Chapter XIII: Appendix: Aqueducts (5)

That a part of the eastern side of Rome went by the name of _Spes Vetus_, is said to be proved by a curious graffito upon the bottom of an amphora, found in 1871 in the excavations in the Exquiliæ, near the Porta Maggiore, of a cobbler’s stall, in that district:—

TYCHICI
SVTORIS
A. SPEM VE
TERE.

This piece of _terra-cotta_ is of the first century of the Roman Empire; but _at what period_ the name and address of the cobbler was scratched upon it, is a question not so easily answered.

[55] The Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus enter Rome at the extreme eastern point on a lofty arcade, which formed the northern boundary of the Sessorian gardens, and was incorporated in the Wall of Aurelian. This extends for about a quarter of a mile; it then turns at a sharp angle to the north, and passes over the Porta Maggiore, to its final reservoir in a tower at an angle to the north of that gate. But part of the water of the Claudia and the Anio Novus united, was carried straight on along the bank on which the arches of Nero stand, to the Cœlian Hill and the reservoirs at the west end of it. The temple, called by Canina _Spes_, stood near the angle where the water was divided into two distinct channels, between that point and the Porta Maggiore.

[56] The name of _Porta Esquilina_ is here given to the Porta Maggiore, the outer gate on the road to the Esquiline. The same name was also given to the inner gate in the _agger_ of Servius Tullius; but there must always have been an outer gate also in the outer _mœnia_, or bank and wall for enclosure, which was a necessary part of every fortified city. (The same name, _Porta Angelica_, is still given to both the inner and the outer gate of the Leonine City, near the Vatican.) The high streams were carried on this bank to the Porta Viminalis of Frontinus, now called the _Porta di S. Lorenzo_. The remains of these three aqueducts can be plainly seen on entering through the city wall close to the Porta Maggiore, on the north side, and going along on this bank to the Porta di S. Lorenzo. The _specus_ is visible at both ends, carried on arches. In the middle the ground is higher, and the _specus_ pass through it underground, and then emerge and are carried again upon arches, exactly as described by Frontinus. The Aqua Felice is carried _over_ the three aqueducts of the Marcian arcade; it is on arches twenty feet from the ground at each end, and in the middle, where these three are underground. The lower part of the _specus_ of the Aqua Felice almost touches the ground, while the other three are underground.

[57] The _gemelli_ are, in all probability, the large twin reservoirs just outside the western wall of the Sessorium, now in a large vineyard near the Porta Maggiore, through which the Neronian arches pass. These reservoirs are below the level of the _specus_ of the Anio Vetus, as was shewn by some excavations made in them under my direction in 1869.

[58] Some of the water had been thrown into the old _specus_ at the junction of the Claudian with the Neronian arches.

[59] There are remains of more than one _specus_ crossing the valley from the Cœlian to the Aventine upon the _agger_ of Servius Tullius, and passing over the Porta Capena at the foot of the Cœlian. One of these was the Marcia, from the reservoir over the Arch of Dolabella, which is near the site of the Claudium and Temple of Claudius. There were great reservoirs for the aqueducts at this point on different levels; one of them underground is still in use, the remains of the others are among the most picturesque objects in Rome. This passage cannot apply to the temple of Hope, which is full a mile away from the Aventine.

[60] “Quum hæc accepta clades esset, jam C. Horatius et T. Menenius consules erant. Menenius adversus Tuscos, victoria elatos, confestim missus. Tum quoque male pugnatum est, et Janiculum hostes occupavere: obsessaque urbs foret, super bellum annona premente, (transierant enim Etrusci Tiberim) ni Horatius consul e Volscis esset revocatus: adeoque id bellum ipsis institit mœnibus, ut primo pugnatum ad Spei sit æquo Marte, iterum ad Portam Collinam. Ibi quanquam parvo momento superior Romana res fuit, meliorem tamen militem, recepto pristino animo, in futura prœlia id certamen fecit.” (Livii Hist., lib. ii. c. 51.)

[61] “Romæ fœdum incendium per duas noctes ac diem unum tenuit: solo æquata omnia inter Salinas ac Portam Carmentalem cum Æquimælio Jugarioque vico. In templo Fortunæ ac matris Matutæ et Spei extra portam late vagans ignis, sacra profanaque multa absumpsit.” (Ibid., lib. xxiv. c. 47.)

[62] “Comitia deinde a prætore urbano de senatus sententia plebisque scito sunt habita: quibus creati sunt quinqueviri muris turribusque reficiendis: et triumviri bini; uni sacris conquirendis donisque persignandis; alteri reficiendis ædibus Fortunæ et matris Matutæ intra Portam Carmentalem, sed et Spei extra portam, quæ priore anno incendio consumptæ fuerant.” (Livii Hist., lib. xxv. c. 7.)

[63] “Theatrum et proscenium ad Apollinis, ædem Jovis in Capitolio, columnasque circa poliendas albo locavit: et ab his columnis, quæ incommode opposita videbantur, signa amovit: clipeaque de columnis, et signa militaria affixa omnis generis dempsit. M. Fulvius plura et majoris locavit usus: portum et pilas pontis in Tiberim; quibus pilis fornices post aliquot annos P. Scipio Africanus et L. Mummius censores locaverunt imponendos; basilicam post argentarias novas et forum piscatorium, circumdatis tabernis, quas vendidit in privatum; et forum, et porticum extra Portam Trigeminam, et aliam post navalia, et ad fanum Herculis, et post Spei ad Tiberim ædem Apollinis Medici.” (Ibid., lib. xl. c. 51.)

[64] “Sive autem medii montes erunt inter mœnia et caput fontis, sic erit faciendum, uti specus fodiantur sub terra librenturque ad fastigium,” &c. (Vitruv., _De Architectura_, lib. viii. c. 6. § 3.)

[65] “Alexandria est fere tota suffossa, specusque habet ad Nilum pertinentes, quibus aqua in privatas domos inducitur.” (Aulus Hirtius, _De Bello Cæsaris Alexandrino_, cap. 4.)

[66] Frontinus, lib. i. c. 7. He also quotes from Fenestella concerning the delays which occurred, and speaks of the Decemvirs consulting the Sybilline books, and being supposed to have found that it was not the Marcian but rather the Anio which should be brought into the Capitol: (“Invenisse dicuntur, non esse aquam Marciam, sed potius Anionem in Capitolium perducendam.”) Eventually, however, Marcius prevailed, and his plan was carried out.

