Chapter XXX: Eulogy of Alexander (2)

[269] This distinguished general saved Alexander’s life in India, in the assault on the city of the Mallians. After the king’s death, he received the rule of the lesser or Hellespontine Phrygia. He was defeated and slain by the Athenians under Antiphilus, against whom he was fighting in alliance with Antipater, B.C. 323. See _Diodorus_, xviii. 14, 15; Plutarch (_Phocion_, 25).

[270] Compare _Diodorus_, xvii. 37, 38; _Curtius_, iii. 29-32.

[271] Named Sisygambis.

[272] In a letter written by Alexander to Parmenio, an extract from which is preserved by Plutarch (_Alex._, 22), he says that he never saw nor entertained the desire of seeing the wife of Darius, who was said to be the most beautiful woman in Asia; and that he would not allow himself to listen to those who spoke about her beauty. Cf. _Ammianus_ (xxiv. 4, 27), speaking of Julian: “Ex virginibus autem, quae speciosae sunt captae, ut in Perside, ubi feminarum pulchritudo excellit, nec contrectare aliquam voluit, nec videre: Alexandrum imitatus et Africanum, qui haec declinabant, ne frangeretur cupiditate, qui se invictos a laboribus ubique praestiterunt.”

[273] Thapsacus is understood to be identical with the city called Tiphsach (passage) in 1 Kings iv. 24; which is there said to have been the eastern boundary of Solomon’s empire. It is generally supposed that the modern Deir occupies the site of the ancient Thapsacus; but it has been discovered that the only ford in this part of the river is at Suriyeh, 165 miles above Deir. This was probably the site of Thapsacus. From the time of Seleucus Nicator the city was called Amphipolis (_Pliny_, v. 21). See _Stephanus_ of Byzantium, _sub voce_ Amphipolis. Cf. Xenophon (_Anabasis_, i. 4, 11).

[274] The Euphrates is the largest river of western Asia, and rises in the mountains of Armenia. It unites with the Tigris, and after a course of 1,780 miles flows into the Persian Gulf. It is navigable by boats for 1,200 miles. The annual inundation, caused by the melting of the snow in the mountains of Armenia, takes place in the month of May. The Euphrates, Tigris, and Eulaeus had formerly three separate outlets into the Persian Gulf; but the three now unite in a single stream, which is called Shat-el-Arab. The Hebrew name for the river which the Greeks called Euphrates, was Pĕrath (rapid stream). It is called in the Bible, the _Great River_, and _the River_ (Gen. xv. 18; Exod. xxiii. 31; _et passim_). In Jeremiah xiii. 4-7, the word _Pĕrath_ stands for Ephrath, another name for Bethlehem; in our Bible it is mis-translated. See Fürst’s _Hebrew Lexicon_.

[275] The term _Cĕnaan_ was applied to the lowland plain from Aradus to Gaza. The northern portion, from Aradus to Carmel, is known to us under its Grecian name of Phoenicia, which is probably derived from the Greek _phoinix_ (a palm-tree), which grew abundantly in the country, and was the emblem of some of its towns. Others derive it from another Greek word _phoinix_ (red dye), which formed one of its most important manufactures. The Phoenicians applied the term Cenaan to their land in contrast to the highlands to the west, which they called _Aram_ (highland), the Hebrew name for Syria. The country of Phoenicia was 120 miles long and with an average breadth of 12 miles, never exceeding 20 miles. The chief cities of Phoenicia were Tyre, Sidon, Aradus, Byblus, Berytus, Tripolis, and Accho or Ptolemais. Its central position between the eastern and western countries, early developed its commercial power, and its intercourse with foreign nations at an early period produced an advanced state of civilization and refinement. The Phoenicians were a Semitic nation like the Israelites; and their language bears a remarkable affinity with the Hebrew, as is seen by fragments of the Carthaginian language preserved in Plautus. In an inscription discovered at Marseilles in 1845, out of 94 words 74 were found in the Hebrew Bible. The Phoenicians were asserted by the Greeks to have communicated to them the knowledge of letters; and this statement is corroborated by the similarity of the Hebrew and ancient Greek letters. Their colonies spread from Cyprus to Crete and the Cyclades, thence to Euboea, Greece, and Thrace. The coasts of Asia Minor and Bithynia were dotted with their settlements, and they carried their commerce into the Black Sea. They also had colonies in Sicily, Sardinia, Ivica, and Spain, where they founded Cadiz. The northern coast of Africa was lined with their colonies, the most flourishing of which was Carthage, which rose to be one of the great powers of the world. Strabo says that they had 300 colonies on the western coast of Africa. They visited the coasts of England for tin; and thus, to quote the words of Humboldt, “the Tyrian flag waved at the same time in Britain and the Indian Ocean.” _Herodotus_ (iv. 42, 43) says that under the patronage of Necho, king of Egypt, they circumnavigated Africa; but he states that he does not believe it was a fact. The reason which he assigns for his disbelief is, that the navigators alleged that the sun was on their right hand, which is the strongest argument in favour of the truth of their statement. In Isaiah xxiii. 11, Phoenicia is called Cĕnaan, where the English Bible has erroneously, _the merchant city_. In the Bible the word _Cĕnaanim_ is frequently used for _merchants_, because the Phoenicians were the principal commercial people of antiquity (Job xli. 6; Prov. xxxi. 24; Isaiah xxiii. 8; Hos. xii. 7; Zeph. i. 2; Zech. xiv. 21). Tripolis consisted of three distinct cities, 600 feet apart, each having its own walls, but all united in a common constitution with one place of assembly. These cities were colonies respectively of Sidon, Tyre, and Aradus. Tripolis was a flourishing port on a headland which is a spur of Lebanon. It is now called Tripoli, and is still a large town. See Dr. Smith’s _Dictionary of Classical Geography_.

[276] The oldest towns in Cyprus,—Citium, Amathus, and Paphus,—were Phoenician colonies. These were afterwards eclipsed by the Greek colonies, Salamis, Soli, and New Paphus. In Hebrew the island is called _Ceth_, and the inhabitants _Cittim_. Gesenius says, that upon a Sidonian coin _Ceth_ in Cyprus, which the Greeks called Citium, is described as a Sidonian colony. _Diodorus_ (xvi. 42) says there were nine kings in Cyprus. It is probable that the kings of the Hittites mentioned in 1 Kings x. 29, were from Cyprus. Also the Hittite women whom Solomon married were probably Cyprians (1 Kings xi. 1). The kings of the Hittites of whom the Syrians were afraid were also Cypriotes (2 Kings vii. 6); and the _land of the Hittites_ mentioned in Judges i. 26, probably means Cyprus. Josephus, Eusebius, and Jerome understand these passages to refer to Cyprus. In Isaiah xxiii. 1, the _land of Cittim_ refers to Cyprus, which belonged to Tyre, the revolt of which the prophet announced. This revolt is confirmed by Menander (_Josephus_, ix. 14, 9).

