Chapter I: Part 1

PART VII.

THE COLOSSEUM.

HON. M.A. OXON. F.S.A. LONDON etc. etc.]

THE
FLAVIAN AMPHITHEATRE,
COMMONLY CALLED
THE COLOSSEUM AT ROME:
ITS HISTORY AND SUBSTRUCTURES
COMPARED WITH
OTHER AMPHITHEATRES.

BY
JOHN HENRY PARKER, C.B.
HON. M.A. OXON., F.S.A. LOND.;
KEEPER OF THE ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND ANTIQUITIES
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD, ETC.

=OXFORD:=
JAMES PARKER AND CO.
=LONDON:=
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE-STREET.
1876.

PREFACE TO THE COLOSSEUM.

The great excavations carried on in this colossal building in the years 1874 and 1875, have thrown an entirely new light on its history. These were made under the level of the ground, at the foot of the _podium_, which is the same as that of the original _arena_; this large level space had been indifferently called the ground, the floor, the stage, the area, or the arena; no one had any idea that the original pavement would be found 21 ft. below that level, and that the intervening space was filled with walls and passages, dens for wild beasts, places for lifts to send up men, and dogs, and animals: and canals for water, and several other contrivances for the use of the performers on the stage above, for practically the _arena_ was the stage on which the performances took place. These excavations have enabled us to ascertain that this had been a boarded floor covered with sand, or _arena_ (whence its name), and that this floor could be moved and replaced in a short time, at the word of the Emperor[1]. The evidence of this is brought out clearly in the present work. Large corbels, or brackets, are provided for placing the boards upon when removed, and keeping them out of sight of the people in the galleries; they project from the wall below the _podium_, in the passage over the dens[2].

We had all of us hitherto been taught that this enormous structure had been all built in ten years by the Flavian emperors; this is the uniform modern history, but no ancient author says so. It is only one of the so-called “Roman Traditions,” which (as I am obliged to repeat continually) are nothing but the _conjectures_ of learned men during the last three centuries, especially Panvinius and his school in the seventeenth. In the present instance it is evident that so far from having been all built in ten years, it was more than a century about from first to last; it was begun in the time of Sylla the Dictator, by his step-son Scaurus, and is described by Pliny in his “Natural History” by the name of the _insane_ work of Scaurus, who was called insane because he spent such an enormous fortune upon the work, (equal to more than two millions sterling of modern money). It is true that Pliny calls it a _theatre_ and not an _amphitheatre_, and this has deceived scholars, who do not perceive that the two names were used quite indifferently at that period. Pliny himself contrasts it with the great _theatre_ of Pompey, built long afterwards, and when the city had increased so much, yet which only held 40,000 people, while this building would hold 80,000. There is no other site in Rome where 80,000 people could be placed to see a show excepting this and the Circus Maximus, which is never called a theatre. An inscription has been found in the _amphitheatre_ itself, in which it is called _theatrum_ and not amphitheatrum, which is still _a theatre_, though it has two round ends to it, instead of one being flat. The celebrated Greek theatre at Taormina, in Sicily, which has the most perfect _scena_ that is known anywhere, is still called by the people either theatre or amphitheatre indifferently, as I was told by the local guide on the spot, in May, 1876. Either a theatre or an amphitheatre was a place of public amusement.

This great building of Scaurus was three storeys high. On the level of the ground were marble columns by the hundred, on the first floor glass columns (the only instance on record), on the upper floor they were of gilt wood. Pliny says that part of this insane work was only calculated to be of a _temporary_ character, and it was in fact all destroyed by fire a few years afterwards, and the glass columns perished equally with those of gilt wood; he also adds that other parts were calculated to be _eternal_, and this equally applies to the part we have remaining, the great substructures, which being underground, and built of large blocks of tufa, would last as long as the hills if let alone. Many of these great blocks of tufa appear to have been used a second time; they were most probably brought from the second wall of Rome, which enclosed the two hills (the Capitoline and Palatine) in one City, and therefore must have passed under the south end of the Palatine, close to this great amphitheatre. Immediately in front of it, and separated from it only by a paved street, the south end of the Summa Sacra Via is supported by a rough concrete wall of the time of Sylla, and on the surface of this concrete wall there are impressions of large blocks of tufa in the plaster with which the concrete is covered. It is well known that Roman mortar is often harder and more durable than stone. A few of the large blocks of tufa also remain in their places, where they were necessary to carry the vault of the platform above. These tufa blocks were used under the _podium_ at the bottom, to the height of twenty feet, and parallel to them is another wall of the same kind, with just room enough for a narrow passage between them[3]. In these walls, on both sides, are vertical grooves, evidently for lifts to be pulled up and let down, and larger apertures at intervals for the counter-weights.

Behind this wall, under the path in front of the _podium_, are the dens for the wild beasts. At the back of each den, in the corner, is a vertical aperture about four feet square, descending from the passage in front of the _podium_; this descends to ten feet from the ground only, and was for the men to go down and feed the animals below without being exposed to danger. In front of each den is a hole in the original brick pavement, sometimes with a bronze socket remaining in its place. These sockets (of which there are a great number in the pavement) are evidently made for a pivot to work in each, and these pivots must have been the lower end of a post for a capstan to wind the twenty-one feet of cord upon, when the animal in his cage was pulled up to the top, and the trap-door opened by the same cord from below, to let him jump out when required for effect on the stage[4]. It is recorded by contemporary authors that on several occasions a hundred lions leapt on to the stage or arena at once. Some very curious _graffiti_, or scratchings on marble, by the workmen of the third century, have been found, one of which represents a hunt of wild beasts on the arena, in which apparently the dogs have broken loose[5]. Another shews the framework of the netting of gilt wire in front of the lower gallery[6].