Pliny also refers to the work of Marcius: “Sed dicantur vera æstimatione invicta miracula; Q. Marcius Rex jussus a senatu aquarum Appiæ, Anienis, Tepulæ _ductus reficere_, novam a nomine suo appellatam cuniculis per montes actis intra præturæ suæ tempus adduxit.” (Nat. Hist., lib. xxxvi. c. 121; see also further details in Plin., xxxi. 41, and ibid.)

[67] “Qui lapide quadrato ampliores ductus excitavit, perque illos aquam quam acquisiverit rei publicæ commodo, trium millium opera fabrorum duxit cui ab auctore,” &c. These words are wanting in the best manuscript, that of Monte Cassino. In place of them we have “( ... priores ductus restituit et tertiam illam aquarum in urbem perduxit) cui ab auctore,” &c. This does not agree with the opinion of the learned, that the Urbinas Manuscript is a copy of the one at Monte Cassino, unless great liberties were taken with it. The fact that the arcade with the _specus_ of the aqueduct is always built of large squared stones, is strongly in favour of the Codex Urbinas. It is also certain from the nature of the work, that a large number of men must have been employed upon it. This passage seems to have been omitted in the Codex Cassinensis, which is a proof that the Codex Urbinas is not a _copy_ from it. Dederich, p. 15, suggests after “commodo,” the words “trium millium opera fabrorum.”

[68] Frontinus, lib. i. c. 7.

Frontinus states in another chapter (c. 12) that Augustus brought underground another stream, which should be supplementary to the Marcian whenever the dryness of the season rendered extra supply necessary. It was called from the name of the contriver, Augusta, and had its rise above the spring of the Marcian. This additional _ductus_, or Specus Augusta, was 800 paces long.

[69] Frontinus, c. 18.

[70] “Salientibus aquis instruxit urbem.” Ibid., c. 9.

[71] Ibid., c. 87.

[72] Ibid., c. 8.

[73] Ibid.

[74] Ibid., c. 9.

[75] Ibid.

[76] Frontinus, c. 19.

[77] ‘The three aqueducts’ in this passage may mean either the Anio Vetus, the Marcia, and the Claudia, all of which come from the neighbourhood of Subiaco, and follow the same line on the bank of the river Anio, and the cliffs above it as far as Tivoli, but diverge considerably between Tivoli and the Piscinæ; or it may mean that the Tepula and the Julia coming from near Marino, and the Marcia coming from Tivoli, meet at this point—both are true. The _piscinæ_ of the Claudia, the Anio Novus, the Marcia, the Tepula, the Julia, are all within half-a-mile of each other.

[78] Dr. F. Gori says that the lake of S. Lucia, in the territory of Arsoli, near Subiaco, is _not_ the source of the Aqua Marcia, but of the Aqua Claudia only, and that the sources of the Aqua Marcia are nearer to Subiaco, and are called by the people _Acque Serene_. He also considers that the branch of the Aqua Augusta added to the Marcian by Augustus, now called _Le Rosoline_, comes from near the village of Agosta, and that the spring, now called _La Fonte_ (_Fons novus Antoninianus_), added to the Marcian by Antoninus Caracalla, is under the same village of Agosta. One of the inscriptions on the Porta S. Lorenzo records this. See Delle varie Sorgenti dell’ Acqua Marcia, &c., pp. 56, 57.

[79] The new company had at first proposed to draw their chief supply of water from the small lake called the Lago di S. Lucia, which is nearer to Rome, and which they had been misinformed was the Aqua Marcia. Dr. Fabio Gori, from his great local knowledge and his archæological researches, was able to shew that this was a mistake, and wrote to that effect a letter in the Roman newspaper called the _Osservatore Romano_. This letter at first gave great offence, and a very warm controversy was carried on for some time on that subject. Eventually, however, a new engineer of the company thought it better to examine the ground himself, and the result was to establish that Gori’s views were perfectly correct. He then became a warm advocate for the company, which he thinks entitled to great praise for the admirable manner in which its works in the valley of the Anio have been carried out as far as Tivoli. Their works almost equal those of the time of the Empire, and are carried out on the same principles; but from Tivoli to Rome the water is carried in metal pipes, and not in a stone _specus_ as it is above Tivoli. This enables the company to carry it in a more direct line.

[80] See the Appendix to this Section.

[81] A great deal too much importance has been attached to this Cyclopean Masonry, _Opus Cyclopæum_. See the Chapter on the Construction of Walls.

[82] It is probably the case that part of this supply was brought in metal pipes only, from the evidence of this inscription. A stone _specus_ passes under the wall on the bank round three sides of the camp on the exterior of the walls, and is plainly visible at the north-east corner; but this agrees with the general character of the Anio Vetus, and was probably a branch from that aqueduct.

The inscription is as follows:—

IMP. CAES. M. OPELLI . SEVERI . MACRINI
. AVG
M. OPELLI . SEVERI . DIADVMENIANI .
CAES. PRINC. IV
CASTRIS . PRAETORI
TERENTIVS . CASSANDER . FECIT

[83] “[Honorius, Papa III.] Ecclesiam Sanctæ Bibianæ juxta formas aquæ Martiæ cum Monasterio Monialium restituit.” (Ciaconi, Vitæ Pontif. Roman., &c., vol. ii. col. 46, C.)

[84] An inscription recording repairs by Agrippa is said by Ligorio to have been found on a _cippus_ of travertine at the third mile on the Via Latina. The genuineness of this is doubted by Fabretti, because the number of miles does not agree; but it seems more probable that this was an error in transcribing, than that the inscription should be forged without any motive for doing so:—

AQVAE . IVLIAE . TEPVLAE.
IMP. CAES. DIVI . IVLI . F.
AVGVSTVS . PONTIF.
MAX. COS. X̅I̅I̅. TRIB. POT.
X̅I̅X̅. IMP. X̅I̅I̅I̅. CVRANTE
M. VIPSAN . AGRIPPA .
AEDIL . CVRVL . L. C. C.
P. MILL. X.

Another inscription, also recording repairs of the time of Augustus, was found by Fabretti himself, in the Vinea Bartholomæi Virginii, two miles from the Porta Maggiore, between the ruins of the arcades of the Marcian and Claudian, and was preserved in a private museum:

IVL. TEP. MAR.
IMP. CAESAR.
DIVI . F.
AVGVSTVS.
EX. S. C.
LXIII.
P. CCXI.

[85] _Marrana_ is a general name for a running stream in the Campagna round Rome, probably a provincial word; but it is also the special name of this particular stream coming from Marino.

