Chapter XX (3)

The genus _Hygrophorus_ is one which presents some difficulties in the case of some of the species, especially to beginners, and plants need to be studied in the fresh condition to understand the most important character which separates it from certain of the other white-spored agarics. The substance of the pileus is continuous with that of the stem, that is, the stem is not easily separated from the cap at the point of junction, but is more or less tenacious. The gills may be adnexed, adnate, sinuate, or decurrent, but what is important they are usually rather distant, the edge is acute or sharp, and gradually thickened toward the junction with the cap, so that a section of the gill is more or less triangular. This is brought about by the fact that the substance of the cap extends downward into the gill between the laminæ or surfaces of the gill. But the most important character for determining the genus is the fact that the surfaces of the gills become rather of a waxy consistency at maturity, so that they appear to be full of a watery substance though they do not bleed, and the surface of the gill can be rather easily removed, leaving the projecting line of the _trama_. This is more marked in some species than in others. The waxy consistency of the gills then, with the gills acute at the edge, broad at the point of attachment to the pileus, and the gills being rather widely separated are the important characters in determining the species which belong to this genus. The nearest related genus is Cantharellus, which, however, has blunt and forked gills. A number of the plants are brilliantly colored.

=Hygrophorus chrysodon= (Batsch.) Fries. =Edible.=--This plant has about the same range as _Hygrophorus eburneus_, though it is said to be rare. It is a very pretty plant and one quite easily recognised because of the uniform white ground color of the entire plant when fresh, and the numerous golden floccules or squamules scattered over the cap and the stem. The name _chrysodon_ means golden tooth, and refers to these numerous golden flecks on the plant. A form of the plant, variety _leucodon_, is said to occur in which these granules are white. The plant is 4--7 cm. high, the cap 4--7 cm. broad, and the stem 6--10 mm. in thickness. The plants grow on the ground in the woods, or rather open places, during late summer and autumn.

The =pileus= is convex, then expanded, the margin strongly involute when young, and unrolling as the cap expands, very viscid, so that particles of dirt and portions of leaves, etc., cling to it in drying. The golden or light yellow granules on the surface are rather numerous near the margin of the pileus, but are scattered over the entire surface. On the margin they sometimes stand in concentric rows close together. The =gills= are white, distant, decurrent, 3--6 mm. broad, white, somewhat yellowish in age and in drying, and connected by veins. The =spores= white, oval to ovate, the longer ones approaching elliptical, 6--10 × 5--6 µ.

The =stem= is soft, spongy within, nearly equal, white, the yellowish granules scattered over the surface, but more numerous toward the apex, where they are often arranged in the form of a ring. When the plant is young these yellow granules or squamules on the stem and the upper surface of the inrolled margin of the pileus meet, forming a continuous layer in the form of a veil, which becomes spread out in the form of separated granules as the pileus expands, and no free collar is left on the stem.

Figure 115 is from plants (No. 3108, C. U. herbarium) collected in October, 1898, in woods, and by roadsides, Ithaca, N. Y.

=Hygrophorus eburneus= (Bulliard) Fries. =Edible.=--This plant is widely distributed in Europe and America. It is entirely white, of medium size, very viscid or glutinous, being entirely covered with a coating of gluten, which makes it very slippery in handling. The odor is mild and not unpleasant like that of a closely related species, _H. cossus_. The plants are 6--15 cm. high, the cap is from 3--8 cm. broad, and the stem 3--8 mm. in thickness. It grows on the ground in woods, or in open grassy places.

The =pileus= is fleshy, moderately thick, sometimes thin, convex to expanded, the margin uneven or sometimes wavy, smooth, and shining. When young the margin of the cap is incurved. The =gills= are strongly decurrent, distant, with vein-like elevations near the stem. =Spores= rather long, oval, 6--10 × 5--6 µ, granular. The =stem= varies in length, it is spongy to stuffed within, sometimes hollow and tapers below. The slime which envelops the plant is sometimes so abundant as to form a veil covering the entire plant and extending across from the margin of the cap to the stem, covering the gills. As the plant dries this disappears, and does not leave an annulus on the stem.

Figure 116 is from a photograph of plants (No. 2534, C. U. herbarium) collected in Enfield Gorge near Ithaca, N. Y., Nov. 5th, 1898.

=Hygrophorus fuligineus= Frost. =Edible.=--The smoky hygrophorus was described in the 35th Report of the N. Y. State Museum, p. 134. It is an American plant, and was first collected at West Albany, during the month of November. It is one of the largest species of the genus, and grows on the ground in woods, in late autumn. The plants are 5--10 cm. high, the cap from 3--10 cm. broad, and the stem 1--2 cm. in thickness. The large size of the plant together with the smoky, brown, viscid cap aid in the recognition of the plant.

The =pileus= is convex, becoming expanded, smooth, very viscid, dull reddish brown or smoky brown, darker on the center; the margin of the pileus is even in young specimens, becoming irregular in others; and in age often elevated more or less. The =gills= are broad, distant, usually decurrent, often connected by veins, white, with yellowish tinge in drying. The =spores= oval to elliptical, 8--12 × 5--7 µ. The =stem= is stout, sometimes ascending, equal, or enlarged in the middle, or tapering toward the base, solid, viscid like the pileus, usually white, sometimes tinged with the same color as pileus, somewhat yellowish tinged in drying.