There are five different representations of the Colosseum on the coins or medals of the Emperors, one of Vespasian, two of Alexander Severus, and one of Gordianus. These all appear to have been made from the architect’s designs before the work was completed; there are slight variations in the accessories, and the upper storey varies considerably. That of Gordianus has for the legend or inscription—

MVNIFICENTIA GORDIANI AVG.[7]

This great tufa wall, on the inner line, has evidently been much shaken by earthquakes in different parts, and the heads of the apertures (which are square-headed when original) have frequently had arches introduced, and are supported by brick walls of different periods[8]. In one instance an arch of tufa had been much shaken, and this is supported by a brick arch of the time of Nero[9]; there are also many other walls and arches of his time in different parts of the building, which make it clear that this building was the amphitheatre for the _gymnasium_ and the _naumachia_ of Nero. It is the natural site for it, close to his great palace, and the remains of that of Scaurus made him excellent foundations to build upon, according to the fashion of his own time, which was of brick, of the finest brickwork in the world. Those whose eyes are accustomed to it can never mistake the brickwork of the time of Nero; his awning is also mentioned; and the first book of the Epigrams of Martial is full of incidents and spectacles in this amphitheatre.

Down the centre of the building, for the whole length, is a wide passage, which was called _the gulf_[10], and which was necessary for sending up the scenery, of which we read frequently, and which must have been put together below, and then sent up to the stage, as wanted, by means of this passage; there is no room for it anywhere else, and there was no place behind the scenes for the actors and workmen, as in a modern theatre. On each side of this great central passage are remains of two canals for water, each about ten feet square, and about the same height from the ground[11]; these were evidently filled with water supplied from the aqueducts, and unmistakable traces of three reservoirs for water from the aqueducts have been found in the first gallery. The four canals are not all quite of the same period, nor on the same plan; one on each side was supported on flat arches of brick of the third century, the other on large beams of wood; the places to receive the ends of the beams are left in the walls on each side of the passage for the workmen under it. These walls are of such a thickness in proportion to their height, that they were evidently made to support the great weight of water; these very thick walls served instead of the great projection of the buttresses of the usual reservoirs of the aqueducts.

There is no bond or junction of any kind between this _brick_ theatre, or amphitheatre, and the magnificent _stone_ corridors and grand front of the Flavian Emperors; these have evidently been added to a brick building previously existing in the centre[12]. It had long been a matter of wonder to all the great architects of Europe how it could be possible to collect such an enormous mass of material of all kinds, and put them together in ten years; to bring that quantity of travertine stone from the quarries at Tivoli, twenty miles off, cut it, and erect it, was in itself an enormous work. This gigantic building is in round numbers 500 ft. long, 300 ft. wide, and 120 ft. high above the foundations, and the grand corridors are double all round, with the _vomitoria_, or stairs from the seats at short intervals, and there are altogether six storeys, including the _entresols_.

The upper storey was originally of wood, and was destroyed by a great fire caused by lightning, in the time of the Emperor Macrinus; it was rebuilding of stone during the whole reign of Alexander Severus, and was completed by Gordianus III., who commemorated it by a medal, taking the credit of the rebuilding to himself. There was a row of columns in front of the upper gallery; two of the bases remain there, and a number of capitals that belonged to that colonnade[13] have fallen down in an earthquake, and are now lying about on the ground on the level of the arena, but were found in the substructures. These are very rude workmanship[14], perhaps only because they were to be seen from a great distance, but they may possibly have been preserved from the works of Scaurus; they are very different from the finished capitals used in the lower gallery. This rebuilding and addition of the upper storey alone took twenty years in a great building era. Great changes were made at that time to raise the upper storey securely, and this we have pointed out. It is seen that the builders had no faith in the soft tufa for carrying any considerable weight, and provided piers of the hard travertine at short intervals for that purpose[15]. There are altogether six storeys in the present building, but three of them may be considered as _entresols_ for passages to and from the _vomitoria_[16]. Gordianus also rebuilt the front of one bay of the lower storey, which had probably been damaged by some of the burning timber falling in front of it. At the bottom of the great central passage was found a very remarkable wooden framework, resembling what is usually called a cradle in a dockyard, and used for a vessel to stand upon[17]. This cradle had the appearance of having been burnt, but it is known that long exposure to extreme moisture will give the same appearance to wood that burning it does. At the east end of the passage, at the lowest level, is the great drain, half above and half below the level of the old pavement[18]. At the entrance to this are the grooves of a sluice-gate in the walls on each side, and an original iron grating to prevent anything being carried through by the rush of water; by this it is evident the water was let off from the canals from time to time through this drain. Unfortunately the old drain, which was at a great depth, was so much damaged that it was found impracticable to repair it, though it was traced the whole length of the building, as far as the Arch of Constantine at the opposite end[19].

These interesting discoveries made me think it expedient to pay fresh visits to other amphitheatres, to examine them again more carefully for the purpose of comparison; accordingly, I have been to those of Capua[20], Pozzuoli, Pompeii, and Verona, and found, as I expected, many confirmations of what had been stated in Rome. I took with me Professor Cicconetti, one of the best architectural artists in Rome, to Capua and Pozzuoli[21], and have added some photo-engravings from his drawings. I have also been to Pompeii, and to Sicily, to see Syracuse and Taormina, but did not think it necessary to take him there, or add more plates from them. A great work on the Roman amphitheatres in general would be very interesting, but it would be adding too much to the bulk and to the cost of the present work. I believe that enough has been done to illustrate and explain the Colosseum. I should add, that the common idea that this colossal building is named from the Colossal Statue of Nero, is a mistake. That statue, of 120 ft. high, could not have stood on the basement or _podium_ on which the Roman antiquaries would place it, and there is good evidence that a Colossal Statue of Gordianus, about half the size, stood there. The great Colossus was moved by Hadrian from the place on which the Temple of Rome was then built, on the east wall of which the Marble Plan of Rome was fixed (now the church of SS. Cosmas and Damian), to the SUMMA SACRA VIA, where it was used as the statue of Apollo or the Sun, to which Hadrian added one of the Moon. Heliogabalus rebuilt this temple of Egyptian granite, of which the columns are still lying about[22] on the edges of the great platform, in the centre of which now stands the church and monastery of S. Francesca Romana, the campanile of which is of about the same height as the Colossus of Nero, and stands near the same place.