[86] “Tepula concipitur via Latina ad decimum milliarium, diverticulo euntibus ab Roma dextrorsus millium passuum duum ... inde suo rivo in urbem perducebatur.” (Frontinus, c. 8.)

[87] It is the building pointed out in guide-books as “The House of Cicero,” although there does not appear to be any historical ground for this name.

[88] “... ad milliarium ab urbe duo-decimum via Latina, _diverticulo_ euntibus ab Roma dextrorsus millium passuum duum alterius aquæ proprias vires collegit et Tepulæ rivum intercepit. Acquisitæ aquæ ab inventore nomen Juliæ datum est, ita tamen divisa erogatione, ut maneret Tepulæ appellatio.”—(Frontinus, c. 9.)

[89] “Præter caput Juliæ transfluit aqua quæ vocatur Crabra. Hanc Agrippa omisit.”—(Frontinus, c. 9.)

[90] Pag. clxxxii. 8, “In tubulo plumbeo reperto ad portam S. Laurentii,”—

P. CORNELIO . DOLABELLA . C . IVN . SILANO . COS—AQVA . MAR

[91] Gruter, pag. clxxxiii. 4,—

Q. AQVILLIO . SABINO . II.
SEX . AVR . ANVLLINO
CASTR . PRÆT . L. VRBIS . OFF . PED .
COS . CCCLXXXIII.
AQVA . MARC

[92]

HAC RIVI AQVAR
TRIVM EVNT CIPPI
POSITI IVSSV
A. DIDI. GALLI
T. RVBRI. NEPOTIS
M. CORNELI FIRMI
CVRATORVM AQVAR

[93] Frontinus, c. 10.

[94] “Concipitur Virgo via Collatia ad milliarium octavum palustribus locis, _signino circumjecto_ continendarum scaturiginum causâ.” _Signinum_ is the particular kind of cement to hold water, always used to line the walls of the Aqueducts. It was not used after the time of the Empire, and the art of making it is said to be lost. It is the usual characteristic of the remains of an aqueduct.

[95] Frontinus, c. 10.

[96] Ibid., c. 22.

[97] This water is now usually called Acqua di Trevi, because its terminus is at the great fountain of Trevi. The sources are in the estate of Salone, as above described. It is still in use, and was long considered as the best water brought into Rome. The line now used is the one repaired and restored by the Popes; but, near Rome, it has been altered, probably after it had been damaged by the Goths or the Lombards. The old _specus_ passed through the Catacomb of S. Priscilla, in the Via Salaria, where it may be seen. This is demonstrated by the _cippus_ of the aqueduct of Virgo, discovered in the Via Salaria, and so recorded by Muratori, Thes. Vet. Inscr., ccccxlii. 7, “Romæ in Via Salaria:”—

VIRG.
TI . CÆSAR . AVG.
PONTIF . MAXIM.
TRIB. POT. XXXVIII.
COS . V̅. IMP. V̅I̅I̅I̅.
I.
P. CXL.

This inscription is A.D. 36.

It was then brought to the bank or _mœnia_ on which the wall of Aurelian was afterwards built near the Porta Salaria, and may be traced upon or in that bank under the present wall of Rome for about a mile. For a short distance, where this ground is low, it was carried on an arcade, of which there are remains under the wall built upon it. After this it goes on as far as the garden of the Villa Borghese and the French Academy, under which it now passes through the Pincian Hill.

[98]

TI . CLAVDIVS . DRVSI . F. AVG. GERMAN. PONT.
MAX. TRIBVNIC. POT. V. IMP. IX. P.P. COS. III.
DESIG. IIII. ARCVS . DVCTVS . AQVÆ . VIRGI
NIS . DISTVRBATOS . PER . C. CÆSAREM . A. FVN
DAMENTIS . NOVOS . FECIT . AC . RESTITVIT

This inscription was erected A.D. 46.

[99] There are remains of the Septa in the cellars under the houses on the west side of the Corso, in its lower part. These remains of the arcade are now chiefly underground, owing to the filling up of the great foss, called in this part Via Lata, because the wide foss under part of the Quirinal and of the Capitol had at one time been made into a wide street or place, on the eastern side of which is situated the Church of the “SS. Apostoli in Via Lata” and that of S. Maria in Via Lata on the western side, at the north-west corner. The great public building called the Septa went down the western side of this wide place from S. Maria to the Venetian Palace, with an arcade towards the street or place, of which many of the arches remain in the cellars. These arches under the church of S. Maria are absurdly called the house of S. Paul. They are visible also under the Palazzo Doria to the south of that church, and in other cellars.

[100] “Idem et Virginem adduxit ab octavi lapidis diverticulo duobus millibus pass. Prænestina Via.

“Juxta est Herculaneus rivus quem refugiens Virginis nomen obtinuit.” (Plinii Nat. Hist., lib. xxxi. c. iii. § 25.)

[101] Of this stream and its introduction into Rome in the twelfth century, an account will be found in the second part of this chapter.

Frontinus, c. 15 and 19.

[102] Frontinus, c. 11.

[103] Ibid., c. 18.

[104] Ibid., c. 71.

[105] The draining of the lakes in the hills round Rome is a great mistake, and very injurious to the health of the city. Such lakes are a wise provision of nature for collecting some of the surplus water in the rainy season, and preserving it for use in the hot and dry season, when the evaporation from the lakes helps to cool the air. The water also drawn from these lakes was most useful for the irrigation of the country round Rome, and watering the gardens in Rome itself, thereby promoting vegetation, which is essential for health in a hot and dry climate. It is well known that the leaves of plants and trees (more especially of deciduous trees) absorb _nitrogen_, which is the part injurious to human life, and give out _oxygen_, that portion which is beneficial to, and necessary for, human life. Where there is no vegetation, therefore, the climate cannot be healthy, and without water there can be no vegetation; for water is the necessary food of plants.

[106] The line of this subterranean aqueduct can also be traced by the wells descending into the _specus_, in the same manner as the Aqua Appia was traced in 1870, that is, by the bushes growing at the top of each of the wells, and generally enclosed by a wooden railing to prevent animals from falling into them.

[107] The rock in which the tunnel is cut is a sort of peperino, hard and rough, covered with a bed of clay.

