Chapter II: The Beginnings of Musical Culture in America

Composite elements of American music--New England's musical
awakening; early publications of psalm-tunes; reform
of church singing--Early concerts in Boston--New York,
Philadelphia, the South--The American attitude toward
music--The beginnings of American music: Hopkinson, Lyon,
Billings and their contemporaries.

The whole history of early musical culture in America--obscure enough at best--is additionally obfuscated by the persistent illusion of American historians that the New England psalm-tunes formed the absolute basis of our musical development. This illusion may be part of the widespread impression that the church has been the exclusive _fons et origo_ of musical art. Thus Ritter: 'Musical culture in America, as in the great musical countries of Europe--Italy, France, Germany--took its starting point from the church.'[10] As a consequence of this view of things we find the early chapters of all existing histories of American music strewn with 'psalm-tunes,' 'church choirs,' and 'clergymen,' as thick as autumn leaves in Vallombrosa. All of which would be perfectly desirable if the importance of these factors in our musical development were apparent. Neither in our popular music nor in works of our serious composers can we trace the influence of New England psalmody, though we can trace the influence of German folk-songs and Scotch reels and Irish jigs and negro tunes and the writings of every European composer, from Bach to Brahms.

We have no desire to belittle the achievements of New England or the magnitude of its part in the history of the country. But--owing perhaps to the fact that literary production in America was for many generations confined almost exclusively to the New England states--we have had imposed on us a habit of thought which is a sort of historical synecdoche--New England being the figurative whole. Of course, it does not make a particle of difference to American music what we may think or say about its parentage. But, as long as history is to be written, it is well that it shall be written with some attempt at a disinterested attitude, and assumptions that the genesis of our music lay in New England or in any other circumscribed locality are entirely _ex parte_. Most of our composers have been disciples of some recognized European school or eclectic students of several schools. We can point in them to the influence of Bach or Mozart, of Beethoven or Brahms, of Schubert, Mendelssohn or Grieg, of Wagner, Strauss or Debussy, just as we can point to such influences in the writings of every European composer, great or small. The musical inheritance of the American composer is not American; it is universal. For a variety of reasons we have not yet developed a distinctively national school, but, among our younger composers who are unmistakeably American, where are the traces of Puritan psalmody? The _ethical_ influence of Puritanism is still strong in the land; it still colors our literature, art and public life; it even colors our music. But purely æsthetic influence is quite a different thing. Frankly, we believe that the music of colonial New England has had no more influence on our music of to-day than the writings of Cotton Mather have had on the work of O. Henry.

These prefatory remarks are made simply to emphasize the fact that the following sketch of the beginnings of musical culture in New England and elsewhere is intended only as a statement of historical facts and not as an argument for the influence of the New England colonies, or of any other colonies, in the development of American music. Little information is obtainable concerning the musical life of America before the end of the eighteenth century, and in these early chapters we are merely trying to arrive at an approximate estimate of what that musical life may have been, leaving philosophical deductions therefrom to those skilled in the drawing of such. If a predominating amount of space is given to the New England colonies it is chiefly because our available information concerning them is very much fuller than that which we possess concerning the rest of the country.

I

We have already seen that up to the end of the seventeenth century there were not, as far as we can discover, even the most elementary attempts at a musical life in New England. The writer of 'Observations Made by the Curious in New England,' published in London in 1673, remarks that there were then in Boston 'no musicians by trade.' It is to be assumed that there were none elsewhere in New England. The installation of Mr. Thomas Brattle's organ in King's Chapel forty years later necessitated the importation of a 'sober person to play skillfully thereon with a loud noise.' This person was a Mr. Price, who appears to have been the first professional musician in New England. He was followed by Mr. Edward Enstone, of England, who came over as organist in 1714. To augment his salary of £30 a year, Mr. Enstone, on Feb. 21, 1714, filed a petition 'for liberty of keeping a school as a Master of Music and a Dancing Master,' but the petition was 'disallowed by ye Sel. men.' In the Boston 'News Letter' of April 16-23, 1716, the same Mr. Enstone inserted the following explicit advertisement:

"This is to give notice that there is lately sent over from London, a choice Collection of Musickal Instruments, consisting of Flageolets, Flutes, Haut-Boys, Bass-Viols, Violins, Bows, Strings, Reads for Haut-Boys, Books of Instructions for all these Instruments, Books of ruled Paper. To be Sold at the Dancing School of Mr. Enstone in Ludbury Street near to Orange Tree, Boston.