Figure 117 is from plants (No. 2546, C. U. herbarium) collected in Enfield Gorge near Ithaca, Nov. 5, 1898.

=Hygrophorus pratensis= (Pers.) Fr. =Edible.=--This hygrophorus grows on the ground in pastures, old fields, or in waste places, or in thin and open woods, from mid-summer to late autumn. The plants are 3--5 cm. high, the cap 2--5 cm. or more broad, and the stem 6--12 mm. in thickness. The cap being thick at the center, and the stem being usually stouter at the apex, often gives to the plant a shape like that of a top.

The =pileus= is hemispherical, then convex, then nearly or quite expanded, white, or with various shades of yellow or tawny, or buff, not viscid, often cracking in dry weather. Flesh very thick at the center, thinner at the margin. The flesh is firm and white. The =gills= are stout, distant, long decurrent, white or yellowish, and arcuate when the margin of the pileus is incurved in the young state, then ascending as the pileus takes the shape of an inverted cone. The =gills= are connected across the interspaces by vein-like folds, or elevations. The =spores= are nearly globose to ovate or nearly elliptical, white, 6--8 × 5--6 µ. The =stem= is smooth, firm outside and spongy within, tapering downward.

=Hygrophorus miniatus= Fr. The vermilion hygrophorus is a very common plant in the woods during the summer. The cap and stem are bright red, sometimes vermilion. The gills are yellow and often tinged with red. The gills are adnate or sinuate. The plant is a small one but often abundant, and measures from 3--5 cm. high, and the cap 2--4 cm. broad. =Hygrophorus coccineus= (Schaeff.) Fr., is a somewhat larger plant and with a scarlet cap, which becomes yellowish in age, and the gills are adnate. =Hygrophorus conicus= (Scop.) Fr., is another bright red plant with a remarkable conical pileus, and the gills are annexed to free.

=Hygrophorus psittacinus= Fr., is a remarkably pretty plant, the cap being from bell-shaped to expanded, umbilicate, striate, and covered with a greenish slime. It occurs in woods and open places. The prevailing color is yellow, tinged with green, but it varies greatly, sometimes yellow, red, white, etc., but nearly always is marked by the presence of the greenish slime, the color of this disappearing as the plant dries. It occurs in pastures, open woods, etc., from mid-summer to autumn.

=Hygrophorus hypothejus= Fr., is another very variable plant in color as well as in size, varying from yellow, orange, reddish, sometimes paler, usually first grayish when covered with the olive colored slime. The gills are decurrent, white, then yellow. It occurs in autumn.

LACTARIUS Fr.

The genus _Lactarius_ is easily distinguished from nearly all the other agarics by the presence of a milky or colored juice which exudes from wounded, cut, or broken places on the fresh plant. There are a few of the species of the genus _Mycena_ which exude a watery or colored juice where wounded, but these are easily told from _Lactarius_ because of their small size, more slender habit, and bell-shaped cap. By careful observation of these characters it is quite an easy matter to tell whether or not the plant at hand is a _Lactarius_. In addition to the presence of this juice or milk as it is commonly termed, the entire plant while firm is quite brittle, especially the gills. There are groups of rounded or vesiculose cells intermingled with thread-like cells in the substance of the cap. This latter character can only be seen on examination with the microscope. The brittleness of the plant as well as the presence of these groups of vesiculose cells is shared by the genus _Russula_, which is at once separated from _Lactarius_ by the absence of a juice which exudes in drops.

In determining the species it is a very important thing to know the taste of the juice or of the fresh plant, whether it is peppery, or bitter, or mild, that is, tasteless. If one is careful not to swallow any of the juice or flesh of the plant no harm results from tasting any of the plants, provided they are not tasted too often during a short time, beyond the unpleasant sensation resulting from tasting some of the very "hot" kinds. It is important also to know the color of the milk when it first exudes from wounds and if it changes color on exposure to the air. These tests of the plant should be made of course while it is fresh. The spores are white, globose or nearly so in all species, and usually covered with minute spiny processes. There are a large number of species. Peck, 38th Report, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 111--133, describes 40 American species.

=Lactarius volemus= Fr. =Edible.=--This species is by some termed the orange brown lactarius because of its usual color. It was probably termed _Lactarius volemus_ because of the voluminous quantity of milk which exudes where the plant is broken or bruised, though it is not the only species having this character. In fresh, young plants, a mere crack or bruise will set loose quantities of the milky juice which drops rapidly from the plant. The plant is about the size of _Lactarius deliciosus_ and occurs in damp woods, where it grows in considerable abundance from July to September, several usually growing near each other. The =pileus= is convex, then expanded, often with a small elevation (umbo) at the center, or sometimes plane, and when old a little depressed in the center, smooth or somewhat wrinkled. The cap is dull orange or tawny, the shade of color being lighter in some plants and darker in others. The flesh is white and quite firm. The =gills= are white, often tinged with the same color as the pileus, but much lighter; they are adnate or slightly decurrent. The =stem= is usually short, but varies from 3--10 × 1--2 cm. It is colored like the pileus, but a lighter shade.

