pearl of a very lively color,
and that he begged him to receive it to send to the governess of
Cuba. Soto politely refused this pearl, and assured the soldier that
he was as obliged to him as if he had accepted it; and that some day
he would try to acknowledge his kindness, and the honor which he did
his wife; and that he should preserve it to purchase horses at
Havana. The Spaniards valued it at four hundred ducats; and as they
had not made use of fire to extract it, it had not lost any of its
lustre.[309]

Notwithstanding the strong indorsement given to Garcilasso’s narrative by Theodore Irving and some other writers, his tendency to exaggerate depreciates greatly the historical value of his account, and it seems wholly unreliable as an authority relative to early resources in America. We may reasonably doubt whether De Soto’s expedition came in contact with more pearls than those mentioned by Biedma and the Portuguese writer.

The account of the first voyage along the coast of the United States, that of the Italian, Juan Verrazano, in 1524, contains no reference to pearls, although he penetrated into the interior a score or two of miles, and was frequently in contact with the natives, who lived largely by fishing, and who prized many ornaments of different colored stones, copper rings, etc.

The first expedition which went far into the interior was the ill-fated one under command of Pánfilo de Narvaez in 1528. A thrilling account[310] of this journey was written by Cabeza de Vaca, who was one of the four survivors, after eight years’ wandering through America to Mexico. Cabeza had been controller and royal treasurer of the expedition, and in that position it was his particular duty to acquaint himself with all the pearls, gold, and similar riches found by the party. Notwithstanding his tradings with the Indians and their efforts to gain his friendship by means of presents, his account makes no mention of pearls, except to refer to a statement made by some Indians that on the coast of the South Sea there were pearls and great riches.

Hernando D’Escalante Fontaneda, who was shipwrecked on the Florida coast about 1550, and was detained there a prisoner for seventeen years, wrote:

“Between Abolachi [Appalachicola] and Olagale is a river which the
Indians call Guasaca-Esqui, which means Reed River. It is on the
sea-coast, and at the mouth of this river the pearls are found in
oysters and other shells; from thence they are carried into all the
provinces and villages of Florida.”[311]

The European narrators also reported great stores of pearls along the Atlantic seaboard. Among the first of these may be mentioned David Ingram, who is represented as traveling by land from the Gulf of Mexico to the vicinity of Cape Breton in the years 1568 and 1569. As it appeared in the first edition of Hakluyt’s Voyages, this relation states:

“There is in some of those Countreys great abundance of Pearle, for
in every Cottage he founde Pearle, in some howse a quarte, in some a
pottel [half a gallon], in some a pecke, more or less, where he did
see some as great as an Acorn; and Richard Browne, one of his
Companyons, found one of these great Pearls in one of their Canoes,
or Boates, wch Pearls he gave to Mouns Campaine, whoe toke them
aboarde his shippe.”[312]

Estimation of Ingram’s wonderful relation is decreased by Purchas’s comment:

As for David Ingram’s perambulations to the north parts, Master
Hakluyt, in his first edition printed the same; but it seemeth some
incredibilities of his reports caused him to leave him out in the
next impression; the reward of lying being, not to be believed in
truths.[313]

Even the members of Raleigh’s Roanoke Colony of 1585 reported pearls. Hariot stated:

Sometimes in feeding on Muscles we found some Pearle: but it was our
happe to meet with ragges, or of a pide colour: not having yet
discovered those places where we heard of better and more plenty.
One of our company, a man of skill in such matters, had gathered
from among the Savage people about five thousand: of which number he
chooses so many as made a faire chaine, which for their likenesse
and uniformity in roundenesse, orientnesse, and piednesse of many
excellent colours, with equality in greatnesse, were very faire and
rare: and had therefore been presented to her Majesty, had we not by
casualty, and through extremity of a storme lost them, with many
things els in coming away from the countrey.[314]

So far as we can learn, there is no evidence to show that, during the sixteenth or the seventeenth century, any pearls of value were received in Europe from within the present limits of the United States, as was the case with the resources of Venezuela, Panama and Mexico. Many of the accounts quoted above seem wholly fictitious, some of them possibly drawn up for the purpose of promoting exploring expeditions. It is also probable that knowledge of the enormous collections at Venezuela and Panama misled some of the narrators into recognizing as pearls the spherical pieces of shell or even the cylindrical wampum which the Indians made in large quantities and used as money.