"'NOTE. Any person may have all Instruments of Musick
mended, or Virginalls and Spinnets Strung and tuned at a
reasonable Rate, and likewise may be taught to Play on any
of those Instruments above mentioned; dancing taught by a
true and easier method than has been heretofore.'"

Mr. Enstone was a person of versatility. Apparently he triumphed over 'ye Sel. men,' and, in addition to this gratifying fact, we may infer from his advertisement that musical instruments were used to an extent in Boston prior to 1716. If Mr. Enstone's consignment were the first he would hardly have failed to mention it. He is exhaustively informative. The allusion to the mending of musical instruments also suggests that already they were not uncommon. 'Virginalls and Spinnets' were strung and tuned by Mr. Enstone, though they were not included in his imported collection. We have been unable to discover any information which would throw light on the extent to which musical instruments were used in New England during the first half of the eighteenth century. Even toward the end of the century their use was not very common. But probably they were used to some extent among people of culture as early as the year 1700, and to an increasing extent as time advanced and old prejudices weakened.

Among the people at large the most potent factor in developing a musical life was the formation of singing societies for the cultivation of a proper method of singing psalms. This reformation had long been advocated by the most enlightened clergymen of the colony. Prominent among them was the Rev. Thomas Symmes, who thus interrogatively argues his cause:

'Would it not greatly tend to promote singing of psalms if singing schools were promoted? Would not this be a conforming to _scripture pattern_? Have we not as much need of them as God's people of old? Have we any reason to expect to be inspired with the gift of singing, any more than that of reading? Or to attain it without suitable means, any more than they of old, when _miracles_, _inspirations_, etc., were common? Where would be the _difficulty_, or what the disadvantages, if people who want skill in singing would procure a skillful person to instruct them, and went two or three evenings in the week, from _five_ or _six_ o'clock to _eight_, and spend the time in learning to sing? Would not this be an innocent and profitable recreation, and would it not have a tendency, if prudently managed, to prevent the expense of time on other occasions? Has it not a tendency to divert young people, who are most proper to learn, from learning _idle, foolish_, yea _pernicious songs_ and ballads, and banish all such _trash_ from their minds? Experience proves this. Would it not be proper for _school masters_ in _country parishes_ to teach their scholars? Are not they very unwise who plead against learning to sing by rule, when they can't learn to sing at all unless they learn by rule? Has not the grand enemy of souls a hand in this who prejudices them against the best means of singing? Will it not be very servisible in ministers to encourage their people to learn to sing? Are they not under some obligation by virtue of their office to do so? Would there not, at least in some places, appear more of that fear of man, which brings a snare, than of true Christian prudence in omitting this? And, as circumstances may allow, would it not be very useful and profitable if such ministers as are capable would instruct their people in this art?'

The introduction of Satan as the protagonist of unskillful singing is an ingenious and appropriate touch. One might infer from the allusion to idle, foolish and pernicious songs and ballads that the young people of New England were not unlike young people of less godly places and expressed their feelings in ways that might have shocked their proper elders. If they did, it is a pity that some of their songs and ballads have not come down to us, be they never so pernicious. The advice of the Rev. Mr. Symmes, however, appears to have been followed, for we find that about the year 1720 singing societies began to sprout in various parts of New England. At first these were concerned exclusively with church music, but the elementary musical training they afforded was helpful in developing a capacity for the practice and appreciation of other music.