CONTENTS.—COLOSSEUM.

PAGE PLATE

Excavations in 1874 and 1875 shew the foundation to be
earlier than the Flavian Emperors 1

Suetonius mentions it among the works of the Flavian
Emperors, and _proposed_ by Augustus, but not the
_beginning_ of the work _ib._

Part of the Substructures is of the time of Nero _ib._

It contained the Stagna, or old _Naumachia_, under, and
the _Gymnasium_, on the _arena_ _ib._

Nothing certain about the commencement _ib._

Modern amphitheatre of Statilius Taurus _ib._

—— Julius Cæsar 2

The building of M. Scaurus the ædile, in part temporary,
other parts calculated to be eternal, according to
Pliny _ib._

This was on the site of the present amphitheatre 3

The Clivus Scauri leads to this site _ib._

_Cavea_, a name for an amphitheatre, applied to the
galleries and to the dens and passages under the arena _ib._

Wild beasts brought into Rome by L. L. Metellus, B.C. 251 _ib._

Culprits executed by being thrown to wild beasts _ib._

Amphitheatres a Roman invention (?) 4

Martial’s first book, _De Spectaculis_, relates chiefly
to this building _ib._

Mountain of Rhodope represented as a scene _ib._

Exhibitions in the Circus Maximus by Julius Cæsar _ib._

A separate building required for these exhibitions 5

Gymnasium and _Naumachia_ of Nero on this site _ib._

Remains of Aqueducts and Piscina of Nero _ib._

—— Piscina of Alexander Severus _ib._

The Gymnasium of Nero was on the arena of this building 6

Brickwork of the time of Nero in several parts _ib._ IX.

A straight vertical joint between the brick galleries
and the stone corridors _ib._ II.

The external wall of three periods,—Vespasian, Titus,
and Alexander Severus _ib._ I.

The upper storey an addition and an afterthought _ib._ II.

The arena full of trap-doors, through which the wild
animals were sent up in cages on lifts 7 XVI.

Grooves in the walls for the lifts, and sockets in the
pavement for the pivots of the capstans, to wind the
cords upon, were visible below _ib._

The original walls of tufa are interfered with by
later walls of brick _ib._

Inscriptions record the dates of these later walls _ib._

Another inscription gives the word THEATRUM for this
amphitheatre _ib._

Supper of Nero in this amphitheatre _ib._

Exhibitions of Titus at the dedication 8

Sea water (?) used in the canals _ib._

The _Naumachia_ were in this amphitheatre _ib._

The _stagna Neronis_ are the canals or reservoirs
supplied by aqueducts _ib._

They are called by Tacitus _Stagnum Navale_ 9

—— by Suetonius a “sea,” that is, when the surface
was flooded _ib._

The new _Naumachia_ were those of Augustus in
Trastevere _ib._

_Stagnum_ of Agrippa near the Pantheon, supplied by
the Aqua Virgo _ib._

_Stagna_ of Nero supplied by three aqueducts _ib._

The old _Naumachia_ in this building 10

No _Naumachia_ in the amphitheatre of Statilius Taurus _ib._

The _stagna_ were boarded over for the gladiators and
the wild beasts, but the boards could be removed
easily _ib._

The canals brought to light in 1812, and more clearly
in 1875, with the substructures _ib._ III.

Open channels for running water in many parts of the
corridors 11

Water supplied by aqueducts.—Remains of two _piscinæ_ _ib._

The arena was of wood covered with sand, and full of
trap-doors _ib._

Corbels, or brackets, provided for placing the boards
upon when removed _ib._ XVII.

Gymnasium and _Naumachia_ of Nero in this building _ib._

Exterior of the brick theatre left unfinished by Nero,
finished by the Flavian Emperors in stone _ib._ I.

Upper gallery of wood destroyed by fire, A.D. 217 12

The original restoration in stone completed, A.D. 240,
under Gordianus _ib._ II.

Vertical piers of travertine introduced to support
this upper floor _ib._

Names of _Stagna_ and _Naumachia_ used indifferently _ib._

The _Stagnum_ of Nero, “like a sea,” was in the
Colosseum, when the surface was flooded _ib._

Some of the walls of the substructures are of brick,
of the time of Nero _ib._

The arches of the dens under the _podium_ are of
Neronian brickwork _ib._

The walls of tufa in the substructure are older than
the time of Nero 13

In the superstructure the walls of the front and of
the corridors are of travertine _ib._

At Verona and at Capua are similar remains of aqueducts _ib._

At Pozzuoli (Puteoli) the arena is of brick, and full
of holes for trap-doors _ib._

—— The surface there seems to have been flooded for
the _Naumachia_ _ib._

At Tusculum are canals, as in Rome 14

In the Colosseum the two sides appear to have been
flooded, but not the central passage _ib._

The two _stagna_ would be each 300 ft. long, and about
50 ft. wide _ib._

The canals were great cisterns or reservoirs under the
boarding _ib._

These are 10 ft. deep, but not always the same width _ib._

The walls to support the canals are unusually thick _ib._

Canals were lined with lead, one supported on arches,
the other on great beams of wood, 8 ft. above the
pavement _ib._ X.

The lofty walls of tufa round the edge of the substructure
were for the lifts, _not_ for the canals _ib._ XV.