[277] Agis III. was ultimately defeated and slain by Antipater, B.C. 330. See _Curtius_, vi. 1 and 2; Grote’s _Greece_, vol. xii. pp. 102-106.

[278] About £7,300.

[279] Now Cape Matapan. Cf. _Propertius_, iii. 2, 11; _Tibullus_, iii. 3, 13; Homer (_Hymn to Apollo_, 411).

[280] The Cretans were very early civilized and powerful, for we read in Homer of their 100 cities. Before the Trojan war lived the famous king Minos, who is said to have given laws to Crete, and to have been the first potentate who possessed a navy, with which he suppressed piracy in the Aegean Sea. The Cretans gradually degenerated, so that we find in the New Testament St. Paul quoting from their own poet, Epimenides: “Always liars and beasts are the Cretans, and inwardly sluggish” (Titus i. 12). The lying propensity of the Cretans is proved from the fact that the verb _to Cretize_, was used in Greek with the meaning “to speak falsely.” In Hebrew, Crete is called _Caphtor_ (cypress). It is mentioned in Jer. xlvii. 4. It was the native land of a tribe of Philistines called Caphtorim (Gen. x. 14; Deut. ii. 23; 1 Chron. i. 12). The fact that the Philistines came partly from Crete is also affirmed in Amos ix. 7. Another branch of the Philistines came from Casloach in Egypt. The Caphtorim emigrated originally from Egypt to Crete, from which island they were probably driven by the Greeks. Tacitus asserts that the inhabitants of Palestine came from Crete (_Historiae_, v. 2); and the early name of Gaza was Minoa, after the famous king of Crete. Another Hebrew name for Crete is Cĕrēth, whence the inhabitants were called _Cĕrēthim_. They are mentioned in Ezek. xxv. 16, and Zeph. ii. 5; where the Septuagint and the Syriac have _Cretans_. We find the Philistines, who were partly emigrants from Crete, called Cerethim in 1 Sam. xxx. 14. From among these Cerethim and Philistines David chose his body-guard, which was composed of men skilled in shooting and slinging (2 Sam. viii. 18, xv. 18, xx. 7, 23; 1 Kings i. 38, 44; 1 Chron. xviii. 17).

[281] From _Diodorus_ (xvii. 48) it appears that Agis went personally to Crete, and compelled most of the cities to join the Persian side. We also learn that the deputies of the Greeks assembled at the Isthmian games at Corinth sent an embassy to Alexander to congratulate him on his victory at Issus, and to present him with a golden wreath. (See also _Curtius_, iv. 22.)

[282] Coele-Syria, or Hollow Syria, is, in its more limited sense, the country between the ranges of Libanus and Anti-Libănus, in which Damascus and Baalbek are situated; in its wider meaning, it comprises the whole of Northern Syria, in opposition to the countries of Phoenicia and Palestine.

[283] Aradus is an island lying two or three miles from the mainland of Phoenicia. According to Strabo, a State was founded in it by refugees from Sidon. For a long time the island was independent, under its own kings; and even after it fell under the sway of the Macedonian kings of Syria, and subsequently under that of the Romans, it retained a great deal of its commercial prosperity. Aradus appears in Hebrew under the form _Arvad_. It is evident from Ezek. xxvii. 8, 11, that its inhabitants were skilful sailors and brave warriors. They sent out colonies to Aradus south of Carmel, the island of Aradus near Crete, and the islands in the Persian gulf. The present name of this island is Ruad. The Aradians inhabited the mainland opposite the island, as well as the island itself.

[284] Artaxerxes Ochus reigned B.C. 359-338.

[285] Perinthus was a Samian colony on the Propontis. For the siege by Philip, see _Diodorus_, xvi. 74-76.

[286] Impartial historians deny that Philip’s murderers were bribed; they committed the murder from private resentment.

[287] Ochus was poisoned about B.C. 338, by the eunuch Bagoas, who placed upon the throne Arses, one of the king’s sons, killing all the rest. Cf. Aelian (_Varia Historia_, vi. 8). Two years afterwards, Bagoas put Arses and all his children to death; thus leaving no direct heir of the regal family alive. He then placed upon the throne one of his adherents, named Darius Codomannus, a descendant of one of the brothers of Artaxerxes Mnemon. Bagoas soon afterwards tried to poison this Darius; but the latter, discovering his treachery, forced him to drink the deadly draught himself (_Diod._, xvii. 5; _Justin_, x. 3). From _Arrian_, iii. 19, we learn that Bistanes, a son of Ochus, was alive after the battle of Arbela.

[288] Aeschines, in his speech against Ctesiphon (p. 634), asserts that Darius sent 300 talents to Athens, that the Athenians refused them, and that Demosthenes took them, reserving 70 talents for his own private use. Deinarchus repeats this statement in his speech against Demosthenes. (pp. 9-14). If Demosthenes had really acted thus, it is strange Alexander knew nothing about it.

[289] This statement of Arrian is confirmed by _Curtius_ (iii. 34), who says that Parmenio captured the treasure, not in the city, but from fugitives who were conveying it away.

[290] In giving the names of the captured Grecian envoys, _Curtius_ (iii. 35) seems to have confounded this with a future occasion, mentioned in _Arrian_ (iii. 24).

[291] The great Iphicrates had been adopted by Alexander’s grandfather, as is stated in a note on Book I. chap. 23.

[292] Byblus is said by _Strabo_ (xvi. 2) to have been situated on a height not far from the sea. It was reported to be the oldest city in the world. It possessed a considerable extent of territory, including Berytus, and was an independent State for a long period, the last king being deposed by Pompey. On a Byblus coin of Alexander’s time appears the name _Einel_, which is the king Enylus mentioned by _Arrian_ (ii. 20). Byblus was the chief seat of the worship of Adonis, or Thammuz, who was supposed to have been born there. In the Bible it appears under its Hebrew name _Gebal_ (mountain-district). The inhabitants of Gebal are said in Ezek. xxvii. 9 to have been skilled in building ships. In Josh. xiii. 5 the northern boundary of the Holy Land is said to reach as far as the land of the Giblite, or inhabitant of Gebal. In 1 Kings v. 18 the word translated in our Bible _stone-squarers_ ought to be rendered _Giblites_. The Arabs still call the place Jebail. Cf. Milton (_Paradise Lost_, viii. 18).