The milk is white, abundant, mild, not unpleasant to the taste, but sticky as it dries. This plant has also long been known as one of the excellent mushrooms for food both in Europe and America. Peck states that there are several plants which resemble _Lactarius volemus_ in color and in the milk, but that no harm could come from eating them. There is one with a more reddish brown pileus, _Lactarius rufus_, found sparingly in the woods, but which has a very peppery taste. It is said by some to be poisonous.

=Lactarius corrugis= Pk. =Edible.=--This species occurs with _Lactarius volemus_ and very closely resembles it, but it is of a darker color, and the pileus is more often marked by prominent wrinkles, from which character the plant has derived its specific name. It is perhaps a little stouter plant than _L. volemus_, and with a thicker cap. The surface of the =pileus= seems to be covered with a very fine velvety tomentum which glistens as the cap is turned in the light. The =gills= are much darker than in _L. volemus_. The plants are usually clearly separated on account of these characters, yet there are occasionally light colored forms of _L. corrugis_ which are difficult to distinguish from dark forms of _L. volemus_, and this fact has aroused the suspicion that _corrugis_ is only a form of _volemus_.

The milk is very abundant and in every respect agrees with that of _L. volemus_. I do not know that any one has tested _L. corrugis_ for food. But since it is so closely related to _L. volemus_ I tested it during the summer of 1899 in the North Carolina mountains. I consider it excellent. The methods of cooking there were rather primitive. It was sliced and fried with butter and salt. It should be well cooked, for when not well done the partially raw taste is not pleasant. The plant was very abundant in the woods, and for three weeks an abundance was served twice a day for a table of twelve persons. The only disagreeable feature about it is the sticky character of the milk, which adheres in quantity to the hands and becomes black. This makes the preparation of the plant for the broiler a rather unpleasant task.

Figure 118 is from plants (No. 3910, C. U. herbarium) collected in the woods at Blowing Rock, during September, 1899. Just before the exposure was made to get the photograph several of the plants were wounded with a pin to cause the drops of milk to exude, as is well shown in the illustration.

The dark color of the lamellæ in _L. corrugis_ is due to the number of brown cystidia or setæ, in the hymenium, which project above the surface of the gills, and they are especially abundant on the edge of the gills. These setæ are long fusoid, 80--120 × 10--12 µ. The variations in the color of the gills, in some plants the gills being much darker than in others, is due to the variations either in the number of these setæ or to the variation in their color. Where the cystidia are fewer in number or are lighter in color the lamellæ are lighter colored. Typical forms of _Lactarius volemus_ have similar setæ, but they are very pale in color and not so abundant over the surface of the gills. In the darker forms of _L. volemus_ the setæ are more abundant and darker in color, approaching those found in _L. corrugis_. These facts, supported by the variation in the color of the pileus in the two species and the variations in the rugosities of the pileus, seem to indicate that the two species are very closely related.

=Lactarius lignyotus= Fr.--This is known as the sooty lactarius and occurs in woods along with the smoky lactarius. It is distinguished from the latter by the dark brown color of the pileus and by the presence usually of rugose wrinkles over the center of the cap. In size it agrees with the smoky lactarius.

The =pileus= is convex, then plane, or somewhat depressed in the center, dry, sometimes with a small umbo, dark brown or sooty (chocolate to seal brown as given in Ridgeway's nomenclature of colors), covered with a very fine tomentum which has the appearance of a bloom. The margin of the cap, especially in old plants, is somewhat wavy or plicate as in _Lactarius fuliginosus_. The =gills= are moderately crowded when young, becoming distant in older plants, white, then cream color or yellow, changing to reddish or salmon color where bruised. The =spores= are yellowish in mass, faintly so under the microscope, globose, strongly echinulate, 6--10 µ. The taste is mild, or sometimes slowly and slightly acrid. The plants from North Carolina showed distinctly the change to reddish or salmon color when the gills were bruised, and the taste was noted as mild.

Figure 119 is from plants (No. 3864, C. U. herbarium) collected in the Blue Ridge Mountains, at Blowing Rock, N. C., September, 1899.

=Lactarius fuliginosus= Fr.--The smoky or dingy lactarius occurs in woods and open grassy places. It is widely distributed. The plants are 4--7 cm. high, the cap 3--5 cm. broad, and the stem 6--10 mm. in thickness. The light smoky color of the cap and stem, the dull yellowish white color of the gills, and in old plants the wavy margin of the cap make it comparatively easy to recognize the species.

The =pileus= is thin, at first firm, becoming soft, convex, then plane and often somewhat depressed in the center, usually even, dry, the margin in old plants crenately wavy, dull gray or smoky gray in color, with a fine down or tomentum. The =gills= are adnate, distant, more so in old plants, white, then yellowish, sometimes changing to salmon color or reddish where bruised. The =spores= are yellowish in mass, faintly yellow under the microscope, strongly echinulate or tuberculate, globose, 6--10 µ. The =stem= is usually paler than the pileus, firm, stuffed. The milk is white, slowly acrid to the taste.