Other lifts for men and dogs on each side of the central
passage _ib._

An arch of tufa shaken by an earthquake, supported by a
brick wall of the time of Nero, and another half-arch
of the same period abutting against it _ib._ IX., XV.

Two small square chambers of Nero are enclosed in the
travertine walls of the Flavian Emperors 15

Augustus intended to build an amphitheatre here, but
did not _ib._

The tufa walls are probably the work of Scaurus, in the
time of Sylla _ib._ V.

In these walls are vertical grooves for the lifts and
cages _ib._

Animals were brought from the _vivaria_ outside the
walls in cages, called _pegmata_ _ib._ VI.

Podium protected by wire netting and bars 16

Seneca describes the _pegmata_ in this theatre _ib._ XVI.

One _vivarium_ was at the Prætorian Camp, the other
at the Sessorium _ib._

A small stream of water ran in front of the dens 17

A pit 4 ft. square, for a man to descend to feed the
animals, behind each door _ib._

The tufa walls were in some parts supported by brick
walls of the Flavian Emperors _ib._ IX.

Curious wooden framework on the floor of the central
passage, believed to have been a cradle, or dry-dock 18 VII.

The general plan of the Colosseum is oval, with
galleries, _vomitoria_, &c. _ib._ VIII.

A large part destroyed by having been used as a stone
quarry _ib._

The north side the only part at all perfect _ib._ I.

A great deal of tufa used to fill up between the piers
of travertine _ib._ XXI.

The tufa taken from the second wall of Rome close at
hand _ib._

Travertine piers cut through the older wall to carry
the upper gallery 19 XX.

The front is of three periods, the upper storey added
a century after the rest _ib._

A great mixture of stone and brick in the construction _ib._

Name of the architect not known; Gaudentius only
employed upon it 20

Views on coins, and in sculpture on the tomb of the
Aterii, of the first century _ib._

Machine for raising stones for the walls 21

No open space under the arena _ib._

A large number of broken columns and capitals have
fallen from the upper gallery on to the arena, and
into the _cavea_ _ib._ XI.

Representation of the amphitheatre on coins _ib._ XXI.

Acts of Commodus in this building described by Dion
Cassius 22

The awning of Nero mentioned by Pliny 23 XIII.

Contrivances for supporting it. Masts and corbels _ib._

Awning of the amphitheatre at Pompeii—shewn in a fresco 24

Castra Misenatium, for the sailors employed here in
furling and unfurling the awning, or _vela_, or
_velaria_ _ib._

The wooden upper storey burnt, A.D. 217 25

A.D. 217. Restored by Heliogabalus, Alexander Severus,
and Gordianus _ib._

The number of wild beasts kept for the shows, A.D. 244 _ib._

100 lions killed at once in the shows 26

A.D. 320. The building damaged by lightning; restored by
Constantine _ib._

—— 357. Amphitheatre described as perfect by Ammianus
Marcellinus _ib._

—— 445. Restored by Lampadius, after being much damaged
by an earthquake 27

—— 508. Again restored by Venantius Basilius _ib._

—— 519. Used for shows of wild beasts by Theodoric _ib._

—— 523. Again used. This is the last occasion mentioned _ib._

The building apparently perfect in the time of Bede _ib._

A.D. 1130. The building made part of the fortress of
the Frangipani 28

—— 1227. Half of the fortress given to the Annibaldi
by Frederic II., but the grant rescinded by Innocent
IV., in 1244 _ib._

—— 1349. The building much damaged by an earthquake _ib._

—— 1362. It is made common property as a stone-quarry
for the great families 29

—— Several palaces built of stone from this quarry _ib._

—— 1540. Miracle plays performed there _ib._

—— The view of Jerusalem belongs to this time _ib._

—— 1575. Sixtus V. began to make it a cloth manufactory _ib._

—— 1703. The building again damaged by an earthquake 30

—— 1728. Benedict XIII. consecrated the whole area as
a church _ib._

—— 1749. The cross and the stations erected by Benedict
XIV. _ib._

—— 1756. A grand mass celebrated here by the Cardinal
Vicar _ib._

—— Palaces built out of the ruins _ib._

The construction of the inner part is made visible by
the demolition of the outer corridor _ib._

The north-eastern side is nearly perfect _ib._

One arch of the lower storey restored by Gordianus,
A.D. 220-238 31

A.D. 1810. Excavations begun by the French _ib._

—— 1812. The walls weeded by them; this was repeated in
1870 _ib._ III.

The excavations of the French shew the channels for water 32

Upper wall hastily built under Gordianus 33

A.D. 1864-5. Excavations made in search of treasure _ib._

Many remains of shallow open channels for water _ib._

Also remains of three reservoirs in the principal
gallery _ib._

And of two _piscinæ_ under the Cœlian, on the same level
as this gallery _ib._

The excavations of the French were not deep enough for
historical purposes 34

When the boards were removed from the arena they were
placed on the corbels or brackets, or large consoles
provided for them below _ib._ XVII.

Apollodorus tells Hadrian that he _ought_ to have
provided space for all this machinery _ib._

A long and large passage found at the south-east end _ib._ IV.

The original pavement is 21 ft. below the level of the
arena 35

In the ancient tufa walls are vertical grooves for the
lifts, on which the _pegmata_, or cages for wild
beasts, were placed _ib._ VI.

There are also sockets for the pivots of the capstans _ib._ XVII.

Under the passage is a large drain _ib._

An ancient iron grating at the mouth of the drain 36 XIX.

The place for the flood-gates is plainly visible _ib._

Large corbels and brackets for placing the boards of
the arena upon, remain in many parts _ib._ XVIII.