[293] Sidon, or in Hebrew _Tsidon_ (fortress), is called in Gen. x. 15, 19 the firstborn son of Canaan, _i.e._ it was the first city founded by the Canaanites or Phoenicians. It lay about twenty miles south of Tyre, on a small promontory two miles south of the river Bostremus. We read in _Homer_ that it was famous for its embroidered robes and metal utensils, and from other ancient writers we find that it manufactured glass and linen and also prepared dyes. Before the time of David it fell under the rule of Tyre; but when Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, invaded Phoenicia, it revolted from Tyre and submitted to the invader. It was governed by its own kings under the Babylonian and Persian empires; and under the latter power it reached its highest prosperity, surpassing Tyre in wealth and importance. In the expedition of Xerxes against Greece, the Sidonians furnished the best ships in the whole fleet, and their king obtained the highest place under Xerxes in the council. But they revolted against Ochus, king of Persia, and being betrayed to him by their own king Tennes, they burnt their city and ships. It is said that 40,000 persons perished in the fire and by the sword, B.C. 351. (_Diodorus_, xvi. 43-45). No doubt this barbarous treatment of Ochus induced the Sidonians to take the side of Alexander. The city was already built and again flourishing when that king appeared on the scene. Near the site of the ancient city is the present town of Saida, with a population of about 5,000. Cf. Homer (_Iliad_, vi. 289; xxiii. 741); _Lucan_, iii. 217.

[294] At Sidon, Alexander deposed the reigning king Strato, a friend of the Persians; and a poor man, named Abdalonymus, distantly related to the regal family, was put into his place (_Curtius_, iv. 3, 4). _Diodorus_ (xvii. 47) tells the same story, but applies it to Tyre, probably by mistake.

[295] The Hebrew name for Tyre is _Tsor_ (rock). In Isa. xxiii. 4 it is called the fortress of the sea; and in ver. 8, “Tsor, the crowning one,” because Tyre gave rulers to the Phoenician cities and colonies. Valuable information about the power, trade, and customs of Tyre is derived from Ezek. xxvi-xxviii.; and we learn the fact that she employed mercenaries like her colony Carthage (Ezek. xxvii. 10, 11). In the classical writers the name is corrupted into _Tyrus_, and sometimes into _Sarra_. Tyre was unsuccessfully besieged for five years by Shalmaneser. It was also besieged for thirteen years by Nebuchadnezzar, and in the end an alliance was formed, by which the Tyrians retained their own king as a vassal of the king of Babylon. This arrangement was continued under the kings of Persia.

[296] _Curtius_ (iv. 7) tells us that the envoys also brought to Alexander a golden wreath, together with abundant supplies for his army.

[297] This king must have brought home his ships for the defence of Tyre, for he was in the city when it was captured. See chap. 24.

[298] The Phoenician god _Melkarth_ (lord of the city), whom the Syrians called _Baal_ (lord), was supposed to be identical with the Grecian Heracles, or Hercules, who was the mythical ancestor of the Macedonian kings. _Curtius_ (iv. 7) tells us that Alexander affirmed he had been ordered by an oracle to sacrifice in Tyre to Heracles. Gesenius informs us that a Maltese inscription identifies the Tyrian Melkarth with Heracles.

[299] Who was the son of Labdacus.

[300] See _Herodotus_, ii. 43, 44.

[301] The district comprising all the south-west of Spain outside the pillars of Heracles, or Straits of Gibraltar, was called Tartessis, of which the chief city was Tartessus. Here the Phoenicians planted colonies, one of which still remains under the name of Cadiz. The Romans called the district Baetica, from the principal river, the Baetis or Guadalquivir. The Hebrew name for this region is _Tarshish_, of which Tartessus is the Greek form. Tarshish was the station for the Phoenician trade with the West, which extended as far as Cornwall. The Tyrians fetched from this locality silver, iron, lead, tin, and gold (Isa. xxiii. 1, 6, 10, lxvi. 19; Jer. x. 9; Ezek. xxvii. 12, xxxviii. 13). Martial, Seneca, and Avienus, the first two of whom were Spaniards, understood Tartessus to stand for the south-west of Spain and Portugal. The word Tarshish probably means _sea-coast_, from the Sanscrit _tarischa_, the sea. Ovid (_Met._, xiv. 416); _Martial_, viii. 28; _Silius_, xiii. 673.

[302] Of Miletus. Herodotus knew his writings well, but they have not come down to us. See _Herod._ (ii. 143; v. 36 and 125).

[303] The Iberians were originally called Tibarenes, or Tibari. They dwelt on the east of the Black Sea, and west of Colchis, whence they emigrated to Spain. This nation is called _Tubal_ in the Hebrew Bible; in Isa. lxvi. 19 the Iberians of western Europe are referred to.

[304] An island near Cadiz, now called Leon. Cf. Hesiod (_Theogonia_, 287-294); _Herodotus_, iv. 8.

[305] Now called Arta.

[306] Arrian omits to mention that the Tyrians pointed out to him that his wish to sacrifice to Hercules might be gratified without entering their city, since at Palaetyrus, on the mainland, separated from Tyre only by a narrow strait, was a temple of that deity more ancient than that in Tyre. See _Curtius_, iv. 7; _Justin_, xi. 10. We learn from _Arrian_, i. 18, that when Alexander offered sacrifice to the Ephesian Diana he marched to the temple with his whole army in battle array. No doubt it was this kind of thing the Tyrians objected to. Alexander actually did the same at Tyre after its capture. (See chapter 24.)

[307] For this use of ἐνύπνιον, cf. Homer (_Iliad_, ii. 56); Aristophanes (_Wasps_, 1218).

[308] Cf. _Arrian_, i. 11 and 25 supra.

[309] The island was about half a mile from the mainland, and about a mile in length.

[310] We learn from _Diodorus_ (xvii. 40) that the breadth of this mole was about 200 feet.

[311] _Curtius_ (iv. 10) says that the timber was procured from Lebanon, and the stones from Old Tyre on the mainland.

[312] Cf. _Polyaenus_ (iv. 3).

[313] Cf. Cæsar (_Bell. Gall._, vii. 24)—reliquasque res, quibus ignis excitari potest, fundebant. Krüger has unnecessarily altered ἐπὶ ταύτῃ into ἐπ’ αὐτήν (_i.e._ πρῷραν).

[314] _Curtius_ (iv. 12) says that the stern was loaded with stones and sand.

[315] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 42) and _Curtius_ (iv. 12) say that a great tempest helped to demolish the palisade.

[316] We learn from Josephus (_Antiquities of the Jews_, ix. 14), on the authority of Menander, that when Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, four centuries before Alexander’s time, besieged Tyre, the other Phoenicians supplied him with ships in like manner.

[317] This was a state vessel, or guardship, similar to the _Paralus_ and _Salaminia_ at Athens. See _Alciphron_, Bk. I. Epistle 11, with Bergler’s note.

[318] See _Arrian_, ii. 2 supra.

[319] _Curtius_ (iv. 11) says that about thirty of the Macedonians collecting timber in Lebanon were killed by a party of wild Arabs, and that a few were also captured by them. _Lebanon_ is a Hebrew word meaning _white_, like _Alpes_. It was so called on account of its white cliffs, just as Britain is called by Aristotle, _Albion_, the Celtic for white.

[320] Plutarch (_Life of Alexander_, 24) gives us, on the authority of Chares, some details of daring valour on the part of Alexander in this expedition.