The growth of singing societies naturally created a demand for some sort of musical literature and inspired the publication of many books of psalm-tunes and instructions. This demand was anticipated as early as 1712 by the Rev. John Tufts, pastor of the Second Church in Newbury, who published in that year 'A very Plain and Easy Instruction to the Art of Singing Psalm tunes; with the Cantos or Trebles of twenty-eight Psalm tunes, contrived in such a manner as that the Learner may attain the Skill of Singing them with the greatest ease and speed imaginable.' About two years later he published 'An Introduction to the singing of Psalm Tunes, in a plain and easy method. With a collection of Tunes in Three Parts.' The essence of the 'plain and easy method' seems to have been the substitution of letters for the customary musical notation, together with lessons 'to assist in Raising and Falling of notes either gradual or by leaps, the groundwork of all good singing, and is not to be obtained ordinarily without help of some Skilful Person, or of an Instrument.' 'But being attained and observing the few foregoing Rules,' the reverend author continues encouragingly, 'you will be able to leap with your voice from one note to another, as they occur in various distances, and with a little practice to sing all tunes in this book, or other prick'd after this method in all their parts, with ease and pleasure.' The tunes and their arrangements were taken by the Rev. Mr. Tufts from Playford's 'Book of Psalms.'

In 1721 the Rev. Thomas Walter, of Roxbury, Mass., published a book comprehensively entitled 'The Grounds and Rules of Musick explained. Or an introduction to the Art of singing by Note: Fitted to the meanest capacity. By Thomas Walter, A.M. Recommended by Several Ministers.' As illustrating the Rev. Mr. Walter's qualifications to explain 'the Grounds and Rules of Musick' we would quote the following delightful and illuminating disquisition: 'There are in Nature but _seven distinct sounds_, every eighth Note being the same. Thus when a tune is sung by another upon a Key too low for the Compass of my Voice, if I will sing with the Person, it must be all the Way, _eighth Notes_ above him. I naturally sound an Eighth higher. So a Woman naturally strikes eighth notes above the grum and low sounding Voice of a Man, and it makes no more Difference than the singing of two Persons upon an Union or a Pitch. So, on the contrary, when we sing with a Voice too High and shrill for us, we strike very naturally into an Octave or Eighth below. And here let it be observed that the _Height_ of a note and the _Strength_ of singing it are too different Things. Two notes of equal Height may be sounded with different degrees of Strength so as that one shall be heard much further than the other.' This book has the honor of containing the 'first music printed with bars in America,' Mr. Tufts having omitted in his works the bars marking the measures.[11] The arrangements were taken from Playford.

In 1741 Dr. Watts' 'Psalms' were printed in Boston, and an edition of Watts' 'Hymns' were printed in the same year by Dr. Franklin in Philadelphia. The next important publication was a part of Tansur's collection,[12] which was printed by William Bailey at Newburyport, Mass., in 1755, under the title of 'A Complete Melody in Three Parts.' In 1761 there was published in Philadelphia a large work called 'Urania, or a Choice Collection of Psalm-Tunes, Anthems and Hymns. From the most approv'd Authors with some entirely new: In Two, Three and Four Parts. The Whole peculiarly adapted to the use of Churches, and Private Families. To which are prefix'd the Plainest and most Necessary Rules of Psalmody. By James Lyon, A.B....' Three years later appeared in Boston 'A Collection of the best Psalm Tunes, in two, three and four parts; from the most approved authors, fitted to all measures, and approved by the best masters in Boston, New England; the greater part of them never before printed in America. Engraved by Paul Revere, printed and sold by him and Jos. Flagg.' In his preface Flagg, with admirable patriotism, pointed out that, though most of the tunes in his book came from across the Atlantic, the paper on which they were written was of American manufacture; and he hoped that the fact would recommend his book 'even to those who have no peculiar relish for the music.' We shall have more to say of Flagg in a later chapter. Daniel Bailey, of Newburyport, published in 1764 'A new and complete Introduction to the Grounds and Rules of Music in two books,' of which the first is taken from Williams and the second from Tansur. In 1769-71 Bailey issued a two-volume work called 'The American Harmony.' The first volume is a reprint of Tansur's 'Royal Melody,' together with 'A new and correct Introduction to the Grounds of Musick, Rudimental, Practical and Technical,' also taken from Tansur. The second volume is a reprint of Aaron Williams' 'New Universal Psalmodist.'[13]