However, it is unquestionable that pearls of value were in the possession of some of the wealthier tribes. Biedma’s account of the 150 pounds or more of damaged pearls in the graves at Cofaciqui seems wholly reliable, and likewise many other statements; and it is an interesting problem to determine the source from which the Indians obtained them.

Most of the narratives refer to the pearls as coming from the coast of the South Sea or Gulf of Mexico. The evidence of Fontaneda, who had spent seventeen years in the country, throws some light on this. He states that pearls were obtained at the mouth of Reed River near Appalachicola, whence they were distributed throughout Florida. This seems to indicate that on the west coast of Florida there might have been extensive reefs of pearl-bearing mollusks, which have since become extinct, although existing shell-heaps do not confirm this.

While it is possible and even probable that many of these pearls in the possession of the Indians came from the Gulf of Mexico or even from the Caribbean Sea, it seems much more likely that they came largely from the Unios of the inland lakes and rivers.

The voyages of Narvaez, Ayllon, De Soto, Ribault, etc., had been so unfortunate that for a century little exploration was made in the territory of the southern part of the United States. When this territory was again invaded, little was seen in the way of pearls.

Iberville, who established the French settlement near the mouth of the Mississippi in 1699, was specially directed to look for them. His instructions state: “Although the pearls presented to his Majesty are not fine either in water or shape, they must nevertheless be carefully sought, as better may be found, and his Majesty desires M. d’Iberville to bring all he can; ascertain where the fishery is carried on, and see it in operation.”[315] Pearls were found in the territory of the Pascagoulas, but they were not worth the trouble of securing them. It appears that from these the Pearl River in Mississippi derived its name.

The only reference to pearls in the seventy-one volumes of Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, from 1610 to 1791, is a note by Father Gravier stating that he saw no choice pearls: “It is true the chief’s wife has some small pearls; but they are neither round nor well pierced, with the exception of seven or eight, which are as large as small peas, and have been bought for more than they are worth.”[316]

Daniel Coxe’s description, in 1722, of pearl resources in America, is of special interest because of the extended experience of his father as a trader in the country. He states:

Pearls are found to be in great abundance in this country; the
Indians put some value upon them, but not so much as on the colored
beads we bring them. On the whole coast of this province, for two
hundred leagues, there are many vast beds of oysters which breed
pearls, as has been found in divers places. But, which is very
remarkable, far from the sea, in fresh water rivers and lakes, there
is a sort of shell-fish between a mussel and a , wherein are found
abundance of pearls, and many of an unusual magnitude. The Indians,
when they take the oysters, broil them over the fire till they are
fit to eat, keeping the large pearls they find in them, which by the
heat are tarnished and lose their native lustre; but, when we have
taught them the right method, doubtless it would be a very
profitable trade. There are two places we already know within land,
in each of which there is a great pearl fishery. One about

BROOCH, RENAISSANCE STYLE, SET WITH BAROQUE PEARLS, FROM AMERICAN
STREAMS

Pan-American Exposition, 1901
]

one hundred and twenty leagues up the River Meschacebe
[Mississippi], on the west side, in a lake made by the river of the
Naches, about forty miles from its mouth, where they are found in
great plenty and many very large. The other on the River Chiaha,
which runs into the Coza or Cussaw River (as our English call it),
and which comes from the northeast, and, after a course of some
hundred miles, disembogues into the Gulf of Florida, about one
hundred miles to the east of the Meschacebe.[317]

It is interesting to note that the first place mentioned by Coxe as the location of a great pearl fishery is not far from one of the most productive pearling regions of the last fifteen years, _viz._, the eastern part of Arkansas. The second place noted by him appears to be identical with the Iciaha, where, nearly two centuries before, the Indians exhibited the methods of their fishing to De Soto and his companions.