[321] Cleander was put to death by Alexander for oppression in exercising his duties as governor of Media. See _Arrian_, vi. 27 infra.

[322] In regard to this manœuvre, see _Herodotus_, vi. 12; _Thucydides_, i. 49, with Arnold’s note.

[323] συμπεπηγμέναι:—“In the best authors πέπηγα is used as the perf. pass. of πήγνυμι” (_Liddell & Scott_). Cf. v. 12, 4; 24, 4, infra.

[324] Cf. Plautus (_Mercator_, iv. 2, 5), _hortator remigum_.

[325] Amathus was a town on the south coast of Cyprus. It is now called Limasol. Cf. _Herodotus_, v. 104-115; Tacitus (_Ann._, iii. 62); Vergil (_Aeneid_, x. 51).

[326] Curium was also a town on the south coast of Cyprus.

[327] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 45) says, that after Admetus was killed, Alexander recalled his men from the assault that night, but renewed it next day.

[328] Agenor, the father of Cadmus, was the reputed founder of Tyre and Sidon. See _Curtius_, iv. 19.

[329] The Tyrians had been encouraged in their resistance by the promise of aid from their colony Carthage. But the Carthaginians excused themselves on the ground of their own difficulties in contending with the Greeks. The Tyrians however despatched their women, children, and old men to Carthage for safety. See _Diodorus_, xvii. 40, 41; _Curtius_, iv. 8 and 15. We learn from _Diod._, xx. 14, that the Carthaginians were in the habit of sending to the Tyrian Hercules the tenth of their revenues.

[330] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 46) and _Curtius_ (iv. 19) state that 2,000 Tyrians who had escaped the massacre were hanged on the seashore by Alexander’s order.

[331] The end of July and beginning of August B.C. 332. _Diodorus_ (xvii. 46) tells us that the siege lasted seven months. See also _Curtius_ (iv. 20) and Plutarch (_Life of Alexander_, 24). We find from _Strabo_ (xvi. 2) that Tyre again became a flourishing city.

[332] About £2,440,000.

[333] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 54) puts the arrival of this embassy after Alexander’s conquest of Egypt. _Curtius_ (iv. 21) says that the name of the daughter whom Darius offered to Alexander was Statira.

[334] The term Palestine is derived from _Pĕlesheth_, the name given in Hebrew to the coast district in the south-west of Palestine, the inhabitants of which were called _Pĕlishtim_, or Philistines. As this tract of country lay directly between Phoenicia and Egypt, it became known to the Greeks sooner than the rest of the Holy Land, and they called it Syria Palaestinē. The name was gradually extended until it became the usual one for all the Holy Land among Greek and Latin writers. An interesting account of Alexander’s visit to Jerusalem and his dealings with the Jews is found in Josephus (_Antiquities_, xi. 8).

[335] Nearly two miles and a half. _Strabo_ (xvi. 2) says that the city was only seven stades from the sea.

[336] Gaza is the Greek form of the Hebrew name _Azzah_ (fortress). Its position on the border of Egypt and Palestine has given it importance from the earliest times. It was one of the five cities of the Philistines; and retained its own king till a late period, as we learn from Zechariah ix. 5. It was the scene of a battle between Richard I. and the Saracens. It is now called Guzzeh, with a population of 15,000.

[337] Compare _Arrian_, i. 11 and 25; ii. 18. Plutarch (_Alex._, 25) says that the bird was entangled and caught among the nets and cords. See also _Curtius_, iv. 26.

[338] A stadium equalled 606-3/4 feet.

[339] Cf. _Thucydides_, ii. 76 (description of the siege of Plataeae).

[340] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 48) says that the siege of Gaza lasted two months. _Polybius_ (xvi. 40) speaks of the resolution and valour of the Gazaeans. We learn from _Curtius_ (iv. 28) and from _Dionysius_ of Halicarnassus (_De Compositione Verborum_, pp. 123-125) that Alexander treated the brave Batis with horrible cruelty. He ordered his feet to be bored and brazen rings to be put through them, after which the naked body was tied to the back of a chariot which was driven by Alexander himself round the city, in imitation of the treatment of Hector by Achilles at Troy. Cf. _Arrian_, vii. 14. Dionysius quotes from Hegesias of Magnesia, who wrote a history of Alexander, not now extant. Curtius says that nearly 10,000 of the Persians and Arabs were slain at Gaza. _Strabo_ (xvi. 2) says that in his time (_i.e._ in the reign of Augustus) the city still remained desolate, as it was left by Alexander.

[341] Pelusium is identical with the Hebrew _Sin_ (a marsh) the most easterly city of Egypt, which is called in Ezekiel xxx. 15, the _strength of Egypt_, because it was the key to that country from its frontier position. Cf. _Herodotus_, iii. 5. _Strabo_ (xvii. 1) says it was situated near marshes. It stood east of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, about 2-1/2 miles from the sea. This mouth of the river was choked up with sand as early as the first century of the Christian era (_Lucan_, viii. 465). Sennacherib advanced as far as this city, and here Cambyses defeated the Egyptians, B.C. 525. Iphicrates the Athenian advanced to Pelusium with the satrap Pharnabazus, B.C. 373. Cf. Vergil (_Georgic_, i. 228); _Martial_, xiii. 9; _Silius_, iii. 375.

[342] _Curtius_ (iv. 22) says that this fleet was under the command of Hephaestion.

[343] His predecessor, Sabaces, was slain at Issus. See _Arrian_, ii. 11 supra.

[344] _Curtius_ (iv. 29) says that Mazaces surrendered to Alexander treasure to the amount of 800 talents, nearly £200,000.

[345] Memphis, the capital of Egypt, is called in the Hebrew Bible, _Noph_. In Hosea ix. 6 it is called _Moph_. The Egyptian name was _Mĕnoph_, of which both Moph and Noph are contractions. The name signifies _place of Ftah_, the Egyptian name for Vulcan. Memphis stood on the west bank of the Nile, and is said by _Herodotus_ (ii. 99) to have been founded by Menes. It had a circumference of fifteen miles. Its numerous temples were famous and are mentioned in the poems of Martial, Ovid, and Tibullus. It never recovered the devastation committed by Cambyses, who was exasperated by its resistance. The rise of Alexandria as the capital under the Ptolemies, hastened the decline of Memphis. At Gizeh, near Memphis, are the three great pyramids, being of the height respectively of 460, 446, and 203 feet. Not far off are six smaller ones. Near the second pyramid is the Sphinx, cut out of the solid rock, which was probably an object of worship. Cf. _Apollodorus_, ii. 4.