[108] This lake, called Sabatina in the time of Frontinus, was called Anguillara in the Middle Ages, and is now called Bracciano, in both cases from the names of the proprietors. The great family of Anguillara had their origin from this village, of which they were the proprietors, and where they had a castle on the bank of the lake. The present proprietors are the Dukes of Bracciano. The lake produces a great abundance of fish, especially a small fish much resembling the white-bait of London, at least when cooked.

[109] There is a small construction over this flood-gate, and at the back of it is this inscription:—

ACQVA PAOLA
ALLA PRESA DELL’ ACQVA
ALSEATINA

[110] There are interesting remains of the Necropolis of this ancient city close to the fountain before mentioned, on each side of a deep ravine. On one side, there are nine chambers cut out of the rock on the edge of the cliff, the entrance being in the central chamber, with four others on either side of it. All are full of small square _columbaria_, of very early character. On the opposite side of the ravine, is a similar series of tombs, but in a less perfect state.

[111] There is _Opus Reticulatum_ of rude and early character (more like the _Opus Incertum_ of the Emporium than the mausoleum of Augustus) at the entrance of this passage, which is mentioned by Nibby. There is a stone-quarry also at the entrance, of the hard, dark-coloured stone used for making roads, and excellent for that purpose. This is the same stone that is called _selce_ or _silex_ in Rome, and seems to be similar to the hard lava under which Herculaneum is buried, and of which there are quarries near the tomb of Cecilia Metella.

[112] The persons employed by Mr. Parker went down to the bottom of this steep tunnel-passage to ascertain this.

[113] Nibby, Analisi storico-topografico-antiquaria della carta de’ Dintorni di Roma, tom. i. Roma, 1837, 8vo. art. _Alsietina_.

[114] Cassio, Corso delle Acque, vol. i. p. 147.

[115] Nibby considers this a mistake, and is of opinion that the water was the Sabatina, not the Alsietina; but the mistake is made by Nibby himself, not by the engineers of Pope Paul, who certainly brought the water from the Lacus Alsietina and the other small lake above it (as mentioned on p. 50). By the draining of these lakes, the aqueduct is _now_ made to depend on the Lacus Alsietina only. The sources of the Alsietina are very different from those of the Sabatina. The former was taken by Augustus from the lake Alsietinus, now called Lago di Martignano, and the latter by Trajan from the sources between the lake Sabatinus and the villages of Vicarello, Bassano, and Oriolo. The Alsietina was at the lowest level of all the aqueducts, and the Sabatina at the highest. The first _specus_ was for the most part subterranean, and the other was carried upon arcades for part of its course.

[116] By the more usually received computation, the second year of Caligula would be A.U.C. 791; and the year of the consulship of Sulla and Titian, A.U.C. 805.

[117] It surpassed all the others _in quantity_, and being the highest, was used to supply the others when the water fell short; but the water was not so good for drinking.

[118] Frontinus, c. 13.

[119] That is, higher than any other aqueduct.

[120] Frontinus, c. 20.

[121] The road to Subiaco.

[122] Frontinus, c. 14.

[123] Ibid.

[124] Ibid.

[125] Ibid., c. 18.

[126] _In Subruino_ is the reading given in the text by Dederich. _In suo rivo_ is the reading adopted by Polenus, Jocundus, and other editors. A third reading has been suggested, “In Simbrivio,” or in Simbruino, that is, referring to the Simbruine hills. This is the reading of Buecheler (1868), who follows verbatim the manuscript of Monte Cassino. The reading, however, bears little upon the evidence.

[127] _Herculaneus Rivus._ This is not the same _Herculaneus Rivus_ as the one mentioned by Frontinus in connection with the Anio Vetus, in ch. 19. The same name is given in these places to different streams, all strong and rapid.

[128] Frontinus, c. 15.

[129] Ibid., c. 93.

[130] Ibid., c. 91.

[131] Frontinus, c. 76.

[132] “At ex alia parte Anio in monte Trebanorum ortus lacus tres amœnitate nobiles, qui nomen dedere Sublaqueo defert in Tiberim.” (Plinii Nat. Hist., iii. 109.)

[133] The inhabitants of Filettino probably belonged to the tribe of the Trebani, or of Trebula, who were located in the neighbourhood of Trevi, where was a Roman colony and principality. Inscriptions giving the names and titles of Augustus, Septimius Severus, and Commodus, were found here, and are published by Signor Gori in his Trattato dell’ Acqua Marcia, &c., 12mo., 1866, p. 37. Another inscription at Anagni, on the front of the Governor’s palace, gives the name of Publius Vecellius, curator of the Republic of the Trebani.

Martial mentions the Treba Augusta of Frontinus, under the name of Trebula:

“Trebula nos genuit, commendat gratia duplex Sive levi flamma, sive domamur aqua.” (Lib. v. epigr. 65, and lib. xiii. epigr. 33.)

Livy also mentions it: “Eodem anno Arpinatibus Trebulanisque civitas data.” (Livii Hist., x. 1.)

[134] IMP CAESARIS NERVAE TRAIA(_ni_) ... OP(T)IMI AVG GERMANIC DACICI.

[135] “Lacus monasterii ad nihilum redactus, quia duo monachi levaverunt duo lapides, qui fuerunt firmati cum aliis petris; et sic aqua destruxit.” (Chronicon Sublacense, apud Muratori, Rer. Ital. Script., tom. xxiv. col. 962, D.) The author of this Chronicle was living in the year 1390.

[136] Gruter, Inscriptiones, p. clv. 4.

[137] Probably the text of Frontinus here is corrupt, because the Piscina Limaria and the _specus_ of Claudius are at the forty-sixth mile on the Via Sublacensis, “ad milliarium quadragesimum _secundum_,” for “Ad milliarium quadragesimum _sextum_.”

[138] Dr. Fabio Gori, who is a native of Subiaco, claims the credit of being the first person to point out what this great work of Trajan really was. He also states that the Rivus Herculaneus, rising at thirty-eight miles on the Via Sublacensis, must have been a clear stream, which he finds on the left side of the river, opposite to the lake of S. Lucia and to this source of the aqueduct of the Claudia, called Acqua dell’ Arco, or water of the aqueduct.

[139] Frontinus, c. 72.

[140] The _piscina_ made in one of the towers in the wall at the point where it enters Rome, has the four chambers visible, the inner wall of the tower having been destroyed.