Figure 120 is from plants (No. 3867, C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

=Lactarius gerardii= Pk.--This plant was described by Dr. Peck in the 26th Report, N. Y. State Mus., p. 65, and in the 28th Rept. p. 129. According to the descriptions it differs from _Lactarius fuliginosus_ only in the spores being white, the gills more distant, and the taste being constantly mild. Since the taste in _L. fuliginosus_ is sometimes mild, or slowly acrid, and the lamellæ in the older plants are more distant, the spores sometimes only tinged with yellow, there does not seem to be a very marked difference between the two species. In fact all three of these species, _fuliginosus_, _lignyotus_ and _gerardii_, seem to be very closely related. Forms of _fuliginosus_ approach _lignyotus_ in color, and the =pileus= sometimes is rugose wrinkled, while in _lignyotus_ pale forms occur, and the pileus is not always rugose wrinkled. The color of the bruised lamellæ is the same in the two last species and sometimes the change in color is not marked.

=Lactarius torminosus= (Schaeff.) Fr.--This plant is widely distributed in Europe, Asia, as well as in America. It is easily recognised by the uneven mixture of pink and ochraceous colors, and the very hairy or tomentose margin of the cap. The plants are 5--10 cm. high, the cap about the same breadth, and the stem 1--2 cm. in thickness. It occurs in woods on the ground during late summer and autumn.

The =pileus= is convex, depressed in the center, and the margin strongly incurved when young, the abundant hairs on the margin forming an apparent veil at this time which covers up the gills. The upper surface of the pileus is smooth, or sometimes more or less covered with a tomentum similar to that on the margin. The color is an admixture of ochraceous and pink hues, sometimes with concentric zones of darker shades. The =gills= are crowded, narrow, whitish, with a tinge of yellowish flesh color. The =stem= is cylindrical, even, hollow, whitish.

The milk is white, unchangeable, acrid to the taste. Figure 121, left hand plants, is from plants (No. 3911, C. U. herbarium) collected in the Blue Ridge Mountains, N. C., in September, 1899, and the right hand plant (No. 2960, C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca, N. Y.

=Lactarius piperatus= (Scop.) Fr.--This species is very hot and peppery to the taste, is of medium size, entirely white, depressed at the center, or funnel-shaped, with a short stem, and very narrow and crowded gills, and abundant white milk. The plants are 3--7 cm. high, the cap 8--12 cm. broad, and the stem 1--2 cm. in thickness. It grows in woods on the ground and is quite common, sometimes very common in late summer and autumn.

The =pileus= is fleshy, thick, firm, convex, umbilicate, and then depressed in the center, becoming finally more or less funnel-shaped by the elevation of the margin. It is white, smooth when young, in age sometimes becoming sordid and somewhat roughened. The =gills= are white, very narrow, very much crowded, and some of them forked, arcuate and then ascending because of the funnel-shaped pileus. The =spores= are _smooth_, oval, with a small point, 5--7 × 4--5 µ. The =stem= is equal or tapering below, short, solid.

The milk is white, unchangeable, very acrid to the taste and abundant. The plant is reported as edible. A closely related species is _L. pergamenus_ (Swartz) Fr., which resembles it very closely, but has a longer, stuffed stem, and thinner, more pliant pileus, which is more frequently irregular and eccentric, and not at first umbilicate. Figure 122 is from plants (No. 3887, C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

=Lactarius resimus= Fr.?--This plant is very common in the woods bordering a sphagnum moor at Malloryville, N. Y., ten miles from Ithaca, during July to September. I have found it at this place every summer for the past three years. It occurs also in the woods of the damp ravines in the vicinity of Ithaca. It was also abundant in the Blue Ridge Mountains of North Carolina, during September, 1899. The plants are large, the caps 10--15 cm. broad, the stem 5--8 cm. long, and 2--3 cm. in thickness.

The =pileus= is convex, umbilicate, then depressed and more or less funnel-shaped in age, white, in the center roughened with fibrous scales as the plant ages, the scales becoming quite stout in old plants. The scales are tinged with dull ochraceous or are light brownish in the older plants. The ochre colored scales are sometimes evident over the entire cap, even in young plants. In young plants the margin is strongly involute or inrolled, and a loose but thick veil of interwoven threads extends from the surface of the roll to the stem. This disappears as the margin of the cap unrolls with the expanding pileus. The margin of the pileus is often sterile, that is, it extends beyond the ends of the gills. The =gills= are white, stout, and broad, decurrent, some of them forked near the stem. When bruised, the gills after several hours become ochraceous brown. The spores are subglobose, minutely spiny, 8--12 µ. The =stem= is solid, cylindrical, minutely tomentose, spongy within when old.

The taste is very acrid, and the white milk not changing to yellow. While the milk does not change to yellow, broken portions of the plant slowly change to flesh color, then ochraceous brown. Figures 123, 124 are from plants collected in one of the damp gorges near Ithaca, during September, 1896. The forked gills, the strongly inrolled margin of the cap and veil of the young plants are well shown in the illustration.

=Lactarius chrysorrheus= Fr.--This is a common and widely distributed species, from small to medium size. The plants are 5--8 cm. high, the cap 5--10 cm. broad, and the stem 1--1.5 cm. in thickness. It grows in woods and groves during late summer and autumn.

The =pileus= is fleshy, of medium thickness, convex and depressed in the center from the young condition, and as the pileus expands the margin becomes more and more upturned and the depression deeper, so that eventually it is more or less broadly funnel-form. The color varies from white to flesh color, tinged with yellow sometimes in spots, and marked usually with faint zones of brighter yellow. The zones are sometimes very indistinct or entirely wanting. The =gills= are crowded, white then yellow, where bruised becoming yellowish, then dull reddish. The =stem= is equal or tapering below, hollow or stuffed, paler than the pileus, smooth (sometimes pitted as shown in the Fig. 125).