[346] Heliopolis is known in Hebrew as _On_, which is an Egyptian word meaning _Sun_. It is mentioned in Gen. xli. 45, 50; xlvi. 20. In Ezek. xxx. 17, it is called _Aven_, which is the same word in Hebrew as On, with a variation of the vowels. In Jer. xliii. 13 it is called _Beith-Shemesh_, which in Hebrew means _House of the Sun_, a translation of the Egyptian name. The Greeks called it Heliopolis, _City of the Sun_. The great temple of the Sun and its priesthood are described by Herodotus and Strabo. There are still remaining a beautiful obelisk of red granite nearly 70 feet high, and the brick wall of the temple 3,750 feet long by 2,370 feet broad. Cf. _Apollodorus_, ii. 4.

[347] The word Nile never occurs in the Hebrew Bible; but that river is called _Yeor_ (river). In Amos viii. 8 it is called _Yeor Mitsraim_, the river of Egypt; but it is usually called simply _Yeor_, the river. In Isa. xxiii. 3 the corn of Egypt is called the _harvest of Yeor_, or the Nile. In like manner Avon, Ganges, Rhine, mean _river_. The Greek name _Neilos_, or Nile, means a _bed with a stream_, and was originally applied to the land of Egypt, as the valley of the Nile. It rises in the lake Victoria Nyanza, and has a course of 3,300 miles. In Isa. xxiii. 3 and Jer. ii. 18 the Nile is called _Shichor_ (turbid). In Homer (_Odys._, iv. 477, etc.) the river is called Egypt as well as the country. Cf. _Ammianus_, xxii. 15.

[348] The Bull of Memphis, sacred to _Ftah_, the god of fire. See _Herodotus_, iii. 27, 28; _Strabo_, xvii. 1; _Ammianus_, xxii. 14; Ovid (_Met._, ix. 690).

[349] Now Aboukir, about 13 miles north-east of Alexandria, near the westernmost mouth of the Nile. Cf. Aeschўlus (_Supp._, 311; _Prom._, 846); _Strabo_, xvii. 1, 17; Tacitus (_Ann._, ii. 60).

[350] Usually called Lake Mareotis, now Mariût. Cf. Vergil (_Georgic_, ii. 91).

[351] We learn, from _Curtius_ (iv. 33), that Alexander at first resolved to build the city on the island of Pharos, but finding it too small, built it on the mainland.

[352] A goddess representing the moon, and wife of Osiris the sun-god.

[353] Cf. _Strabo_ (xvii. 1); Plutarch (_Alex._, 26); _Diodorus_ (xvii. 52); _Curtius_ (iv. 33); _Ammianus_ (xxii. 16).

[354] We find from _Valerius Maximus_ (i. 4) and _Ammianus_, l.c., that his name was Dinocrates.

[355] Krüger substitutes ἐπενόει for ἐποίει, comparing iv. 1, 3, and 4, 1 infra.

[356] See _Arrian_, ii. 2 supra.

[357] Methymna was, next to Mitylene, the most important city in Lesbos.

[358] Chares was an Athenian who had been one of the generals at the fatal battle of Chaeronea. _Curtius_ (iv. 24) says that he consented to evacuate Mitylene with his force of 2,000 men on condition of a free departure.

[359] On an island in the Nile, of the same name, opposite Syene. It served as the southern frontier garrison station.

[360] The temple of Jupiter Ammon was in the oasis of Siwah, to the West of Egypt. Its ruins were discovered by Browne in 1792. This oasis is about 6 miles long and 3 broad. The people called Libyans occupied the whole of North Africa excluding Egypt. In Hebrew they are called _Lubim_ (sunburnt). See 2 Chron. xii. 3; xvi. 8; Dan. xi. 43; Nah. iii. 9. Cf. _Herodotus_, ii. 32; iv. 168-199.

[361] King of the island Seriphus. Cf. _Herodotus_, ii. 91.

[362] The gigantic son of Poseidon and Ge.

[363] King of Egypt, who was said to have sacrificed all foreigners that visited the land.

[364] Perseus was the grandfather of Alemena, the mother of Hercules.

[365] About 183 miles. This city lay at the extreme west of Egypt, in Marmarica.

[366] “For some distance onward the engineers had erected a line of telegraph poles to guide us, but after they ceased the desert was absolutely trackless. Our guides were the stars—had the night been overcast the enterprise would have been impossible—and we were steered by a naval officer, Lieutenant Rawson, who had doubtless studied on previous nights the relation of these celestial beacons to the course of our march. The centre of the line was the point of direction; therefore he rode between the centre battalions (75th and 79th) of the Highland Brigade. Frequently in the course of the night, after duly ascertaining what dark figure I was addressing, I represented to him that his particular star was clouded over; but he always replied that he had another in view, a second string to his bow, which he showed me, and that he was convinced he had not deviated in the least from the proper direction. And he was right, his guidance was marvellously correct; for his reward, poor fellow, he was shot down in the assault, mortally wounded. Here we were adrift, but for the stars, in a region where no token existed on the surface by which to mark the course—any more than on the ocean without a compass—and the distance to be traversed was many miles.”—Sir Edward Hamley: “The Second Division at Tel-el-Kebir,” _Nineteenth Century_, December, 1882.

[367] _Strabo_ (xvii. 1) quotes from Callisthenes, whose work on Alexander is lost. He agrees with Aristobulus about the two ravens. Callisthenes is also quoted by Plutarch (_Alex._, 27) in regard to this prodigy. _Curtius_ (iv. 30) says that there were _several ravens_; and _Diodorus_ (xvii. 49) speaks of _ravens_.

[368] Nearly five miles. Cf. _Lucan_, ix. 511-543.

[369] This _Fountain of the Sun_, as it is called, is 30 paces long and 20 broad; 6 fathoms deep, with bubbles constantly rising from the surface. Cf. _Herodotus_, iv. 181; _Lucretius_, vi. 849-878; _Ptolemy_, iv. 5, 37.

[370] This is what we call sal ammoniac, known to chemists as hydrochlorate of ammonia. The _dactylos_ was the smallest Greek measure of length, about 7/10 of an inch.

[371] We learn from _Strabo_ (xvii. 1), on the authority of Callisthenes, that the declaration of the oracle of Ammon was confirmed by those of Apollo at Branchidae near Miletus, and of Athena at Erythrae in Ionia. Plutarch (_Alex._, 28) and _Arrian_ (vii. 29) assert that Alexander set afloat the declaration that he was the son of Zeus to overawe the foreigners over whom he was extending his rule.

[372] Ewald and others think that Heroöpolis was identical with the Raamses of the Bible. Raamses, or Rameses, is a Coptic word meaning “the son of the sun.”

[373] A city founded by the Milesians on the Canopic branch of the Nile. It remained a purely Greek city, being the only place where Greeks were allowed to settle and trade in Egypt. Cf. _Herodotus_, ii. 97, 135, 178, 179.

[374] Cf. Tacitus (_Historiae_, i. 11).

[375] We learn, from _Curtius_ (iv. 34), that Alexander went to Samaria to chastise the inhabitants, who had burnt his deputy, Andromachus, to death.