[141] Inscriptions on the Porta Maggiore:—

TI . CLAVDIVS DRVSI F. CAISAR AVGVSTVS
GERMANICVS PONTIF MAXIM
TRIBVNICIA POTESTATE X̅I̅I̅. COS. V.
IMPERATOR X̅X̅V̅I̅I̅. PATER PATRIÆ
AQVAS . CLAVDIAM EX FONTIBVS . QVI
VOCABANTVR CAERVLEVS ET CVRTIVS
. A MILLIARIO X̅X̅X̅X̅V̅.

ITEM ANIENEM NOVAM A. MILLIARIO
L̅X̅I̅I̅. SVA IMPENSA IN VRBEM PERDVCENDAS
CVRAVIT.

IMP . CAESAR . VESPASIANVS AVGVST .
PONTIF . MAX . TRIB. POT. I̅I̅. IMP.
V̅I̅. COS. I̅I̅I̅. DESIG. I̅I̅I̅I̅. P.P

AQVAS CVRTIAM ET CAERVLEAM PERDVCTAS
A DIVO CLAVDIO . ET POSTEA
INTERMISSAS DILAPSASQVE

PER ANNOS NOVEM . SVA IMPENSA
VRBI RESTITVIT.

IMP . T. CAESAR DIVI F. VESPASIANVS
AVGVSTVS PONTIFEX MAXIMVS . TRIBVNIC

POTESTATE X. IMPERATOR X̅V̅I̅I̅. PATER
PATRIAE . CENSOR . COS . V̅I̅I̅I̅.

AQVAS CVRTIAM ET CAERVLEAM PERDVCTAS
A DIVO CLAVDIO ET POSTEA

A DIVO VESPASIANO PATRE SVO VRBI
RESTITVTAS . CVM A CAPITE AQVARVM
A SOLO VETVSTATE DILAPSAE
ESSENT . NOVA FORMA REDVCENDAS
SVA IMPENSA CVARVIT. (Orelli, vol.
i. p. 77, Nos. 54-56.)

These inscriptions shew that considerable repairs were made by Vespasian and Titus to the Claudian aqueducts; and these repairs were continued by their successors, Nerva, Trajan, and Hadrian. Many parts and branches belong to the time of these Emperors.

[142] Vide “Delle vere Sorgenti dell’ Acqua Marcia,” &c., “trattato di Fabio Gori.” Roma, 1866. An admirable map shewing the sources and the line of each of the Aqueducts, has been made for me under the direction of the author.

[143] Frontinus (c. 15) gives the length of the _specus_ of the Anio Novus as 58 miles and 700 _passus_; add to this the length of the Piscina Limaria and of the three lakes, and we have the distance of 62 miles from Rome for this aqueduct.

[144] “Qui colles, (mons Cœlius et Aventinus,) priusquam Claudia perduceretur, utebantur Marcia et Julia. Sed postquam Nero Imperator Claudiam, opere arcuato altius exceptam, usque ad templum Divi Claudii perduxit, ut inde distribueretur, priores non ampliatæ, sed omissæ sunt: nulla enim castella adjecit, sed iisdem usus est, quorum, quamvis mutata aqua, vetus appellatio permansit.” (Frontinus, c. 76)

[145] The large square part of the Cœlian Hill, with scarped cliffs round three sides of it and part of the fourth, which had probably been originally the _arx_ or citadel of the Cœlian when that was a separate fortress, and on which Claudius erected some great public building with a temple, is marked on the modern maps of Rome as a _castellum aquæ_: this is an exaggeration. A _specus_ runs along the western side opposite to the Palatine in the wall, and goes straight towards the Colosseum, and there are remains of a piscina of the first century at the north-west corner of the Claudium, near the Colosseum, and the Meta Sudans; but this is at a low level, and does not agree with there being a large reservoir under the whole of that space.

[146] Frontinus did not live to see this completed.

[147] Cap. 86, 91, 92, and 105.

[148] These are at present almost hid by modern houses built up against them, but it is expected that these modern erections will shortly be removed. The remains of the bridge project at a right angle from the palace of Domitian. It had the aqueduct at the top at a very high level, and a road for horses by the side of it at a lower level, as at the Ponte Lupo, Ponte S. Antonio, and other bridges of the aqueducts.

[149] These imperial “Edicts” or “Decrees,” or Laws and Constitutions, have been published in various works. The later ones relating to this subject are published by Polenus, in the Appendix to his edition of Frontinus, 4to. Pataviæ, 1722; and by Rondelet, as a supplement to Frontinus, who had published those issued up to his time. See Commentaire de Frontin sur les aqueducs de Rome, 2 parts, 4to. and atlas folio, Paris, 1802; and Rondelet, Opere, 6 vols. 4to. Mantova, 1841, tom. vi. p. 117, &c.

[150] This water was celebrated for its coolness, as mentioned in the life of Alexander Severus by Lampridius, c. 30.

[151] The new company for bringing these springs into Rome again, under the name of the Aqua Marcia-Pia, has been obliged to make compensation to the town of Tivoli for the possible injury to the manufactories established there, which depend upon the force of the water, although the damage was in a great degree imaginary. This new aqueduct brings the water of the Marcia only. The water is nearly of the same quality as that of the Claudia, and is still found as cool as it was in the time of the early Empire, notwithstanding that it is brought into Rome in metal pipes for the last ten miles. A number of shops for the sale of this cool water have been opened in different parts of Rome. Nature never changes, and the same qualities of particular springs which prevailed two thousand years ago, prevail still. It is said by persons who have witnessed the experiment tried, that in the hot summer weather of Italy, when the thermometer of Fahrenheit stands above 100, the contrast between the heat of the air and the coldness of the water is so great that if a glass tumbler is suddenly put into the water near its source, the glass will break in the same manner as a glass tumbler will break in England if boiling water is poured into it in frosty weather.

[152]

In the above the _m_ = to the Roman mile = 1,000 Roman
passus.
_p_ = to the Roman passus = 5 Roman feet.
The Roman mile (_mille passus_) = 1,618 English yards.
The Roman passus = 4 English feet 10·428 inches.
The Roman foot = 11·6496 English inches.

[153] The Roman foot was nearly as long as our own, being, according to the most accurate estimate, about 11½ English inches (11.6496).

[154] Frontinus, c. 24.

[155] Dederich reads “unciæ in popularibus rationibus adhuc observantur,” which seems better. The _uncia_ was an Italian, the _digitus_ a Greek measure.