The plant is acrid to the taste, the milk white changing to citron yellow on exposure. Figure 125 is from plants (No. 3875, C. U. herbarium) collected in the Blue Ridge Mountains at Blowing Rock, N. C., September, 1899. The species was quite abundant in this locality during August and September, in chestnut groves, mixed woods, and borders of woods.

=Lactarius deliciosus= (L.) Fr. =Edible.=--_Lactarius deliciosus_ grows in damp woods, is widely distributed and sometimes is quite common. It occurs from July to October. It is one of the medium or large sized species, being 3--10 cm. high, the cap 5--12 cm. broad, and the stem 1--2 cm. in thickness. It is easily recognized by its orange color and the concentric zones of light and dark orange around on the pileus, and by the orange milk which is exuded where wounded.

The =pileus= is first convex, then slightly depressed in the center, becoming more expanded, and finally more or less funnel-shaped by the elevation of the margin. It is usually more or less orange in color or mottled with varying shades, and with concentric bands of a deeper color. The =gills= are yellowish orange often with darker spots. The =stem= is of the same color as the pileus but paler, sometimes with darker spots. The flesh of the plant is white, shaded with orange. In old plants the color fades out somewhat and becomes unevenly tinged with green, and bruised places become green. Peck states that when fresh the plant often has a slight acrid taste.

Being a widely distributed and not uncommon plant, and one so readily recognized, it has long been known in the old world as well as here. All writers on these subjects concur in recommending it for food, some pronouncing it excellent, some the most delicious known. Its name suggests the estimation in which it was held when christened.

=Lactarius chelidonium= Pk. =Edible.=--This pretty little _Lactarius_ was described by Peck in the 24th Report, N. Y. State Mus., p. 74. It is closely allied to _Lactarius deliciosus_, from which it is said to differ in its "more narrow lamellæ, differently colored milk, smaller spores." The plant is about 5 cm. high, the cap about 5 cm. broad, and the stem 1--1.5 cm. in thickness.

The =pileus= is fleshy, firm, convex and depressed in the center, smooth, slightly viscid when moist, "of a grayish green color with blue and yellow tints, and a few narrow zones on the margin." The =gills= are crowded, narrow, some of them forked at the base, and sometimes joining to form reticulations. The =spores= are yellowish. The short =stem= is nearly equal, smooth, hollow, and the same color as the pileus.

The taste is mild, the milk not abundant, and of a yellowish color, "resembling the juice of Celandine or the liquid secreted from the mouth of grasshoppers." Wounds on the plant are first of the color of the milk, changing on exposure to blue, and finally to green. The plant occurs during late summer and in the autumn in woods. Peck reported it first from Saratoga, N. Y. It has been found elsewhere in the State, and it has probably quite a wide distribution. I found it during September, 1899, in the Blue Ridge Mountains of N. C. Figure 1, plate 39, is from some of the water color drawings made by Mr. Franklin R. Rathbun.

FIG. 1.--Lactarius deliciosus.
FIG. 2.--L. chelidonium.
FIG. 3.--L. indigo.
Copyright 1900.]

=Lactarius indigo= (Schw.) Fr.--The indigo blue lactarius is a very striking and easily recognized plant because of the rich indigo blue color so predominant in the entire plant. It is not very abundant, but is widely distributed in North America. The plant is 5--7 cm. high, the cap 5--12 cm. broad, and the stem is 1--2 cm. in thickness. The plants occur during late summer and in the autumn.

The =pileus= when young is umbilicate, the margin involute, and in age the margin becomes elevated and then the pileus is more or less funnel-shaped. The indigo blue color is deeply seated, and the surface of the pileus has a silvery gray appearance through which the indigo blue color is seen. The surface is marked by concentric zones of a darker shade. In age the color is apt to be less uniformly distributed, it is paler, and the zones are fainter. The _gills_ are crowded, and when bruised, or in age, the indigo blue color changes somewhat to greenish. The milk is dark blue.

RUSSULA Pers.

The species of _Russula_ are very characteristic, and the genus is easily recognized in most cases after a little experience. In the very brittle texture of the plants the genus resembles _Lactarius_, and many of them are more brittle than the species of this genus. A section of the pileus shows under the microscope a similar vesicular condition, that is the grouping of large rounded cells together, with threads between. But the species of _Russula_ are at once separated from those of _Lactarius_ by the absence of a juice which exudes in drops from bruised parts of _Lactarius_. While some of the species are white and others have dull or sombre colors, many of the species of _Russula_ have bright, or even brilliant colors, as red, purple, violet, pink, blue, yellow, green. In determining many of the species, however, it is necessary to know the taste, whether mild, bitter, acrid, etc., and in this respect the genus again resembles _Lactarius_. The color of the gills as well as the color of the spores in mass should also be determined. The genus is quite a large one, and the American species are not well known, the genus being a difficult one. In Jour. Mycolog., =5=: 58--64, 1889, the characters of the tribes of Russula with descriptions of 25 species are quoted from Stevenson, with notes on their distribution in N. A. by MacAdam.