[376] From early times the Athenians kept two sacred vessels for state purposes, the one called the _Paralus_ and the other _Salaminia_. In the earliest times the former was used for coasting purposes, and the latter for the journey to Salamis. Hence their respective names. See Dr. Smith’s _Dict. of Antiquities_. Aeschines, in his oration against Ctesiphon (p. 550), asserts that he was informed by the seamen of the _Paralus_ that Demosthenes on this occasion sent a letter to Alexander soliciting pardon and favour.

[377] Cf. Aelian, _Varia Historia_, i. 25; _Curtius_, iv. 34.

[378] Beroea was a city of Macedonia, on the Astraeus, a tributary of the Haliacmon, about 20 miles from the sea.

[379] Other historians call this queen Cleopatra. She was the daughter of a Macedonian named Attalus. Plutarch (_Alex._, 9 and 10) says that she was cruelly put to death by Olympias during Alexander’s absence. _Justin_ (ix. 7; xi. 2) states that Olympias first slew her daughter on her mother’s bosom and then had Cleopatra hanged; while Alexander put to death Caranus, the infant son of Philip and Cleopatra. _Pausanias_ (viii. 7) says that Olympias caused Cleopatra and her infant son to be roasted on a brazen vessel. Cf. Aelian (_Varia Historia_, xiii. 35).

[380] This king was brother of Alexander’s mother Olympias, and husband of Cleopatra the daughter of Philip and Olympias. He crossed over into Italy to aid the Tarentines against the Lucanians and Bruttians, but was eventually defeated and slain near Pandosia, B.C. 326.

[381] June-July, B.C. 331.

[382] We learn, from _Curtius_ (iv. 37), that Alexander took eleven days to march from Phoenicia to the Euphrates.

[383] _Curtius_ (iv. 37) says that Tigris is the Persian word for _arrow_; and that the river was so named on account of the swiftness of its current. The Hebrew name is Chiddekel, which means _arrow_. See Gen. ii. 14; and Dan. x. 4, where it is called _the great river_. The name Tigris is derived from the Zend _Tighra_, which comes from the Sanscrit _Tig_, to sharpen. It is now called Dijleh. It joins the Euphrates 90 miles from the sea, and the united stream is called Shat-el-Arab. Its entire length is 1,146 miles. In ancient times the two rivers had distinct mouths. So the Rhon formerly had several mouths. See _Livy_, xxi. 26. _Strabo_ (iv. 1, 8) says that Timaeus gave it five mouths; Polybius gives it two; others give seven.

[384] This eclipse occurred September 20th, B.C. 331.

[385] The part of Assyria lying between the Upper Tigris and the Lycus was called Aturia.

[386] Called Carduchi by Xenophon. These mountains separate Assyria and Mesopotamia from Media and Armenia.

[387] Cf. Aelian (_Varia Historia_, xii. 38).

[388] Arachosia comprised what is now the south-east part of Afghanistan and the north-east part of Beloochistan.

[389] Aria comprised the west and north-west part of Afghanistan and the east part of Khorasan.

[390] Parthia is the modern Khorasan. Hyrcania was the country south and south-east of the Caspian Sea. The Tapurians dwelt in the north of Media, on the borders of Parthia between the Caspian passes. Cf. _Ammianus_, xxiii. 6.

[391] The Cadusians lived south-west of the Caspian, the Albanians on the west of the same sea, in the south-east part of Georgia, and the Sacesinians in the north-east of Armenia, on the river Kur.

[392] The Red Sea was the name originally given to the whole expanse of sea to the west of India as far as Africa. The name was subsequently given to the Arabian Gulf exclusively. In Hebrew it is called _Yam-Suph_ (Sea of Sedge, or a seaweed resembling wool). The Egyptians called it the Sea of Weeds.

[393] The Uxians occupied the north-west of Persis, and Susiana was the country to the north and west of Persis.

[394] The Sitacenians lived in the south of Assyria. ἐτετάχατο is the Ionic form for τεταγμένοι ἦσαν.

[395] The Greeks called this country Mesopotamia because it lies between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. In the Bible it is called Paddan-Aram (the plain of _Aram_, which is the Hebrew name of Syria). In Gen. xlviii. 7 it is called merely _Paddan_, the plain. In Hos. xii. 12, it is called the _field of Aram_, or, as our Bible has it, the _country of Syria_. Elsewhere in the Bible it is called _Aram-naharaim_, Aram of the two rivers, which the Greeks translated Mesopotamia. It is called “_the Island_,” by Arabian geographers.

[396] _Curtius_ (iv. 35 and 45) states that Darius had 200,000 infantry, 45,000 cavalry, and 200 scythed chariots; _Diodorus_ (xvii. 53) says, 800,000 infantry, 200,000 cavalry, and 200 scythed chariots; _Justin_ (xi. 12) gives 400,000 foot and 100,000 horse; and Plutarch (_Alex._, 31) speaks of a million of men. For the chariots cf. Xenophon (_Anab._, i. 8, 10); _Livy_, xxxvii. 41.

[397] This is the first instance on record of the employment of elephants in battle.

[398] This river is now called Ghasir, a tributary of the Great Zab. The village Gaugamela was in the district of Assyria called Aturia, about 69 miles from the city of Arbela, now called Erbil.

[399] About 7 miles.

[400] Xenophon (_Anab._, iii. 4, 35) explains why this was so.

[401] σφεῖς here stands for αὐτοί.

[402] See note 252 to ii. 10 supra.

[403] These people were a Scythian tribe leading a nomadic life east of the Caspian. They are called Daoi by _Herodotus_, i. 125; Dahae by _Ammianus_, xxii. 8, 21; _Livy_, xxxv. 48; xxxvii. 38; Vergil (_Aeneid_, viii. 728); _Pliny_, vi. 19; _Strabo_, xi. 7. They are mentioned in Ezra iv. 9 as subjects of Persia. The district is now called Daikh. See Fürst’s _Hebrew Lexicon_, sub voce דֶּֽה.

[404] A title of honour. Curtius says that they numbered 15,000.

[405] Cf. _Herodotus_, vii. 41.

[406] This people lived to the south of the Caspian.

[407] “Several names of various contingents stated to have been present in the field are not placed in the official return—thus the Sogdiani, the Arians, and the Indian mountaineers are mentioned by _Arrian_ as having joined Darius (iii. 8); the Kossaeans by _Diodorus_ (xvii. 59); the Sogdiani, Massagatae, Belitae, Kossaeans, Gortyae, Phrygians, and Kataonians, by _Curtius_ (iv. 12).”—_Grote_.

[408] This distinguished general succeeded Antipater as regent of Macedonia, but was overcome by Cassander, the son of the former, and became subordinate to him.

[409] There were thus six taxeis, or brigades of foot Companions, as they were called, in the phalanx of infantry at the battle of Arbela. Arrian’s description of the battle at the Granicus (i. 14) seems to be erroneous in some of the words of the text; yet it may be gathered from it that there were also six taxeis in Alexander’s phalanx on that occasion also.