Most of the music in the collections of Lyons, Flagg, and Bailey was the work of contemporary English church-composers. Some of it may have been written by Americans, but there has been identified only the anthem called 'Liverpool,' in Lyon's collection, which is the work of William Tuckey, of New York. This is only pseudo-American, however, as Tuckey was an Englishman. It is merely an imitation of the weak style of verse anthem then popular in England, and the same is true of the other compositions which may be American. Notwithstanding the poor quality of the music, the success of Bailey's collections serves to show the advance which church singing must have made in New England. The florid 'fuguing choruses' and canons, popular among the hymn-writers who followed Purcell in England, were not very noble or inspiring music, but their performance entailed a degree of musical expertness far removed from the cacophantic crudity of which the Rev. Thomas Symmes and his contemporaries so plaintively spoke. At the same time it may be pointed out that these early collections of psalm-tunes are full of errors, due to the lack of persons competent to read proofs of musical works, and, if the leaders of church choirs were not musicians enough to correct such errors in the rendering, either their ears were yet imperfectly trained or they had a sense of free harmony far in advance of their age. Furthermore, it was very late in the eighteenth century before the reform in church singing became general throughout New England. In the 'History of Worcester' we read of an energetic duel on August 5th, 1779, between the old deacon and the singers, in which the deacon read the psalm according to the 'lining-out' method, while the choir simultaneously sang the verse without pause, according to the new system. Force of numbers and noise finally overpowered the doughty old champion of tradition, who, we are informed, 'retired from the meeting-house in tears.' It was as late as 1785 before the parish of Rowley joined the march of progress, as we find the following entry under that date in the 'History of Rowley': 'The parish desire the singers, both male and female, to sit in the gallery and will allow them to sing once on each Lord's day without reading by the deacon.'

II

We may assume that musical culture made noticeable progress in New England in the second half of the eighteenth century. Among the mass of the people it remained somewhat primitive, but among the cultivated classes in Boston and the larger cities the best contemporary music was heard frequently and with appreciation. As we shall see in a later chapter, public concerts were held in Boston at least as early as 1731, and they seem to have compared favorably with similar functions in European cities. But of musical life in the intimate sense there was still comparatively little. Brissot de Warville writes from Boston in 1788: 'You no longer meet here that Presbyterian austerity which interdicted all pleasure, even that of walking, which forbade travelling on Sunday, which persecuted men whose opinions were different from their own. The Bostonians unite simplicity of morals with that French politeness and delicacy of manners which render virtue more amiable. They are hospitable to strangers and obliging to friends; they are tender husbands, fond and almost idolatrous parents, and kind masters. Music, which their teachers formerly proscribed as a diabolical art, begins to make part of their education. In some houses you hear the forte-piano. This art, it is true, is still in its infancy; but the young novices who exercise it are so gentle, so complaisant and so modest, that the proud perfection of art gives no pleasure equal to what they afford.'