=Russula alutacea= Fr. =Edible.=--This handsome _Russula_ differs from the others described here in the color of the gills and spores. The plant is common and occurs in mixed woods during the summer and early autumn. It is 5--10 cm. high, the cap 5--12 cm. broad, and the stem 1.5--2.5 cm. in thickness.

The =pileus= is fleshy, oval to bell-shaped, becoming plane, and sometimes umbilicate. It is red or blood red in color, sometimes purple, and becoming pale in age, especially at the center. It is viscid when moist, the margin thin and striate-tuberculate. The =gills= are free from the stem, stout, broad, first white, becoming yellow, and in age ochraceous. The gills are all of the same length, not crowded, and they are connected by vein-like elevations over the surface. The =stem= is stout, solid, even, white, portions of the stem are red, sometimes purple.

The taste is mild, and the plant is regarded as one of the very good ones for food.

=Russula lepida= Fr. =Edible.=--This elegant _Russula_ occurs in birch woods or in mixed woods during late summer and autumn. It is 5--8 cm. high, the cap 6--8 cm. broad, and the stem 1--2 cm. in thickness.

The =pileus= is fleshy, convex, then expanded, obtuse, not shining, deep red, becoming pale in age, often whitish at the center, silky, in age the surface cracking, the margin blunt and not striate. The =gills= are rounded next the stem, thick, rather crowded, and sometimes forked, white, sometimes red on the edge near the margin of the pileus. The gills are often connected by vein-like elevations over the surface. The =stem= is equal, white or rose color. The taste is mild.

=Russula virescens= (Schaeff.) Fr. =Edible.=--This plant grows on the ground in woods or in grassy places in groves from July to September. The stem is short, 2--7 cm. long × 1--2 cm. thick, and the cap is 5--10 cm. broad. The plant is well known by the green color of the pileus and by the surface of the pileus being separated into numerous, quite regular, somewhat angular areas or patches, where the green color is more pronounced.

The =pileus= is first rounded, then convex and expanded, and when old somewhat depressed in the center. It is quite firm, dry, greenish, and the surface with numerous angular floccose areas or patches of usually a deeper green. Sometimes the pileus is said to be tinged with yellow. The =gills= are adnate, nearly free from the stem, and crowded. The =stem= is white and firm.

The greenish Russula, _Russula virescens_, like a number of other plants, has long been recommended for food, both in Europe and in this country. There are several species of _Russula_ in which the pileus is green, but this species is readily distinguished from them by the greenish floccose patches on the surface of the pileus. =Russula furcata= is a common species in similar situations, with forked gills, and the cap very variable in color, sometimes reddish, purple, purple brown, or in one form green. I know of the _Russula furcata_ having been eaten in rather small quantities, and while in this case no harm resulted the taste was not agreeable.

FIG. 1.--Russula virescens.
FIG. 2.--R. alutacea.
FIG. 3.--R. lepida.
FIG. 4.--R. emetica.
FIG. 5.--Yellow Russula.
FIG. 6.--R. adusta.
Copyright 1900.]

=Russula fragilis= (Pers.) Fr.--This plant is very common in damp woods, or during wet weather from July to September. It is a small plant and very fragile, as its name suggests, much more so than most other species. It is 2--4 cm. high, the cap 2--5 cm. broad, and the stem about 1 cm. in thickness.

The =pileus= is convex, sometimes slightly umbonate, then plane, and in age somewhat depressed. The cuticle peels off very easily. The color is often a bright red, or pink, sometimes purple or violet, and becomes paler in age. It is somewhat viscid when moist, and the margin is very thin and strongly striate and tuberculate, i. e., the ridges between the marginal furrows are tuberculate. The =gills= are lightly adnexed, thin, crowded, broad, all of the same length, white. The =stem= is usually white, sometimes more or less pink colored, spongy within, becoming hollow. The taste is very acrid.

=Russula emetica= Fr. =Poisonous.=--This _Russula_ has a very wide distribution and occurs on the ground in woods or open places during summer and autumn. It is a beautiful species and very fragile. The plants are 5--10 cm. high, the cap 5--10 cm. broad, and the stem 1--2 cm. in thickness. The =pileus= is oval to bell-shaped when young, becoming plane, and in age depressed. It is smooth, shining, the margin furrowed and tuberculate. The color is from pink or rosy when young to dark red when older, and fading to tawny or sometimes yellowish in age. The cuticle is easily separable as in _R. fragilis_, the flesh white, but reddish just beneath the cuticle. The =gills= are nearly free, broad, not crowded, white. The stem is stout, spongy within, white or reddish, fragile when old.

The plant is very acrid to the taste and is said to be poisonous, and to act as an emetic.

=Russula adusta= (Pers.) Fr.--This plant occurs on the ground in woods during late summer and in autumn. It is 3--6 cm. high, the cap 5--15 cm. broad, and the stem is 1--1.5 cm. in thickness.

The =pileus= is fleshy, firm, convex, depressed at the center, and when old more or less funnel-shaped from the upturning of the margin, which is at first incurved and smooth. It varies from white to gray and smoky color. The =gills= are adnate, or decurrent, thin, crowded, of unequal lengths, white, then becoming dark. The =stem= is colored like the pileus. The entire plant becomes darker in drying, sometimes almost black. It is near _Russula nigricans_, but is smaller, and does not have a red juice as _R. nigricans_ has.