[410] See Arrian’s _Tactics_, 29.

[411] Cf. _Diodorus_ (xvii. 57).

[412] See Donaldson’s _New Cratylus_, sect. 178.

[413] Cf. _Curtius_, iv. 35. “Equitibus equisque tegumenta erant ex ferreis laminis serie inter se connexis.”

[414] Compare the uselessness of the Persian scythed chariots at the battle of Cunaxa. See Xenophon (_Anabasis_, i. 8). So also at the battle of Magnesia between Scipio and Antiochus. See _Livy_, xxxvii. 41.

[415] πεφρικυῖα, imitated from Homer (_Iliad_, iv. 282). Cf. Vergil (_Aeneid_, x. 178, _horrentibus hastis_); _Livy_, xliv. 41 (_horrendis hastis_).

[416] _Curtius_ (iv. 58, 59) and _Diodorus_ (xvii. 60) describe quite an Homeric battle, Darius hurling a spear at Alexander, and Alexander hurling his at Darius and killing his charioteer. They say that the Persians mistook the fall of the Charioteer for that of the king, and fled, carrying Darius with them.

[417] _Curtius_ (iv. 59) and _Diodorus_ (xvii. 60) say that so thick a cloud of dust was raised by the mighty mass of fugitives, that nothing could be clearly distinguished, and that thus the Macedonians lost the track of Darius. The noise of the shouting and the cracking of whips served as guides to the pursuers.

[418] Sisygambis, the mother of Darius, whom these Persians were especially anxious to liberate from the custody of the Macedonians, refused to go with them. See _Diodorus_ and _Curtius_.

[419] Arrian does not say much about this vigorous charge of Mazaeus, the commander of the Persian right wing. See _Curtius_ (iv. 60); _Diodorus_ (xvii. 60).

[420] We learn from _Diodorus_ and _Curtius_ that Parmenio had driven Mazaeus back before Alexander’s arrival.

[421] The Lycus, now called the Great Zab, is a tributary of the Tigris. Xenophon calls it Zabatus (_Anab._, ii. 5). The Greek _Lycus_ is a translation of the Syrian _Zaba_ (wolf).

[422] About sixty-nine miles. Cf. _Strabo_ (xvi. 1, 3).

[423] ἐλινύσας. This is an Ionic word used by _Herodotus_ (viii. 71, etc.), and rarely in Attic poets and later prose writers.

[424] See _Arrian_, ii. 11 supra.

[425] _Curtius_ (iv. 63) says that 40,000 of the Persians were slain, and that less than 300 Macedonians were killed. _Diodorus_ (xvii. 61) states that more than 90,000 Persians and 500 Macedonians were slain.

[426] September 331 B.C. Cf. Plutarch (_Alex._, 31).

[427] For this prediction, see iii. 7 supra.

[428] As to the kinsmen and apple-bearers, see iii. 11 supra.

[429] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 63) and _Curtius_ (v. 6) state that from the treasure captured in Babylon, Alexander distributed to each Macedonian horseman about £24, to each of the Grecian horsemen £20, to each of the Macedonian infantry £8, and to the allied infantry two months’ pay.

[430] Belus, or Bel, the supreme deity of the Babylonians, was identical with the Syrian Baal. The signification of the name is _mighty_. Cf. _Herodotus_ (i. 181); _Diodorus_ (ii. 9); _Strabo_ (xvi. 1).

[431] See i. 17 supra.

[432] The Chaldees appear in Hebrew under the name of _Casdim_, who seem to have originally dwelt in Carduchia, the northern part of Assyria. The Assyrians transported these rude mountaineers to the plains of Babylonia (Isa. xxiii. 13). The name of Casdim, or Chaldees, was applied to the inhabitants of Mesopotamia (Gen. xi. 28); the inhabitants of the Arabian desert in the vicinity of Edom (Job i. 17); those who dwelt near the river Chaboras (Ezek. i. 3; xi. 24); and the priestly caste who had settled at a very early period in Babylon, as we are informed by Diodorus and Eusebius. Herodotus says that these priests were dedicated to Belus. It is proved by inscriptions that the ancient language was retained as a learned and religious literature. This is probably what is meant in Daniel i. 4 by “the book and tongue of the Casdim.” Cf. _Diodorus_ (ii. 29-31); _Ptolemy_ (v. 20, 3); and Cicero (_De Divinatione_, i. 1). See Fürst’s _Hebrew Lexicon_, sub voce כֶּֽשֶׂד.

[433] In the Bible this city is called Shushan. Near it was the fortress of Shushan, called in our Bible _the Palace_ (Neh. i. 2; Esth. ii. 8). Susa was situated on the Choaspes, a river remarkable for the excellence of its water, a fact referred to by _Tibullus_ (iv. 1, 140) and by Milton (_Paradise Reg._, iii. 288). The name Shushan is derived from the Persian word for lily, which grew abundantly in the vicinity. The ruins of the palace mentioned in Esther i. have recently been explored, and were found to consist of an immense hall, the roof of which was supported by a central group of thirty-six pillars arranged in the form of a square. This was flanked by three porticoes, each containing two rows of six pillars. Cf. _Strabo_ (xv. 7, 28).

[434] The name of the viceroy was Abulites (_Curtius_, v. 8).

[435] If these were Attic talents, the amount would be equivalent to £11,600,000; but if they were Babylonian or Aeginetan talents, they were equal to £19,000,000. Cf. Plutarch (_Alex._, 36, 37); _Justin_ (xi. 14); and _Curtius_ (v. 8). _Diodorus_ (xvii. 66) tells us that 40,000 talents were of uncoined gold and silver, and 9,000 talents of gold bearing the effigy of Darius.

[436] Cf. _Arrian_ (vii. 19); _Pausanias_ (i. 8, 5); Pliny (_Nat. Hist._, xxxiv. 9); _Valerius Maximus_ (ii. 10, 1). For Harmodius and Aristogeiton see _Thucydides_, vi. 56-58.

[437] Polis meant in early times a particular part of Athens, viz. the citadel, usually called the Acropolis. Cf. Aristophanes (_Lysistrata_, 245 et passim).

[438] Demeter and Persephone.

[439] About £730,000.

[440] Antipater had been left by Alexander regent of Macedonia. Agis III., king of Sparta, refused to acknowledge Alexander’s hegemony, and after a hard struggle was defeated and slain by Antipater at Megalopolis, B.C. 330. See _Diodorus_, xvii. 63; _Curtius_, vi. 1 and 2.

[441] According to _Curtius_ (v. 6) these forces amounted to nearly 15,000 men. Amyntas also brought with him fifty sons of the chief men in Macedonia, who wished to serve as royal pages. Cf. _Diodorus_, xvii. 64.

[442] A river flowing through Susiana, formed by the junction of the Eulaeus and Coprates.