[156] It is evident from his making the square of the diameter ³⁄₁₄ greater than the area of the circle drawn upon the same diameter, that he takes the ratio of the area to the diameter as ¹¹⁄₁₄ to diameter 1. This is very near to the truth. The converse as given by him also agrees, as is seen by ¹¹⁄₁₄ + ³⁄₁₁ of ¹¹⁄₁₄ = 1.

[157] Frontinus, c. 65.

[158] It is of little consequence, but perhaps it may be interesting to know more accurately the result of the calculation. If we take 1.25 as the diameter of the quinary, and multiply the square of this by 0.7854 (the corrected ratio), we obtain the result in square digits, 1.22718. This multiplied by the 1825 gives 2239.6, that is, the result within one digit as given by Frontinus.

[159] An Anglo-Roman company has now (1872) brought the Aqua Marcia (III.) again into Rome at so high a level, that it will supply cisterns at the tops of the houses. At present a number of ingenious contrivances are in use for sliding small buckets of water from the well or reservoir in the courtyard, to the upper windows and galleries round the central courts of the old houses or palaces. These reservoirs, whether large or small, are called _lacus_ by Frontinus and in the Regionary Catalogue.

[160] The expression _reddita_ would imply that originally the Marcian had supplied the Aventine, and that, it having been superseded by the Claudian, it was now restored and used in addition to the other. See the extract—Frontinus, c. 76.

[161] Frontinus, c. 89.

[162] Ibid., c. 90, 91.

[163] The division of the surface water from the sewerage, in the question of the drainage of large towns, is meeting with much favour, as it appeals to reason that what is good for the purposes of manure, is destructive to the healthy condition of the river, while the surface water, which finds its proper place in the river, interferes with the proper distribution of sewage. In Rome, there is frequently a small _specus_ or channel for pure water, contrived in the vault or upper part of the great _cloacæ_ or drains for the refuse water. Could not the same plan be adopted in London with advantage? But while this is canvassed, it seems singular that we hear little of the division of the _supply_, which, on the same principle, should certainly be divided. There are several towns so situated, that a fair supply of pure water might be brought very acceptable for drinking, but not in sufficient quantities to be applicable to other offices. The words of Frontinus are very concise and pointed:—

“Marciam ut ipsam, splendore et frigore gratissimam, balneis ac fullonibus et relatu quoque fœdis ministeriis deprehenderimus servientem. Omnes ergo discerni placuit, tum singulas ita ordinari, ut in primis Marcia potui tota serviret, et deinceps reliquæ secundum suam quæque qualitatem aptis usibus assignarentur, sicut Anio Vetus pluribus ex causis, quo inferior excipitur minus salubris, in hortorum rigationem atque in ipsius urbis sordidiora exiret ministeria.” (Frontinus, c. 91, 92.)

[164] See C. C. J. Bunsen’s _Beschreibung der Stadt Rom._ Stuttgart und Tübingen, 1830, 8vo.

[165] The mother of Cola di Rienzi was one of those who gained a livelihood by selling water in the streets.

[166] The ruined _castellum_ at the Porta Furba, two miles from Rome, (previously mentioned,) seems to have been of this description; it rises considerably above the level of the conduits, vertically, as if either for water or air to rush up it.

[167] Cassiodori Var., lib. vii. 6, and iv. 31.

[168] Procopius, de Bello Gothico, lib. i. c. 19.

[169] This is shewn by the large corbels in the wall on the bank of the river at this point, opposite to the Cloaca Maxima, which are pierced with holes through them, in which a pole was placed to attach the chain. These corbels remain perfect on the western side; on the eastern side, they have been destroyed, or covered over by medieval houses. Those which remain are carved into the form of gigantic lions’ heads, of the character called Etruscan, but are of the time when the Port of Rome was made in the Tiber, B.C. 180.

[170]

IMP. CAESAR DIVI
NERVAE F. NERVA
TRAIANVS AVG
GERM. DACICVS
PONT. MAX. TR. POT. XIII
IMP. VI. COS. V. P.P
AQVAM TRAIANAM
PECVNIA. SVA
IN VRBEM PERDVXIT
EMPTIS LOCIS
PER LATITVD. P. XXX

[171]

PAVLVS V. PONT. OPT. MAX
FORMIS AQVAE ALSIETINAE
OLIM AB AVG. CAES. EXSTRVCTIS
MOX COLLAPSIS. AB. ADRIANO I. P.M
INSTAVRATIS
IISDEM RVRSVS OB VETVSTATEM
DIRVTIS. OPERE SVBTERRANEO. ET
ARCVATO AQVAM EX AGRO
BRACHIANENSI DITIONIS VRSINORVM
SALVBRIORIBVS FONTIBVS DERIVATAM
IN VRBEM PERDVXIT
ANN. SAL. MDCXI. PONT. SVI VII.

[172] In the life of Hadrian by Spartianus (c. 20), we are told that a number of aqueducts were made in his time and called after him. But his name is not retained in the Regionary Catalogue.

[173] Frontinus, c. 88.

[174] We have seen before that Eadmer mentions the malaria in Rome as early as the twelfth century. (Historiæ Novor., lib. ii. ad calcem S. Anselmi operum, p. 51, D. Lut. Par. 1675, fol.) In the following century, the author of “Sir Bevis of Southampton” gives a strange account of the fevers arising from the Pontine Marshes into the Campagna di Roma. There were, says he, two dragons there; one having fled to Toscan [Tusculum?],—

“That other dragoun ’is flight nome (took)
To Seinte Peter ’is brige of Rome:
Thar he schel leggen ai (lay for ever)
Til hit come domesdai;
And everi seve yer ones,
Whan the dragoun moweth (moves) ’is bones,
Thanne cometh a roke (reke, smoke) & a stink
Out of the water, under the brink,
Than men therof taketh the fevere,
That never after mai he kever (recover);
And who that n’el nought leve (believe) me,
Wite (know, inquire) al pilgrimes that ther hath be;
For thai can tell yow, I wis,
Of that dragoun how it is.”

(Weber, “Metrical Romances,” &c., vol. iii.
p. 315. Edinburgh, 1810, 12mo.)

[175] The fragment of an inscription relating to this aqueduct was found near Gabii, and is described by E. Q. Visconti in his _Monumenti Gabini_, Roma, 1797, 8vo. maj., p. 14.