Excepting Coxe’s notice, for 250 years following 1600, little was heard of the occurrence of pearls within this country. This does not indicate necessarily that the gems were absent from the waters; but, not using the Unios for food as did the aborigines, the residents had little occasion to open them and in this way learn of their contents. And even where pearls were occasionally found in mollusks opened for fish-bait, the people were in few instances informed as to their market value, and did not attempt to sell them, although the most attractive ones may have been treasured as ornaments or as keepsakes. This was paralleled in the diamond fields of South Africa, where gems worth thousands of dollars were used as playthings by the farmers’ children. A jewel, like a prophet, is frequently without honor in its own country until the residents of that country learn of the great esteem in which it is held elsewhere.

And yet, in some localities a few pearls were collected from time to time. The Moravians—familiar with the pearls of their native streams in Europe—gathered many from the Lehigh River near Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, over a century ago;[318] and from Rhode Island and elsewhere a few were obtained.

The first awakening to a realization of the value of fresh-water pearls in America occurred fifty years ago, when several beautiful gems were marketed from the northern part of New Jersey. The story of this find has been frequently told. A shoemaker named David Howell, who lived on the outskirts of Paterson, occasionally relieved the monotony of his trade by a fishing excursion to some neighboring stream, where he would usually collect a “mess” of mussels. Returning from one of these visits to Notch Brook in the spring of 1857, the mussels were fried with the usual abundance of grease and heat. After this preparation, one of them was found to contain a large, round pearl weighing “nearly 400 grains,” which possibly might have proven the finest of modern times, had not its luster and beauty been destroyed by the heat and grease.[319] Had the pearl been discovered in time, its value might have exceeded $25,000, thus making poor Howell’s fried mussels one of the most expensive of suppers.

Hoping to duplicate his wonderful find, Howell collected and searched other mussels, and his example was followed by several of his neighbors. Within a few days a magnificent pink pearl was found by a Paterson carpenter named Jacob Quackenbush. This weighed ninety-three grains, and was bought by the late Charles L. Tiffany for Messrs. Tiffany & Co., New York City, for $1500. Mr. Tiffany later described with much interest the feelings he experienced after making the purchase. Said he: “Here this man finds a pearl within seventeen miles of our place of business! What if thousands should be found, and many perhaps finer than this one! However, we risked buying the pearl, and as no one in New York seemed interested in it, we sent it to our Paris house for sale, and a French gem dealer offered for it a very large advance on the original price, paying 12,500 francs.” From this dealer it passed into the possession of the young and beautiful Empress Eugénie, from whom and from its great luster it derived the name “Queen Pearl.” Its present market value would doubtless amount to $10,000 or more.

When news of the very large price received for Quackenbush’s find became public, great excitement developed in the vicinity of Notch Brook. Persons came from all directions to search in the shallow streams for valuable pearls. Farmers of the neighborhood tried their luck, and also mechanics and other residents of the adjacent villages and towns, and even some from Newark, Jersey City, and New York. An old resident, who was an eye-witness, describes the scene as one of great animation, the crowds of people and the horses and wagons along the shore giving “an appearance of camp-meeting time.” At least one schoolmaster in the vicinity is said to have closed his school to give his pupils an opportunity to engage in the hunt.

With trousers rolled up, the people waded into the shallow water and sought for the mussels in the mud and sand on the bottom. Many pearls were secured, but none approached in size or value the two above noted.[320] During 1857, the New York City market received about $15,000 worth of pearls from these waters, and in addition many were sold locally or retained as souvenirs of the hunt. At the low price of pearls existing then, this figure would mean possibly ten times as much at present, or $150,000.

The active search soon depleted the resources of the little stream, so that in the following year the reported value of the yield was only a few thousand dollars. The decrease continued until in a few years practically every mussel was removed, and at present scarcely a single Unio is to be found in these waters.

The interest in pearling extended far from the place of the original find; and in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and even as far away as Texas, search was made in the streams. In the Colorado and its tributaries, about 20,000 were found in a short while. Most of these were small and unattractive, but a considerable number were reported “as large as pepper-corns” and a few “the size of a small rifle ball,” the number decreasing with the increase in size. A correspondent in the “Neue Zeit” wrote:

Sometimes they are round, sometimes cylindrical, elliptical,
hemispherical, or of an altogether irregular shape. The finest have
a milk-white, silvery sheen; many, however, are reddish yellow,
bluish brown, or quite black; the last naturally have no value
whatever. As to their value, there is considerable uncertainty, and
it can easily be understood that those who have a great number of
them in their possession greatly overestimate them. So far they are
found principally in the Llano and the San Saba.[321]