CANTHARELLUS Adanson.

From the other white-spored agarics of a fleshy consistency _Cantharellus_ is distinguished by the form of the gills. The gills are generally forked, once or several times, in a dichotomous manner, though sometimes irregularly. They are blunt on the edge, not acute as in most of the other genera. The gills are usually narrow and in many species look like veins, folds, or wrinkles, but in some species, as in _Cantharellus aurantiacus_, they are rather thin and broad.

=Cantharellus cibarius= Fr. =Edible.=--This plant is known as the _chanterelle_. It has a very wide distribution and has long been regarded as one of the best of the edible mushrooms. Many of the writers on fungi speak of it in terms of high praise. The entire plant is a uniform rich chrome yellow. Sometimes it is symmetrical in form, but usually it is more or less irregular and unsymmetrical in form. The plants are 5--10 cm. high, the cap 4--8 cm. broad, and the stem short and rather thick.

The =pileus= is fleshy, rather thick, the margin thick and blunt and at first inrolled. It is convex, becoming expanded or sometimes depressed by the margin of the cap becoming elevated. The margin is often wavy or repand, and in irregular forms it is only produced at one side, or more at one side than at the other, or the cap is irregularly lobed. The =gills= are very narrow, stout, distant, more or less sinuous, forked or anastomosing irregularly, and because of the pileus being something like an inverted cone the gills appear to run down on the stem. The =spores= are faintly yellowish, elliptical, 7--10 µ. Figure 126 represents but a single specimen, and this one with a nearly lateral pileus.

=Cantharellus aurantiacus= Fr.--This orange cantharellus is very common, and occurs on the ground or on very rotten wood, logs, branches, etc., from summer to very late autumn. It is widely distributed in Europe and America. It is easily known by its dull orange or brownish pileus, yellow gills, which are thin and regularly forked, and by the pileus being more or less depressed or funnel-shaped. The plants are from 5--8 cm. high, the cap from 2--7 cm. broad, and the stem about 4--8 mm. in thickness.

The =pileus= is fleshy, soft, flexible, convex, to expanded, or obconic, plane or depressed, or funnel-shaped, the margin strongly inrolled when young, in age simply incurved, the margin plane or repand and undulate. The color varies from ochre yellow to dull orange, or orange ochraceous, raw sienna, and tawny, in different specimens. It is often brownish at the center. The surface of the pileus is minutely tomentose with silky hairs, especially toward the center, and sometimes smooth toward the margin. The flesh is 3--5 mm. at the center, and thin toward the margin. The gills are arcuate, decurrent, thin, the edge blunt, but not so much so as in a number of other species, crowded, regularly forked several times, at length ascending when the pileus is elevated at the margin. The color of the =gills= is orange to cadmium orange, or sometimes paler, cadmium yellow or deep chrome. The =stem= is clay color to ochre yellow, enlarged below, spongy, stuffed, fistulose, soft, fibrous, more or less ascending at the base.

The taste is somewhat nutty, sometimes bitterish. The plants in Fig. 127 (No. 3272, C. U. herbarium) were collected near Ithaca, October 7, 1899.

MARASMIUS Fr.

In this genus the plants are tough and fleshy or membranaceous, leathery and dry. They do not easily decay, but shrivel up in dry weather, and revive in wet weather, or when placed in water. This is an important character in distinguishing the genus. It is closely related to _Collybia_, from which it is difficult to separate certain species. On the other hand, it is closely related to _Lentinus_ and _Panus_, both of which are tough and pliant. In _Marasmius_, however, the substance of the pileus is separate from that of the stem, while in _Lentinus_ and _Panus_ it is continuous, a character rather difficult for the beginner to understand. The species of _Marasmius_, however, are generally much smaller than those of _Lentinus_ and _Panus_, especially those which grow on wood. The stem in _Marasmius_ is in nearly all species central, while in _Lentinus_ and _Panus_ it is generally more or less eccentric. Many of the species of the genus _Marasmius_ have an odor of garlic when fresh. Besides the fairy ring (_M. oreades_) which grows on the ground, _M. rotula_ is a very common species on wood and leaves. It has a slender, black, shining stem, and a brownish pileus usually with a black spot in the depression in the center. The species are very numerous. Peck, 23rd Report, N. Y. State Mus., p. 124--126, describes 8 species. Morgan Jour. Cinn. Soc. Nat. Hist. =6=: 189--194, describes 17 species.

=Marasmius oreades= Fr. =Edible.=--This is the well known "fairy ring" mushroom. It grows during the summer and autumn in grassy places, as in lawns, by roadsides, in pastures, etc. It appears most abundantly during wet weather or following heavy rains. It is found usually in circles, or in the arc of a circle, though few scattered plants not arranged in this way often occur. The plants are 7--10 cm. high, the cap 2--4 cm. broad, and the stem 3--4 mm. in thickness.

The =pileus= is convex to expanded, sometimes the center elevated, fleshy, rather thin, tough, smooth, buff color, or tawny or reddish, in age, or in drying, paler. When moist the pileus may be striate on the margin. The =gills= are broad, free or adnexed, rounded near the stem, white or dull yellowish. The =spores= are elliptical, 7--8 µ long. The =stem= is tough, solid, whitish.