IMP. CAESAR DIVI TRAiani
(Parthici filius Trajanus Hadrianus)
AVG. PONTIF[ex Maximus]
AQVAE DVCTVM GABINIS . . .
QVAM . . . . .

The second line appears to be an interpolation of the editor, but this is not material. The aqueduct begun by Nerva was not finished till the time of Hadrian. The aqueduct of Gregory XIII. and Sixtus V. (Felice) (A.D. 1572-1590) receives the water of this aqueduct, but at Colonna other springs are collected and added to it; this was the work of Fontana.

[176] The Torre Pignattara is so called from the earthenware pots (_pignatte_) of which the vault was built. Other remains of buildings of importance have been found near the Mausoleum of S. Helena, and there is some reason to believe that another imperial villa was situated there during the first three centuries.

[177] Some say the popular name is _Torre de Scavi_, or of the excavations from some great works of excavation made there in the twelfth century.

[178] Note f, p. 88. “Aquarum ductus etiam infinitas hoc nomine (Hadriani) nuncupavit.” (Spartianus in Hadriano, c. 20.)

[179] It is immediately opposite to the Palatine, and there is a remarkably fine view from the portion of the _specus_ that remains, the vault of which has been removed, and it is used as a terrace.

[180] Mémoire sur les fouilles exécutées à Santa Sabina. Paris, Imprimerie Impériale, 1868, 4to.

[181] EX . FIG . . . . AEAM . . AUGVS . RUST . IT . ET . AQVI . . (Ap. Fea, Fasti Consul., p. cxviii. No. 62.) Junius Rusticus et Aquilinus were Consuls, temp. Marci Aurelii, A.D. 162.

[182] Commodus was emperor from 180 to 192, but was slain at the early age of 31; and it is probable that this great work was left unfinished, and was completed by his successor, Septimius Severus. In the Regionary Catalogue they are mentioned together, and there was probably no division between them.

[183] It was usual to take advantage of the _castella aquæ_ of the great aqueducts to construct bath-chambers of various kinds, both for hot and cold and swimming baths.

[184] This is also mentioned in our account of the Anio Vetus (II.), as the branch at the second mile from Rome according to Frontinus. From the low level, it is more probable that this branch came from the Anio Vetus than from the Marcia, and an itinerant pilgrim of the eighth or ninth century may have been mistaken on this point.

[185] This was probably the branch that now runs under the Via dei Condotti. The main line to supply the Thermæ of Agrippa has been traced beyond the fountain of Trevi to the Piazza di S. Ignazio, very near the Pantheon, which was the entrance-hall to these _thermæ_. Those of Nero and Alexander Severus were more to the north.

[186] See Aqueduct XI. Trajana.

[187]

HERCVLI . CONSERVATORI
INVICTO . COMITI
D. N. SEVERI . ALEXANDRI
PII . VICTORIS . SEMPER
AVG. AC. OPTIMI . PRINCIPIS
M. AVRELIVS . PRISCILLIANVS
V. C. CVRATOR . NYMPHAEI
DEVOT . NVM . M. Q. E.

[188] The great Thermæ of the third century in the Esquiliæ, where the building known as the Minerva Medica stands, and to which the other building, called after the Trophies of Marius, is supposed to have been the entrance; this has been identified as a Nymphæum of Alexander Severus, by the representation of it on one of his coins.

[189] SOPRA TREBIA (TREVI) VICINO ARCINAZZO (upon Trevi, near Arcinazzo).

[190]

MINERVAE . MEMORI
COELIA . IVLIANA
INDVLGENTIA . MEDICI
NARVM . INFIRMITATE . EIVS
GRAVI . SANATA . D. P

[191] There is a subterranean reservoir under it, and there are several other subterranean reservoirs in this ground.

[192] This great Pantheum was a temple of all divinities, and also a hall for the men, being connected by a large vaulted passage at the back with the _thermæ_, of both of which there are visible remains.

[193] This spring is considered by some authors as the one source of the river Almo; but it is only one of many, and it falls into the deep bed of the river, coming from some miles beyond that point.

[194] In the valley of the Caffarella, a stone _specus_ has been made by the side of the natural bed of this branch; it is open at the top, has lochs in it, and is on a higher level than the natural stream. The object of this was obviously to keep a supply of water from the springs in dry weather.

[195] The two arches of the Porta Metronia remain, both built of brick of the time of Aurelian. The outer arch is visible in the city wall; the inner one is concealed by a medieval tower built up against it. In the year 1871, Signor Rosa made a new gate on the east side of the Porta Metronia for his carts to pass through, in which the earth, excavated from the Palatine, is carried out into the meadow beyond, outside of the walls. This is certainly better than continuing to fill up the valley between the Aventine and the Pseudo-Aventine, and thereby concealing more of the Wall of the Kings under S. Balbina and burying more of the Aqua Appia, than has already been done under his orders.

[196] Cicero, Epist. ad Q. Fratrem, lib. iii. ep. 7.

[197] “Hic etiam derivavit aquam de antiquis Formis, et ad Portam Lateranensem conduxit, ibique lacum pro adaquandis equis fieri fecit. Plurima quoque molendina in eadem aqua construxit, et multas vineas cum fructiferis arboribus secus ipsum lacum plantari studiosissimè fecit.” (Muratori, Rerum Italic. Script., tom. iii. p. 420, col. 2, E.)

[198] “Aquam ad Urbem reduxit, molendina cum vineis juxta lacum aptavit,” &c. (Pandolphus Pisanus, ibid., p. 419, col. 1, E.)

[199]

SIXT. V. PONT. MAX. PICENVS.
AQVAM . EX . AGRO . COLVMNAE.
VIA . PRAENEST . SINISTRORSVM.
MVLTARVM . COLLECTIONE . VENARVM.
DVCTV . SINVOSO . A. RECEPTACVLO . MIL. XX.
A. CAPITE XXII. ADDVXIT.
FELICEMQVE . DE . NOMINE. ANTE PONT. DIXIT.
COEPIT . ANNO. PRIMO. ABSOLVIT III. M.D. L. XXXVII.

[200] See Aqueduct XI.

[201] The Pope insisted on the work being completed at the time originally fixed, notwithstanding that the blunder of his engineer made it necessary to rebuild the whole arcade for seven miles.

[202] “Nunc autem in urbem influunt: 1. Aqua Appia, 2. Anio Vetus, 3. Marcia, 4. Tepula, 5. Julia, 6. Virgo, 7. Alsietina (quæ eadem vocatur Augusta), 8. Claudia, 9. Anio Novus.” (Frontinus, 4.)