After the resources in northern New Jersey were depleted and the excitement had died out, little was heard of pearling in this country until 1878, when many were found in Little Miami River in southwestern Ohio. The fishing was carried on at low water, and principally by boys, who would wade out in the water and feel for the mollusks with their feet, and then bob under and pick them up with their hands. The senior author spent a day in this fishery with a party of six boys with some success. During 1878 about $25,000 worth of pearls were collected in the vicinity of Waynesville on that stream. Mr. Israel H. Harris, a banker of Waynesville, then began collecting these pearls; and by purchasing during several years nearly every interesting specimen found in the vicinity, he made his collection one of the largest and best known in the country. When sold in 1888, it contained several thousand pearls, mostly of small size, averaging in weight little more than one grain each. A large portion of this collection was exhibited in the American section of the Paris Exposition of 1889, and was awarded a gold medal. Included in this exhibit was a series of ornaments in which the gems were arranged according to color, so that in one the pearls were green, in another purplish brown, in another pink, in another waxy white, and in one a cream-white. It also contained a button-shaped pearl weighing thirty-eight grains and several pink ones almost translucent. A pink pearl of eight grains was admired by all who saw it; by reflected light this had the color and translucency of a drop of molten silver. Many of the pink pearls found in the Little Miami and its tributaries were of the most beautiful rose-petal pink; pearls of this peculiar color have never been found in any other waters.

From Ohio the industry gradually extended westward and southward, and new fields were developed, pearls to the value of about $10,000 annually coming on the market from such widely separated States as Vermont, Kentucky, Tennessee, Florida, Texas, Washington, etc. However, little general interest was taken in fresh-water pearls, and few choice ones were found until the magnificent resources of the upper Mississippi Valley were discovered. Owing to the ease with which the mollusks may be collected by wading, it was in the relatively shallow tributaries that the fishery first developed, rather than in the deep channels of the main stream and of the large affluents.

The first region in the Mississippi Valley to attract attention was southwestern Wisconsin. Early in the summer of 1889, many beautiful pearls were found in Pecatonica River, a tributary of Rock River, which in turn empties into the Mississippi. Within three months, $10,000 worth of gems were sent from this region to New York City alone, including one worth $500, which was a very considerable sum for a fresh-water pearl at that time. The interest quickly spread to neighboring waters, and within a short time pearls were found also in Sugar River, in Apple River, in Rock River, in Wisconsin River, and in the Mississippi in the vicinity of Prairie du Chien. The fact that little experience and no capital was required for the business drew large numbers of persons to the newly-found Klondike; and the finds were so numerous and of such high quality that about $300,000 worth of pearls were collected before the end of 1891, greatly exceeding all records for fresh waters.

The Wisconsin pearls are remarkable for their beauty, luster, and diversified coloring, and some lovely shades of pink, purple, and especially metallic green have been found. Several of them have weighed in excess of fifty grains each, and some individual values ran well into four figures. One shipment made from Sugar River to London in September, 1890, contained ninety-three pearls, weighing from four to twenty-eight grains each, for which £11,700 was received in payment. In the limits of one county in the following year, pearls to the value of nearly $100,000 were secured.

BROOCHES AND RINGS OF FRESH-WATER PEARLS FROM WISCONSIN AND TENNESSEE

Paris Exposition, 1900
]

Shortly following the outbreak of pearling in Wisconsin came the development of interest in certain parts of Tennessee. For many years pearls had been secured from the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers and their tributaries, especially Caney Fork, Duck, Calf Killer, and Elk rivers, the headquarters of the fishery and the local markets being Carthage, Smithville, Columbia, and Arlington. The search had been conducted in a moderate way by pleasure parties in the summer, and by farmers after the crops had been laid aside.

In 1901 pearling excitement developed in the mountain regions of eastern Tennessee, especially in Clinch River. These newly-discovered resources proved so valuable that the local interest became very great. Vivid and picturesque accounts published in the local papers reported hundreds of persons as camping at various points along the streams, some in tents and some in rough shanties, and others going from shoal to shoal in newly-built house-boats. They were described as easygoing, pleasure-loving people, the men, women, and children working hard all day, subsisting largely on fish caught in the same stream, and dancing at night to the music of a banjo around the camp-fires. The center of the new industry was Clinton, the county seat of Anderson County, whither the successful hunters betook themselves each Saturday, the preferred time for selling the catch.