There were at that time very few pianos in New England and we find from the newspaper advertisements that the teacher usually lent his own piano to his pupils for practice. We have it on the authority of Mr. Elson that the efforts of the pupils were customarily confined to Gyrowetz, or to 'Washington's March,' 'The Battle of Prague,' or the _Sonata pour le Clavecin ou Forte-piano, qui représente la bataille de Rossbach. Composée par M. Bach_--not the majestic Johann Sebastian, of course. Ritter has copied the following titles from a manuscript book of the late eighteenth century: _Ça Ira_, 'White Cockade,' 'Irish Howl,' 'French March,' 'Hessian Camp,' 'Duchess of Brunswick,' 'Duetto' by Mancinelli, 'Water Rice,' 'Nancy of the Mill,' 'O Bessy Bell,' 'German Spaw,' 'Ossian's Ghost,' 'Duke of York's March,' 'Duetto,' by Dr. Arne, 'Every Inch a Soldier,' 'Quick March of the Twenty-sixth Regiment,' 'March,' 'Poor Soldier,' 'Sound Alarm,' 'When Nichola first to court began,' 'Sweet Village of the Valley,' 'Minuetto,' 'Dead March in Saul,' 'Bright Phœbus,' 'Ode to Harmony,' 'Swedish Air,' 'Quick March,' 'King of Sweden's March,' _Marche des Marseillais_, 'Hessian Air,' 'Baron Steuben's March,' 'Prince Frederick's March,' 'Sonata from Minuetto in Samson,' 'March in Joseph,' 'Trio' by Humphrey.

It may be of interest to note some of the secular music published in New England at that time. We find the following advertisement in the 'Columbian Centinel' of Boston in 1798. 'Just published, price one dollar, neatly bound and lettered, sold by E. Larkin, No. 47, Cornhill, "The Columbian Songster and Free Mason's Pocket Companion." A Collection of the newest and most celebrated Sentimental, Convivial, Humorous, Satirical, Pastoral, Hunting, Sea and Masonic Songs, being the largest and best collection ever published in America. Selected by S. Larkin.' In the same year there appeared in Northampton, Mass., 'The American Miscellany.' From the foreword of the ingenuous editor we learn that in this work 'a general preference has been given to American productions, and perhaps nothing will more effectually exhibit the progress of the human mind in the refinements which characterize the age, than the songs which, from general consent, are now in vogue.' The exhibit is not very complimentary to the 'progress of the human mind.' Most of the songs contained in these collections are flatly commonplace, many of them are cheap and tawdry in the extreme. It would hardly be fair to look upon such publications as reflecting the musical taste of the cultured class in New England. Just what proportion that class bore to the total population we cannot say. We can safely assume, however, that the concerts given in Boston and elsewhere during the second half of the eighteenth century fairly indicate the taste of the musical elect in New England. The citation of a few programs in this place will, consequently, not prove amiss.

A concert in honor of President Washington's visit to Boston, given on the 27th October, 1789, is advertised as follows:

FOR PUBLIC ORNAMENT

AN ORATORIO

OR CONCERT OF SACRED MUSICK

will be performed at Stone Chapel, Boston, in presence of
the President of the United States.

First Part

1. A Congratulatory Ode to the President
2. A favourite Air in the 'Messiah' (composed by the
celebrated Handel) 'Comfort ye my People.' By Mr. Rea
3. Organ Concerto By Mr. Shelby
4. The favourite Air in the Oratorio of Samson (composed
by the celebrated Mr. Handel) By Mr. Rea
5. Anthem from 100th Psalm, composed by Mr. Selby

Part the Second

The Oratorio of Jonah

Complete. The Solos by Messrs. Rea, Fay, Brewer, and Dr.
Rogerson.

The Choruses by the Independent Musical Society; The
Instrumental parts of a Society of Gentlemen, with the band
of his Most Christian Majesty's Fleet.[14]

As the above Oratorio has been highly applauded by the best
judges, and has never been performed in America; and as
the first Performers of this country will be joined by the
excellent band of his Most Christian Majesty's squadron, the
Publick will have every reason to expect a more finished and
delightful performance than ever was exhibited in the United
States.'

In Salem on the 15th May, 1798, was given the following concert:

Part 1st

Grand Symphony Pleyel

Song: 'On by the Spur of Valour goaded.' Mr. Collins, Shield

Clarinet Quartette Vogel
Messrs. Granger, Laumont, von Hagen and Graupner

Song: 'He pipes so sweet.' Mrs. Graupner Hook

Concerto on the French Horn. Mr. Rosier Ponton

A favourite new Song: 'Little Sally's wooden ware' Arnold

Miss Solomon

Full Piece Hayden[?]