[443] Cf. _Strabo_, xv. 3.

[444] πλεονεκτούμενοι, with dative, defrauded of. Cf. _Demosthenes_, 1035, 26.

[445] γέρα. An Homeric expression.

[446] Named Sisygambis (_Curtius_, v. 11).

[447] This was the Araxes. See _Strabo_, xv. 3.

[448] Notice the use of the adverb πρίν with the genitive, instead of the preposition πρό. Cf. Pindar (_Pythia_, iv. 76) πρὶν ὥρας.

[449] _Curtius_ (v. 16) says that Ariobarzanes after a bloody contest got away through the Macedonian lines, with about 40 horsemen and 5,000 foot, and made for Persepolis. Being shut out of that fortress, he was overtaken and slain with all his companions. Cf. _Diodorus_ (xvii. 68).

[450] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 69) and _Justin_ (xi. 14) state that on approaching Persepolis, Alexander met 800 Grecian captives, mutilated by loss of arms, legs, eyes, ears, or other members. _Curtius_ (v. 17-19) says there were 4,000 of them. Alexander offered to send these men home, with means of future support; but they preferred to remain in Persis. The king gave them money, clothing, cattle, and land.

[451] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 71) and _Curtius_ (v. 20) both state that the amount of treasure captured at Persepolis was 120,000 talents, or £27,600,000. In his own letter Alexander stated that there was sufficient treasure and valuable property to load 10,000 mule carts and 5,000 camels (Plutarch, _Alex._, 37). Curtius tells us that 6,000 talents were captured at Pasargadae.

[452] Pasargadae was the old capital of Persia, founded by Cyrus; but its place was afterwards taken by Persepolis.

[453] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 70, 71) and _Curtius_ (v. 20, 22) say that Alexander delivered Persepolis to his soldiers to pillage, and that he ordered a general massacre of the inhabitants. These authors agree with Plutarch (_Alex._, 38) in asserting that in a drunken revel he was instigated by the courtesan Thais to set fire to the palace, and accompanied her to commence the act of destruction. See _Dryden’s_ famous ode. But Arrian’s account establishes the fact that the fire was the result of a deliberate plan. As regards the massacre, _Plutarch_ (37) expressly states that Alexander wrote home that he ordered it from motives of policy.

[454] This was the principal pass through the Elburz mountains from Media into Hyrcania and Parthia.

[455] This was the capital of Media, called in Chaldee _Achmetha_ (Ezra vi. 2). The present city of Hamadan is on the same site. It is situated at the foot of Mount Orontes, and was used by the Persian and Parthian kings as their summer residence. It was surrounded by seven walls, each overtopping the one before it, from the outer to the inner, crowned with battlements of different colours. Its citadel was used as a royal treasury. Below it stood a splendid palace, with silver tiles, and adorned with wainscotings, capitals, and entablatures of gold and silver. These treasures, to the value of 4,000 talents, were coined into money by Antiochus the Great of Syria. See _Herodotus_, i. 98; _Polybius_, x. 27.

[456] This tribe lived in the mountains between Media and Persia.

[457] £1,700,000.

[458] _Curtius_ (v. 23) says that 6,000 Grecian mercenaries under Plato the Athenian met Alexander in Media, having marched up from Cilicia.

[459] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 80) says that the amount of treasure deposited at Ecbatana was 180,000 talents or £41,400,000.

[460] A large city in the extreme north of Media, mentioned in the Book of Tobit. It was famous in the Middle Ages under the name of Rai. The ruins of Rai lie south-east of Teheran.

[461] ἔστε generally means _until_. In its present use cf. ii. 11 supra, ἔστε μὲν φάος ἦν.

[462] The Drangians lived in a part of Ariana west of Arachosia.

[463] _Justin_ (xi. 15) and _Curtius_ (v. 34) state that Darius was bound in chains of gold. The former says that the name of the place was Thara in Parthia, where the king was arrested. Probably these chains were those worn by the king or his nobles, according to the Persian custom. This is the only sentence in Arrian where περὶ suffers anastrophe, coming after the noun.

[464] Plutarch (_Alex._, 42) says that Alexander rode 3,300 stades, or about 400 miles, in eleven days. In the next chapter he says that only sixty of his men were able to keep up with him in the pursuit.

[465] _Curtius_ (v. 24-38) gives very ample details of what occurred during the last days of Darius. Cf. _Diodorus_ (xvii. 73); _Justin_ (xi. 15).

[466] The Persian kings were buried at Persepolis. See _Diodorus_, xvii. 71. Plutarch (_Alex._, 43) says that Alexander sent the corpse of Darius to his mother.

[467] In the year B.C. 330, the first of Hecatombaion fell on the first of July.

[468] Darius came to the throne B.C. 336.

[469] In 2 Kings xi. 4, 19 the word translated _captains_ in our Bible is _Carim_, the Carians. These men formed the body-guard of the usurper Athaliah, who stood in need of foreign mercenaries. David had a body-guard of Philistines and Cretans. The Carians served as mercenaries throughout the ancient world, as we learn from _Thucydides_, i. 8; _Herodotus_, i. 171; ii. 152; v. 111; _Strabo_, xiv. 2. The Lydians appear in the Bible under the name of _Lud_ (Isa. lxvi. 19). _Herodotus_ (i. 94) gives an account of the colonization of Umbria by the Lydians, from which sprung the state of the Etruscans. Hence Vergil (_Aeneid_, ii. 782) speaks of the “_Lydius Tybris_.” See also _Aeneid_, viii. 479; Horace (_Satires_, i. 6, 1); Tacitus (_Annals_, iv. 55); Dionysius (_Archaeologia Romana_, i. 28).

[470] He married Barsine, eldest daughter of Darius (_Arrian_, vii. 4 infra). She was also called Arsinoe and Stateira.

[471] According to _Curtius_ (vi. 6-10) the soldiers were very desirous of returning home; but Alexander made an harangue and induced them to advance into Hyrcania.

[472] The modern Balkh.

[473] The Caspian.

[474] _Diodorus_ (xvii. 75) calls this river Stiboetis; _Curtius_ (vi. 10) calls it Ziobetis.

[475] _Krüger_ has ἐνταῦθα instead of τούτῳ.

[476] _Curtius_ (vi. 14) says Artabazus had nine sons, one of whom, Pharnabazus, was the admiral of the Persian fleet. See _Arrian_ (ii. 1; ii. 2; iii. 2 supra).

[477] Cf. _Curtius_, vi. 16.

[478] Sinope was a prosperous colony of Miletus on the Euxine. It is still called Sinoub. It was the birthplace of Diogenes.

[479] Chalcedon was a colony of Megara, situated on the Propontis at the entrance of the Bosporus, nearly opposite Byzantium.

[480] Areia occupied what is now the east part of Khorasan, and the west and north-west of Afghanistan. Susia is the modern Tus.