The next outbreak of pearling excitement was in Arkansas, in the region referred to by Daniel Coxe two centuries ago as the location of great pearl resources.[322] Although in recent times little had been heard of pearls in Arkansas previous to 1895, they were not unknown in that State. For years they had been picked up by the fishermen, and used as lucky stones or given to the children for playthings. Some had come into the possession of persons acquainted with their value. About 1875, a few pearls were collected by a party of men engaged in cutting cedar poles on White River; in 1888, a brilliant pear-shaped pink pearl of twenty-seven grains was secured from the same river, and sold to a prominent resident. Little had been said about these finds, and in general the people of Arkansas had slight idea of the occurrence or the value of pearls in those waters.

In 1895, a surveying party on White River found pearls in the Unios of that stream, and collected them to the value of about $5000. News of this discovery attracted attention to the resource, and other persons sought for the gems in the White River and its tributaries, in the St. Francis and the Arkansas rivers. The unusually low water in 1896 facilitated the fishery, and resulted in the discovery of many large and valuable gems. The interest developed rapidly, and within twelve months nearly every stream of water in Arkansas yielded pearls, with the finds most extensive and valuable in White River and its tributary the Black River, which has proved to be the richest pearling region in America. The industry centered at Black Rock, more than a thousand persons fishing within twenty miles of that place. It is estimated that within three years following the development of this fishery, this State yielded pearls to the value of more than $500,000.

When the Arkansas fishery was at its height, it was reported that ten thousand persons were employed therein. The fishermen were from nearly every class and condition in the State. Women were not absent; even children participated in the industry, and some proved more fortunate than the older hunters. It was not uncommon to see several hundred persons congregated at one bar or in one stretch of the river, all intent on making a fortune, and all occupied in fishing or in opening the shells. So complete was the absorption of the people in this pursuit, and so many of the farm-hands were occupied in the eager search for anticipated fortunes, that the local papers reported much apprehension and difficulty in harvesting the cotton and other crops.

Within the main channel of the Mississippi, the relative scarcity of pearls in the Unios, and the greater preparation required for collecting the mollusks in the deep waters, retarded the fishery until the establishment of button manufacture afforded a market for the shells, this originating in 1891. The industry developed rapidly, and for several years has consumed about 35,000 tons of shells annually, obtained principally in the Mississippi between Quincy and La Crosse, and to a much less extent in other streams in this valley. This is more than twice the total product of mother-of-pearl shell in all parts of the world. However, the value per ton is very much less than that of the best grade of mother-of-pearl; that from Australia, for instance, commonly selling for $1200 per ton, whereas the Mississippi shell usually sells for less than $20, although the very choicest may bring upward of $50 per ton.

The gathering of shells for manufacture has extended to many of the large tributaries of the Mississippi, especially the Arkansas, the White, the St. Francis, the Ohio and the Illinois rivers, and this industry has added largely to the pearl yield in these waters.

In the last three years, the scenes of greatest activity have been the Wabash River and its tributaries, where shell-collecting developed in 1903, and the Illinois River, where the industry was of little importance previous to 1906. On the Wabash, camps were established at almost every town, from the mouth up to St. Francis, Illinois, and about one thousand persons found employment. Some of the most beautiful American gems have come from this river. They are usually silvery white in color and of the sweetest luster. A single pearl weighing only ten grains has been sold at the river for $1000; but it is frequently the case that a fine gem will sell for more at the place where found than in the great markets. During the spring of 1907, three pearls were found in the Wabash near Vincennes, which weighed forty-one, fifty-one, and fifty-three grains respectively. One of these was white, one faint pink, and the third was yellow. The finest pearls have been reported from the vicinity of Mount Carmel near the lower end of the river. Very large quantities of baroques or slugs are found in the Wabash and the Illinois; 30,000 ounces were reported from those rivers and their tributaries in 1907, for which the fishermen received a total of $50,000. A large symmetrical pearl found during 1907 weighed a trifle under 150 grains, and a slug was found which weighed fully one ounce, or 606 grains.