[203] Id., c. 19.

[204] See Aqueduct III.

[205] Frontinus, c. 15, in both cases called by him, Herculaneus.

[206] Frontinus, c. 12.

[207] Id., c. 5.

[208]

“Quid loquar aërio pendentes fornice rivos,
Qua vix imbriferas tolleret Iris aquas?
Hos potius dicas crevisse in sidera montes,
Tale giganteum Græcia laudat opus.
Intercepta tuis conduntur flumina muris;
Consumunt totos celsa lavacra lacus.”

(Cl. Rutilii Itiner., l. 1, v. 97. and following.)

[209] “In formis autem Romanis utrumque præcipuum est ut fabrica sit mirabilis et aquarum salubritas singularis. Quod enim illuc flumina quasi constructis montibus perducuntur, naturales credas alveos soliditates saxorum, quando tantus impetus fluminis tot sæculis firmiter potuit sustineri. Cavati montes plerunque subruunt, meatus torrentium dissipantur, et opus illud veterum non destruitur, si industria suffragante servetur.”—(Cassiodori Variar., l. vii. c. 6.)

[210] It is possible that the number of nineteen was made up by adding the different branches that supplied the Thermæ of the later Emperors, (Septimius) Severus, Antoninus, Alexander (Severus), (Aurelius) Commodus, Constantinus.

To these must now be added the two modern aqueducts, the Marrana and Aqua Crabra [XVII.], united and brought through Rome in the twelfth century in the bed of that branch of the river Almo, and the Aqua Felice [XVIII.], made in the sixteenth; also the Aqua Marcia-Pia, made between 1860 and 1870, which now brings the water of the Aqua Marcia into Rome by a different line.

[211] This was also the principal gate of the Sessorian Palace, and was sometimes called the Porta Sessoriana.

[212] See Diagrams III. and XIX.

[213] See the Plans and Sections of this, Plate XXI.

[214] The water pumped out by the steam-engine employed by Signor Rosa was always good clear drinking water, and had all the appearance of coming from an aqueduct; it was sent along an open channel the whole length of the Colosseum, and made a great swamp round the arch of Constantine for several months in the spring of 1875, the outlet for it being made on the outer side of the drain under that arch, which had been constructed by the Municipality about 1866. At last it was observed that an aperture into that drain might easily be made on the inner side, and so avoid the swamp in the road, and washing the foot of the arch. Soon after this the steam-engine was stopped on account of the enormous expense of it, after it had gone on for more than a year, always pumping out good drinking water, and sending it to waste.

[215] This article will be found in the _Annales de l’Institut de Correspondance Archéologique_, 1873.

[216] Near the Porta Maggiore, and under the arches of Nero. There are two large reservoirs close together in this vineyard, probably the Gemelli of Frontinus.

[217] _Descending_ from the reservoir into the old _specus_ under the arches of Nero.

[218] The Aqua Marcia was brought again into Rome by a new water company in the year 1870, after several years of very arduous work, and overcoming many difficulties. The company who made this great aqueduct consisted chiefly of English shareholders, with a mixture of French and Italian. It was long under the direction of the late Mr. Shepherd, an Englishman, whose loss was much regretted in Rome, and latterly under a Belgian engineer.

[219] See Frontinus de Aqueductibus, c. 5.

[220] There is a large and deep reservoir for it near the arch of Dolabella, under the garden of the Villa Mattei, now called the Villa Cœlimontana, and from thence it passed, still underground, to the cliff of the Cœlian, opposite to the Aventine. A short tunnel was made from this deep reservoir to a Nymphæum under the Cœlian, now S. Stefano Rotondo, called of Septimius Severus. The ruins of it are shewn in 895; a _specus_ has been traced from one to the other.

[221] See Frontinus de Aqueductibus, c. 6.

[222] Ibid., c. 125, and 93.

[223] Frontinus de Aqueductibus, c. 6.

[224] Frontinus, c. 125.

[225] Ibid., c. 93.

[226] They remind English people of the Clapham Junction of the railways near London, where trains crossing each other at different levels can be seen.

[227] Supra Portam Capenam, F. i. 19.

[228] See Frontinus de Aqueductibus, caps. 11, 18, 22, and 71.

[229] Frontinus de Aqueductibus, cap. 13, 14, 18, 20.

[230] Cohen. Méd. Imp. Alex. Sev., (Nos. 239, 334).

[231] This water is not mentioned in the Regionary Catalogue, and its whole history appears doubtful. Some think the name is a corruption of Argentina, the short stream that rises in the Lupercal or Wolf’s Cave, under the north-west corner of the Palatine, as before mentioned.

[232] These sources are on the cliffs above the river Anio, at from five seven miles from Rome, and two miles from Ponte Nono, in swampy meadows called “the meadows of Lucullus,” and some in old stone quarries.

[233] See also the Photo-engravings, Plates I. and II.; and Historical Photographs, Nos. 865, 866, 867.

[234] See page 3, and Historical Photographs, Nos. 632, 710, 1138, 1139, 1140, 1141, 1142, 1253; and Plates X. and XI. of the Supplement to Part I.

[235] See Photos., Nos. 1116 and 889.

[236] This is now, in 1876, taken possession of by the British and American Archæological Society, with the consent of the owner of the ground, who has allowed a door to be put up at the entrance.

[237] See also Plate XX.

[238] This map is to be had on either of these two larger scales, for those who require more minute information.

[239] See p. 3.

[240] See p. 13.

[241] See p. 32.

[242] See p. 46.

[243] See p. 39.

[244] See p. 41.

[245] See p. 92.

[246] See p. 55.

[247] See p. 54.

[248] See p. 86.

[249] See p. 92.

[250] See p. 97.

[251] See p. 100.

[252] See p. 106.

[253] See No. VII., p. 50.

THE
AQUEDUCTS OF ANCIENT
ROME,
TRACED FROM THEIR SOURCES TO THEIR MOUTHS,
CHIEFLY BY THE
WORK OF FRONTINUS;
VERIFIED BY A SURVEY OF THE GROUND.

BY
JOHN HENRY PARKER, C.B.
HON. M.A. OXON., F.S.A. LOND., &c.
AND ASSISTANTS.

=OXFORD:=
JAMES PARKER AND CO.
=LONDON:=
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE-STREET.
1876.