The martyrdom of the early Christians took place on the
sand of the arena, not on the soil, 21 ft. below it _ib._

The results of the excavations of 1874-75 were a great
surprise 37

Many of the lower walls belong to the repairs after
earthquakes in A.D. 442 and 508 _ib._

A narrow and lofty vaulted chamber on each side of the
central passage under the galleries, with six sockets
in a line 38

The wooden framework, cradle, or dry dock, fully
described _ib._

The old substructures were evidently retained and
used when the upper part was built 39

Piers of travertine run from top to bottom of the
building to carry the upper gallery, and the old
tufa walls were cut through _ib._

THE EVIDENCE OF THE CONSTRUCTION, AND COMPARISON 40-54

Comparison one of the first principles of Archæology,
especially useful for this enormous amphitheatre 40

AMPHITHEATRE AT CAPUA is almost the same size as
that of Rome 40, 41 XXVII.

—— The substructures more perfect than in Rome 41

—— Aqueduct and drain _ib._ XXVIII.

—— Dens under the _podium_ _ib._

—— Sockets for the pivots for the cages _ib._ XXIX.

—— Arena of brick, not wood, but had apertures for
the trap-doors _ib._ XXX.

—— Grooves for covers over them to make them
water-tight _ib._

—— The building is of the time of Hadrian 40

—— Inscription 41, 42

—— PUTEOLI, OR POZZUOLI 42, 43 XXXII.

—— Building much smaller than those of Rome or Capua 42

—— Substructures more perfect and more highly finished _ib._

—— Arena of brick, with apertures for trap-doors _ib._

—— Arrangement for fixing the masts or poles for the
awning, as in Rome 43 XXXIII.

Amphitheatre at Puteoli, or Pozzuoli—The building also
of the time of Hadrian _ib._ XXXIV.

—— The vaults preserved and used 42

—— VERONA 43, 44 XXXI.,
XXXII.

—— —— The outer wall almost destroyed 43

—— —— Arcade of two lower storeys preserved 44

—— —— Comparison of the number that each amphitheatre
would contain _ib._

—— —— The seats remarkably well preserved _ib._

—— —— Dimensions of all the three principal
amphitheatres at Rome, Verona, Capua 45

—— POLA, IN ISTRIA 45, 46

—— —— Built in white stone, like marble _ib._

—— —— Two tiers of arches remain _ib._

—— —— And a curious stone parapet, with indications
of the awning _ib._

—— —— Built against a rocky mountain on the slope _ib._

—— —— Substructures in the lower part _ib._

—— —— Canal for water visible _ib._

—— —— Square towers (for the musicians?) 46

—— At NÎMES there is still a wooden floor, with
trap-doors in it _ib._

—— —— But the arrangements below are quite different _ib._

—— At ARLES, no substructures visible _ib._

—— At BORDEAUX, the remains are called the _Arènes_,
it had a boarded floor _ib._

Substructures compared 47-52

Space required for the actors is usually given behind
the scenes in theatres, in an amphitheatre under
the stage 47

Vessels employed in the _Naumachia_ were usually
_rates_, or rowing-boats _ib._

The battles were of the sailors with swords, not with
the boats _ib._

At POZZUOLI an intermediate passage for messengers _ib._

In the Colosseum such a passage for the sailors to
manage the awning; the corbels that support it are
all that remain _ib._

A great central passage or gulf in all the amphitheatres _ib._

Traces of a great machine for lifting up vessels at
Capua, as in the Colosseum _ib._

Machines required were numerous and large 48

Apollodorus told Hadrian that he _ought to have_ provided
a place for them, but he had not done so _ib._

Cords for the awning, strong enough to carry an elephant,
were called _catadromus_ _ib._

An actor playing the part of Icarus, leaping from the
upper gallery, fell dead at the feet of Nero _ib._

_Pegmata_ were not only cages but wooden machines;
these are mentioned by Josephus, Calpurnius,
Apuleius, Claudian, Vopiscus, and Martial 49

The Colossus (on the Summa Sacra Via) was visible
from the gulf _ib._

That a hundred lions leaped on to the stage or arena,
at once, is mentioned not only by Herodian, but by
Vopiscus, Julius Capitolinus, Lampridius, Ammianus
Marcellinus, Statius 50

The netting to protect the lower gallery was of gold
(or gilt) wire, and was called _retia_, as mentioned
by Calpurnius _ib._

Naval fights sometimes held in the Circus Maximus _ib._

—— but must have been in the canals of the Colosseum,
because Heliogabalus filled them with wine 51

They were called Circensian games, because sometimes
held in the circus _ib._

Martial clearly distinguishes them _ib._

That the vaults under the arena were called _caveæ_ _ib._

THE ARENA 52

Criminals torn to pieces by wild beasts upon it _ib._

The gladiators and other actors often killed _ib._

Celebrated gladiators were called for by the people _ib._

Usually four gates to each amphitheatre 53

The names of these not easily ascertained _ib._

One was called _sandapila_, or _sanavivaria_, or
_libitinensis_, from _libitina_, “death” _ib._

Others—Porta Prætoria, Porta Sacra, Porta Cochlea 54

THE GAMES ON THE ARENA 55 XXII.

—— Great importance attached to them _ib._

The Emperor went to see the wild beasts fed _ib._

Tacitus gives an account of games performed under his
own direction _ib._

APPENDIX.

SCAURUS 56

—— The name means club-footed, from the first member
of the family, but it was a great family, the
_Gens Æmilia_ _ib._

One of the family built the Basilica Æmilia _ib._

The insane works of Scaurus, their enormous cost _ib._

His theatre, to hold 80,000 people, could only be on
the site of the Colosseum _ib._

No other theatre is three storeys high _ib._

Extract from Pliny, relating to Scaurus and his works _ib._

The amphitheatre of Nero not in the Campus Martius 58

The great drain 59 XXXVI.

LIST OF PLATES.