The pearl-hunting excitement has been felt even on the Atlantic seaboard, as a result of the publication of the discoveries in the Mississippi Valley. In Maine many pearls have been reported, especially in the vicinity of Moosehead Lake. In 1901 over one hundred were found in that vicinity; most of them were of little value, but more than a dozen were worth $10 or $15 each. Three found by Kineo guides were sold for an aggregate of $300. The choicest one reported in that year weighed twelve and one half grains and sold for $150; had it been perfect in form and luster its value would have been several times that amount. Most of these pearls were found by Moosehead guides, who found purchasers among the visiting fishermen and hunters.

Since 1901 many farm-boys as well as guides have devoted much attention to the business, some of them deriving as large a revenue therefrom as from the use of the rifle. Good finds have been made, during the last year or two especially. In 1906, one choice pearl sold for $700, and many have sold for $10 to $75 each. The search has proven so alluring that returning visitors have complained that some of the guides care to do little more than search every rill, brook, and creek they come across looking for the mollusks. Just at present the principal attention seems to be directed to the streams in the western part of Maine, where the river-beds are more sandy and the shell-fish more abundant than in the northern and eastern part of the State.

In Massachusetts pearls have been collected from many of the ponds and brooks. In Nonesuch Pond in Weston, the _Unio complanata_ has yielded many small ones of attractive appearance, but not of sufficient size or luster to sell for more than $10 each. Ponds in the town of Greenwich and also in Pelham in Hampshire County are among the best in Massachusetts for pearls. The Sudbury River above Concord also yields many. Relatively few of the Unios contain pearls, and the gem-bearing individuals seem to be grouped in special localities. Outside of these places, thousands of mussels may be opened without revealing a single gem. A collection of small Massachusetts pearls was brought together a few years ago by Mr. Sherman F. Denton of Wellesley Farms, who has devoted much time to exploring the inland waters of Massachusetts.

Connecticut also has had a slight touch of the pearl fever. In 1897, Mr. C. S. Carwell of Ledyard, explored the headwaters of Mystic River, and in a few weeks collected a number of pearls, one of which he is reported as having sold for $500, and two others were estimated at $400 each. And from the other end of the State, along the Shepaug River, is reported a similar account of the success of Mr. Arlo Kinney of Steep Rock. Attracted by these reports, crowds of seekers have proceeded in the usual reckless manner to make wholesale destruction of the mollusks. The finds have been especially large and valuable in the lakes and streams of Litchfield County, particularly in Bantam Lake.

In New York State, pearls have been found in the swift shallow streams in the Adirondack region, and in several of those entering the St. Lawrence, particularly the Grass River in St. Lawrence County. Pearls were first reported from this region in 1894. In 1896 the Grass yielded one pearl weighing fifty-eight grains, worth $600 locally; and in 1897 one weighing sixty-eight grains was found, the fisherman selling it for $800. A resident of Russell township devoted most of his time to pearling in Grass River during 1896 and 1897, from which he is said to have realized $2000. In this region the mussels are found by wading in the shallow water and scanning the bottom through a water-telescope. Most of the pearls are of slight value, but many individuals are reported as worth from $30 to $60 each.

Pearl River in Rockland County, New York, has furnished a number of brown pearls. These are commonly small, weighing from one eighth to one half grain each, although some weigh seven or eight grains each. Most of these are not lustrous, but occasionally a bright brown or a bright copper-brown specimen of from one to four grains is met with. At the Paris Exposition, in 1900, were exhibited one hundred of these pearls, with an aggregate weight of 281 grains; these now form part of the Morgan-Tiffany Collection, in the American Museum of Natural History.

Even in the rich coal regions of Pennsylvania pearls are found. Possibly the most productive section in that State has been the headwaters of the Schuylkill River in the vicinity of Tamaqua, Quakake, and Mahony City. Of the tributaries of the Schuylkill, those contributing largely to the yield have been Lewiston, Nipert, Still, Locust, and Hecla. These rise in the mountains and are rivulets of fair size by the time they reach their common outlet.

PEARL-BEARING UNIOS

From the Mississippi Valley

The upper pictures show the two valves of the same shell, and the
pearl is detachable
]