Part 2nd

Quartetto:

'Who shall deserve the glowing Praise?' Linly
Mrs. Graupner, Mr. Granger, Mr. Collins and Mr. Mallett

Concerto on the Clarinet, composed and performed by Mr. Schaffer

A new favourite echo Song: 'How do you do?' Hook
Mrs. Graupner, and accompanied on the hautboy by Mr. Graupner

Concerto on the Violin. Laumont Foder[?]

A Comic Irish song: 'Boston News' Mr. Collins

Concerto on the Hautboy, the composition of the celebrated Fisher
Mr. Graupner

Duet: 'They Dance to the Fiddle and Tabor,' from the much admired
Opera of the 'Lock and Key' Mrs. Graupner and Mr. Collins

Finale Pleyel

Audiences in those days must have had Gargantuan musical appetites. Mr. Mallet, a French musician resident in Boston, gave a concert there on the 19th May, 1801, which included two overtures, four concertos (for clarinet, violin, bass and oboe, respectively), six solo vocal pieces and one duet!

III

No doubt these concerts show that the musical taste even of cultured New England was somewhat indiscriminate. But the tendency to serve strangely mixed programs was not confined to America. We find, too, that concerts were very frequently a medium for the exploitation of compositions by the concert givers or their friends. This custom was not confined to America either, nor was it confined to the eighteenth century. On the whole, and considering all the circumstances, the concert life of New England speaks well for the musical culture of its people. The same may be said of concert-life elsewhere in America. Unfortunately our information concerning general musical culture in other parts of the country is extremely scanty, but we may assume that the inhabitants of the Middle and Southern colonies enjoyed a fuller musical life than was possible in New England, where it was retarded by conditions that were not operative elsewhere. In Pennsylvania, it is true, Quakerism must have exercised a repressive influence, though, from the evidence at our disposal, we find that Philadelphia at the end of the eighteenth century was more advanced musically than any other city in America. Practically our only sources of information concerning early musical life in New York, Philadelphia and the South are the records of operatic and concert performances, and, while we shall speak of those activities more fully in later chapters, we may be pardoned for referring briefly to them here.[15]

In New York English opera was heard perhaps as early as the year 1702, but performances did not become common until about 1750. After the production of the 'Beggar's Opera' in the latter year 'all the most popular ballad-operas,' to quote Ritter,[16] 'successively appeared on the New York stage. Besides these most of the musical farces, melodramas, pantomimes, which proved successful in London, were also produced in New York.' Concerts became increasingly common in the second half of the century and some of the programs were remarkably interesting. By way of illustration we quote the following program of a concert given on the 9th February, 1770, for the benefit of Mr. Stotherd:

Act 1st

1st. Overture of Bach, opera prima
3d. Concerto of Avison, opera quarta
A Hunting Song--Black Sloven
A French Horn Concerto, by Mr. Stotherd
4th Concerto of Stanley
Duet on the French Horn
8th Periodical Overture.

Act 2d

Overture of Saul[17]
Select pieces for four French Horns
2d Concerto of Humphries
A Hunting Song
A French Horn Concerto by Mr. Stotherd
3d Concerto of Corelli
Overture of Atalanta

In January, 1770, a large part of Handel's 'Messiah' was given in New York for the benefit of William Tuckey, with the assistance of 'a considerable number of ladies and gentlemen.' The program of a concert given by gentlemen of the army and navy in April, 1782, reads:

Act I

Sinfonie of Toeschi
Quartetto of Davaux for Violins
Song by Mrs. Hyde 'Soldiers tir'd of War's alarms'
Violino Concerto of Borchay
Quintetto of C. Bach for Flauto
Sinfonie of Stamitz

Act II

Sinfonie of Haydn
Quartetto of Kammell, for violino
Song by Mrs. Hyde, 'If 'tis joy to wound a lover'
Hoboy Solo Concerto of C. Fisher
Quartetto of Vanhall for Flauto
Sinfonie of Haydn