I. Exterior—General View.

II. Views of Parts—Upper Gallery, and remains of Reservoir in first
gallery.

III. General View in 1812.

IV. View in the Substructures in 1874.

V. View in the Interior in 1874.

VI. Interior—View at the South-east End.

VII. General View in the South-east Part, with the Cradle.

VIII. Plan of the Part Excavated.

IX. Arches in the Substructure, of the first and second century.

X. Canals for the Naval fights.

XI. Two Capitals, one from the upper gallery the other from the
lower one.

XII. Restoration of one Compartment.

XIII. Section and Details of one Compartment.

XIV. Section of one Bay, and Plans of the Six Storeys.

XV. A. Probable Restoration of the Stagna, &c. B. Brick arches of
Nero supporting a tufa wall and arch.

XVI. Probable Restoration of the Lifts and _Pegmata_, or cages, with
the animals leaping out.

XVII. View in the Substructures, shewing the Consoles for placing the
boards upon.

XVIII. View and Plan of one Division, shewing the great consoles
inserted into the old tufa wall.

XIX. View in the Substructure, with the mouth of the Great Drain,
and the iron grating and the grooves of the sluice-gate.

XX. Portion of the Superstructure in the principal gallery.

XXI. View in the Upper Part, with the aperture from which a
travertine pier has been carried away.

XXII. The Graffiti: A. and B. Athletes; C. A hunt of wild beasts.

XXIII. A Graffito of the framework of the netting or gilt wire on
the _podium_.

XXIV. Representations of the Colosseum on Coins.

XXV. Diagrams of the Coins.

XXVI. A Roman Galley on a Cradle.

XXVII. I. Amphitheatre at Capua. II. Amphitheatre at Pompeii, from a
fresco of the first century.

XXVIII. Amphitheatre at Capua—Perspective View and Details.

XXIX. Amphitheatre at Capua—Details.

XXX. Amphitheatre at Capua—Plan of Substructures and Superstructures.

XXXI. Amphitheatre at Verona—A. Exterior. B. Interior.

XXXII. Amphitheatre at Pozzuoli—Arena.

XXXIII. Amphitheatre at Pozzuoli—Plan.

XXXIV. Amphitheatre at Pozzuoli—Views and Section.

XXXV. Amphitheatre at Pozzuoli—Views in the Interior, subterranean
part.

XXXVI. Colosseum—Plan of the Great Drain.

THE FLAVIAN AMPHITHEATRE, COMMONLY CALLED THE COLOSSEUM.

The importance of the great excavations made in 1874 and 1875 in this colossal building, and the evidence obtained by them for the history of the fabric, can hardly be overrated. It is now evident that the substructures under the level of the base of the _podium_ are (when not rebuilt) the earliest part of it, and considerably earlier than the time of the Flavian Emperors, who built the magnificent front and corridors around a theatre previously existing on that site.

This great amphitheatre is indeed enumerated by Suetonius[23] among the works of Vespasian, and he adds that an amphitheatre in the centre of Rome had been projected by Augustus. But he does not say that it was then begun, and it seems evident that it was in use in the time of Nero in connection with his great golden house, and was partly built by him, but the exterior left unfinished. It contained the _stagna_, or _stagnum navale_, called also _Vetus Naumachia_, made at a still earlier period on the same site, which was called the old _naumachia_, when Augustus made new and larger ones in the Trastevere. It also contained his gymnasium on the boarded floor, or _arena_, of the theatre, over the _stagna maritima_, or canals for the sham naval fights. We know nothing certain as to the exact date of the commencement, but the building was continued during the reign of Vespasian and till the second year of Titus, namely A.D. 80, when it was dedicated. There is no evidence to prove that it was _commenced_ even under Nero.

Pliny gives an account of a wooden amphitheatre built by Statilius Taurus, which was in the Campus Martius; he says[24] that

“he made two large theatres of wood, morticed together in a
singular manner, and suspended so as to turn freely, in which
on both sides were exhibited the afternoon shows of plays,
then turning them round—nor were the scenes interrupted by the
turning—quickly turning to face each other, and (intermediate)
boards falling down; and the two parts held together by horns.
He made an amphitheatre and exhibited the gladiatorial shows,
carrying with him the consent of the greater part of the Roman
people. For which was most to be admired, the inventor or the
thing invented? The work or its author? To have thought of such
a thing, or to have carried it out? To exhibit it, or permit
it? Upon all these points there was a _furor_ of the people, to
dare to sit on such an unsafe and unstable seat.”

This gave the form of an amphitheatre, or a theatre round at both ends, and not with one side flat, as in the other theatres, but the two names are often used indifferently; this set the fashion, and Julius Cæsar followed it a few years afterwards in his great wooden amphitheatre; but the turning round had been abandoned, and the advantage of substructures under the stage would become apparent for making the shows still more popular. It is mentioned as being very large, to admit of naval fights with large vessels, but this was in the Campus Martius, and was a temporary structure only, as stated by Dio Cassius[25].

The Theatre of M. Scaurus, the ædilis, is mentioned by Pliny[26] as being on an enormous scale,—the _scena_ of triple height, with 360 columns, and he enumerates it among the _insane_ works that were made at his private cost. The upper part was of wood.

“He made, during the time that he was _edile_, the greatest
work that ever was made by human hands, not for temporary
use only, but destined for eternity also[27]. This was _a
theatre_; the _scena_ of it was _triple_ in height. There were
three hundred and sixty columns in that building, of which
six were brought from Hymettus, not without reproach at the
sumptuousness of a citizen. The lowest part of the _scena_ was
of marble, the middle part of glass, an unheard-of luxury in
that kind of work; the highest part of gilt wood. The columns
were at least thirty-eight feet high; the images between the
columns were three thousand in number; the _cavea_ itself held
eighty thousand people.”

_Scena_ usually means the stage for the actors to perform upon, but how could this be triple, and three storeys high? To what other site in Rome, excepting this great amphitheatre, which held 80,000 people, could all this possibly apply?

This was in the time of Sylla; the site is not mentioned. Dio mentions[28] a great flood in the time of Julius Cæsar, A.U.C. 694 (B.C. 59), extending as far as the great wooden theatre. The _clivus Scauri_ descends from that part of the Cœlian Hill on which the Claudium was afterwards built, to the level of the road or street that leads from the Circus Maximus to the Colosseum. All this was under water at the time of the great flood in 1871.

The name of _cavea_ is said by Lipsius[29] to be applied to the amphitheatre by several classical authors. He cites Ammianus Marcellinus[30], Prudentius[31], and others, as using that name for it; but they probably meant not only the hollow where the seats were placed, but also the hollow space under the arena, with the dens for the wild beasts, to which that name was also applied. Statius[32] uses the word _cavea_ for the cages for lions, with doors round them, the closing of which frightened the lions. Livy mentions iron cages (_caveas_), but Claudian says that the animals were shut into wooden houses[33]; probably the cages in which they were brought from the _vivaria_ were of iron, but wooden cages (_pegmata_) were sufficient to place upon the lifts, and send the animals up to the trap-doors[34].

Long before this time wild beasts had been brought into Rome for exhibition, in the year 502 of Rome[35] (B.C. 251). Lucius Cæcilius Metellus, the pro-consul, when he had conquered Sicily from the Carthaginians, brought into Rome 142 elephants taken from them, which he exhibited in the Circus Maximus. The custom of sending culprits to execution by being torn to pieces by wild beasts is very ancient in the East, as the well-known history of Daniel and the lions clearly shews. The invention of circuses and amphitheatres for the exhibition of hunts is attributed to the Athenians by Cassiodorus[36]; but it is generally thought to be a Roman invention, although the name is Greek. Livy[37] records that in the year 568 of Rome (B.C. 217), Marcus Fulvius Nobilior, after the war with the Ætolians, exhibited for the first time “the athletes, and the hunting of lions and panthers.”

In the year 586 of Rome (B.C. 227), Livy[38] also relates that “P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica and P. Lentulus, the _Ædiles Curules_, exhibited 63 African wild beasts, 40 bears and elephants.” Martial, who was a contemporary of Vespasian and Titus, Domitian and Trajan, has numerous epigrams on the subject of scenes that took place in the Amphitheatre of the Cæsars, by which he obviously means the Colosseum; a large part of his first book, _de Spectaculis_, relates to such scenes on this spot[39]. On one occasion, he mentions that a representation of Rhodope (a mountain in Thrace), where Orpheus sang, with the rocks and woods, was given upon the stage. It is evident from this, and from many other passages in the classical authors, that the stage, called the ARENA, was on the level of the _podium_, and visible to the people in every part of the great theatre; and not at the bottom of a pit twenty feet deep, where only a small number could have seen it, although some persons maintain this opinion.

We are told by Suetonius again[40] in the life of Julius Cæsar, that—

“these spectacles were exhibited in the Circus Maximus,
in the circuit of the Euripus, with races of _bigæ_, and
_quadrigæ_[41], and horses, with the young nobles for riders or
drivers. Hunting of wild beasts for five days, and sham fights,
castles being made over the _metæ_; a _stadium_ or stage was
made in the Campus Martius for the athletes, and naval fights
in the smaller _codeta_[42],” (which was in the Trastevere,
and probably on the site on which Augustus afterwards made his
great Naumachia,) “and in the lake then dug out, _biremes_, and
_triremes_, and _quadriremes_[43] of the Tyrian and Ægyptian
fleets, in great number, fought together. The whole population
of Rome was attracted by those exhibitions, so that the streets
and houses were quite empty; and from the pressure of the crowd
several persons were crushed to death, including two senators.”

These attractive exhibitions obviously required a building especially prepared and calculated for them, which Augustus proposed to provide, but left for his successors to carry out the plan. It is probable that in the time of Nero the great work was commenced on the site of that of Scaurus[44], and making use of his substructures, was carried on gradually, and eventually completed in this colossal building.

We are told that Nero made a Gymnasium and Naumachia in connection with his great palace, or golden house, and no vestiges of any such buildings have been found[45], unless both were combined in the great building called the Colosseum from its colossal size. The amphitheatre at Capua, being also a very large one, is said to have been called a Colosseum, but on rather doubtful authority. It is, however, certain that the name had nothing to do with the Colossus of Nero. It is evident that Nero made a great reservoir of water on this spot, which was supplied from his aqueduct on the Cœlian[46]. The _specus_, or channel for this water, remains in the wall of the Claudium, on the northern side, opposite the Palatine; and at the north-east corner of that part of the Cœlian Hill on which the Claudium stood, are remains of a _piscina_ of the time of Nero, obviously intended for the filtering-place before the water went across into the Colosseum. At a short interval only, about a hundred yards to the south of this, is another _piscina_ of the time of Alexander Severus, when the upper storey was added, and the whole building repaired after the great fire. It is quite possible that Nero made a large oval reservoir on this spot, adjoining to his palace, supplied by an aqueduct, similar to the great oval reservoir on the Palatine, near the house of Augustus, excavated in 1872. The Romans were fond of the oval form for a sheet of water; the basin of the fountain of Domitian, also on the Palatine, is oval; and the remains of the fountain of Juturna in the Forum Romanum shew the same form[47]. The long canals for the vessels to float in, which are ten feet deep, about the same width, and the same height above the original pavements, are not so early as the time of Nero; they are of the third century, with many later repairs.

To include the Gymnasium in the same building, Nero made a wooden floor over the reservoir, which he could remove and replace at pleasure; this was covered with sand for the athletes to wrestle upon, and became THE ARENA. Around this great oval basin galleries were erected for the spectators, which were gradually enlarged and raised higher as the seats were further off; and the great stone arcades of the Flavian Emperors, with the corridors in them, are built round those older galleries, which were chiefly faced with brick. Several of the arches of the galleries, in the fine brickwork of Nero, remain in the Colosseum[48]; and the stone arcades were evidently built up against them without any junction between the two in any part. The bricks on the side of the arch next the stone piers of the corridors, are in many places cut in half, to make way for the stone piers. The straight vertical joints between the brick galleries and the stone arcades are often two or three inches wide; this may be the effect of an earthquake, but there is no bonding between one and the other. The enormous arcades and corridors are in themselves a gigantic work, and it was evidently difficult to obtain so great a supply of materials.

The external wall and corridor are of three periods. The first is the ground floor only, with the Doric order of columns; the first and second floor, with the Corinthian columns, belong to the second period, and it is a little later than the lowest part, but not with any long interval; the upper floor is an addition of the third century, and replaces a wooden storey.

In the interior of the building, as we are told in the anonymous chronicle published by Eccard, which is good authority[49], Vespasian dedicated the three lower steps, and Titus added two others to the three placed by his father. The wooden gallery, built upon the top of the great corridors or arcades (for the plebs), appears to have been an afterthought, not part of the original design, but an addition obviously called for. The large space at that height gave accommodation for an enormous number of people, which could not have been given before, to see what was going on upon the ARENA or STAGE during the performance. This had numerous trap-doors in it, under which were lifts for the wild beasts in their cages to be sent up on to the stage when wanted. The performance was in many respects like our pantomimes. There are evident traces of the lifts below, by the vertical grooves in the tufa walls for them to slide up and down[50]; and recesses remain in these walls for the counter-weights also to work in, with holes in the pavement for the sockets of pivots for the capstans necessary to wind up the cords, and loose them as required. These original walls, with the grooves for the old machines, are in many parts interfered with by more modern walls built up between them, probably in the fifth and sixth centuries, when great repairs were made after earthquakes, or perhaps rendered necessary by the weight of the water under the wooden floor in the central part.

Two important inscriptions relating to the history of the building have been preserved[51]: one found in 1810 on the western side, recording the repairs after an earthquake by the præfect Basilius, A.D. 445; the other in 1813, recording similar repairs by Lampadius, A.D. 508. Three of the marble seats were also brought to light, one with the number XVIII., another with the word EQUITI, the third, with an inscription, the beginning of which is broken off:—

tr IB IN . THEATR . LEGE . PL . VI
vind ICET . P . X . II.

This is important, because it shews the use of the word THEATRUM[52], and not AMPHITHEATRUM, for the colossal building; which agrees with the usage of Dio and other contemporary authors, who always call it THEATRUM _par eminence_, or the great theatre of Rome, there being no need to distinguish it further.

The following extracts from Dio Cassius can only apply to the great amphitheatre:—

“Such was the shamelessness of Nero, that he himself drove
chariots in public; and, sometimes, having slain wild beasts,
and having suddenly introduced water into the area, he made a
naval battle; and then withdrawing the water, he introduced
the gladiatorial strife. Then again introducing it, he gave
in public a sumptuous supper. Tigellinus was the prefect (or
overseer) of the supper, and it was a supper of the grandest
magnificence, arranged in this manner. In the middle of the
amphitheatre and in the water great wooden wine-casks were
placed, and upon them a floor of planks[53] was laid, and
around this, booths and small chambers were erected[54].”

“Nero had various kinds of shows in the amphitheatre, sometimes
filling it with sea-water, in which fishes and sea monsters
swam, and made a naval fight between the Persians and the
Athenians; then suddenly withdrawing the water, and drying the
ground, he ordered a number of men on foot to rush in, not
singly, but in numbers and close together[55].”

“When he (Titus) dedicated the theatre for hunting, and the
thermæ called after him, he exhibited many wonderful things.
Cranes fought and four elephants, nine thousand wild boars and
other beasts were killed, which women, even some of noble rank,
had brought together. Many contests, also, on foot, and naval
fights took place, for suddenly filling the amphitheatre with
water, he introduced horses and bulls, and other tame animals,
who had been taught to act in the water as on land. He also
introduced men in ships, who, in the guise of Corcyrians and
Corinthians, imitated a naval battle[56].”

In another chapter Dio repeats the same account, with the addition of “a public supper[57].” This shews that the arrangements in the amphitheatre were the same in the time of Nero as in the time of Commodus, when Dio was himself present, and describes what he saw. If the water was really _sea_-water, it could only have been in the canals. The fact of three aqueducts having converged to this point to bring water to the great building, makes it most probable that the water was not _really sea-water_, but perhaps had _sea-weed_ inserted in it to suit the fishes and the sea monsters. Suetonius also mentions the _naumachia_ in the amphitheatre[58] in the time of Domitian, among the magnificent shows that he provided for the people. Dio clearly distinguishes between the Amphitheatre of Nero and that of Statilius Taurus in the Campus Martius, which he also calls _Theatrum Tauri_[59].

The word _stagnum_ is commonly translated _pond_, but it does not necessarily mean _only_ a pond; any reservoir of water might be so called; the _castellum aquæ_, or large cistern for the water supplied by the aqueducts, was also a _stagnum_. The “Stagna Neronis[60]” are mentioned by Martial, as well as by Tacitus[61], who also mentions a _stagnum navale_ among the games in the public theatre of Augustus[62].

Suetonius[63] compares the Stagnum of Nero to a “sea” surrounded by the buildings of a city: a strong expression, which shews that there were some buildings immediately round it. The Claudium on the Cœlian, the Porticus Liviæ on the Summa Sacra Via, and Porticus of Nero himself on the Esquiline, would be visible on three sides of it. The representation of this great building on the coin of Titus was evidently taken from the design of the architect. It represents a building of two storeys only, with gigantic statues under each of the arches of the corridors.