This widely distributed fungus is much prized everywhere by those who know it. It is not the only fungus which appears in rings, so that this habit is not peculiar to this plant. Several different kinds are known to appear in rings at times. The appearance of the fungus in rings is due to the mode of growth of the mycelium or spawn in the soil.

Having started at a given spot the mycelium consumes the food material in the soil suitable for it, and the plants for the first year appear in a group. In the center of this spot the mycelium, having consumed all the available food, probably dies after producing the crop of mushrooms. But around the edge of the spot the mycelium or spawn still exists, and at the beginning of the next season it starts into growth and feeds on the available food in a zone surrounding the spot where it grew the previous year. This second year, then, the plants appear in a small ring. So in succeeding years it advances outward, the ring each year becoming larger. Where the plants appear only in the arc of a circle, something has happened to check or destroy the mycelium in the remaining arc of the circle.

It has been noted by several observers that the grass in the ring occupied by the mushrooms is often greener than that adjoining. This is perhaps due to some stimulus exerted by the mycelium of the fungus on the grass, or possibly the mycelium may in some way make certain foods available for the grass which gives an additional supply to it at this point.

Fig. 129 is from plants (No. 5503, C. U. herbarium) collected in a lawn, October 25, 1900, Ithaca.

Illustrations of some fine large rings formed by this fungus appeared in circular No. 13 by Mr. Coville, of the Division of Botany in the U. S. Dept. Agr.

=Marasmius cohærens= (Fr.) Bres. (_Mycena cohærens_ Fr. _Collybia lachnophylla_ Berk. _Collybia spinulifera_ Pk.)--This plant grows in dense clusters, ten to twenty individuals with their stems closely joined below and fastened together by the abundant growth of threads from the lower ends. From this character the name _cohærens_ was derived. The plants grow on the ground or on very rotten wood in woods during late spring and in the summer. The plant is not very common in this country, but appears to be widely distributed both in Europe and here, having been collected in Carolina, Ohio, Vermont, New York, etc. The plants are 12--20 cm. high, the cap 2--2.5 cm. broad, and the stem 4--7 mm. in thickness.

The =pileus= is fleshy, tough, convex or bell-shaped, then expanded, sometimes umbonate, or in age sometimes the margin upturned and more or less wavy, not viscid, but finely striate when damp, thin. The color varies from vinaceous cinnamon to chestnut or light leather color, or tawny, paler in age, and sometimes darker on the center. The =gills= are sometimes more or less crowded, narrow, 5--6 mm. broad, adnate, but notched, and sometimes becoming free from the stem. The color is light leather color, brick red or bay, the color and color variations being due to numbers of colored cystidia or spicules scattered over the surface of the gills and on the edge. The =cystidia= are fulvous, fusoid, 75--90 µ long. The =spores= are oval, white, small, 6 × 3 µ. The =stem= is long and slender, nearly cylindrical, tapering somewhat above, slightly enlarged below, and rooting. The color is the same as that of the pileus or dark bay brown, and shining, and seems to be due to large numbers of spicules similar to those on the gills. The color is paler below in some cases, or gradually darker below in others. The stems are bound together below by numerous threads.

Figure 130 is from plants (No. 2373, C. U. herbarium) collected in woods near Freeville, N. Y. The plants have been collected near Ithaca on three different occasions, twice near Freeville about nine miles from Ithaca, and once in the woods at Ithaca. It is easily distinguished by its color and the presence of the peculiar setæ or cystidia.

Although the plant has been collected on several different occasions in America, it does not seem to have been recognized under this name until recently, save the record of it from Carolina by de Schweinitz (Synop. fung. Car. No. 606. p. 81).

LENTINUS Fr.

The plants of this genus are tough and pliant, becoming hard when old, unless very watery, and when dry. The genus differs from the other tough and pliant ones by the peculiarity of the gills, the gills being notched or serrate on the edges. Sometimes this appearance is intensified by the cracking of the gills in age or in drying. The nearest ally of the genus is _Panus_, which is only separated from _Lentinus_ by the edge of the gills being plane. This does not seem a very good character on which to separate the species of the two genera, since it is often difficult to tell whether the gills are naturally serrate or whether they have become so by certain tensions which exist on the lamellæ during the expansion and drying of the pileus. Schroeter unites _Panus_ with _Lentinus_ (Cohn's Krypt. Flora, Schlesien, =3=, 1; 554, 1889). The plants are usually very irregular and many of them shelving, only a few grow upright and have regular caps.

=Lentinus vulpinus= Fr.--This is a large and handsome species, having a wide distribution in Europe and in this country, but it does not seem to be common. It grows on trunks, logs, stumps, etc., in the woods. It was quite abundant during late summer and in the autumn on fallen logs, in a woods near Ithaca. The =caps= are shelving, closely overlapping in shingled fashion (imbricated), and joined at the narrowed base. The surface is convex, and the margin is strongly incurved, so that each of the individual caps is shell-shaped (conchate). The surface of the pileus is coarsely hairy or hispid, the surface becoming more rough with age. Many coarse hairs unite to form coarse tufts which are stouter and nearly erect toward the base of the cap, and give the surface a tuberculate appearance. Toward the margin of the cap these coarse hairs are arranged in nearly parallel lines, making rows or ridges, which are very rough. The hairs and tubercles are dark in color, being nearly black toward the base, especially in old plants, and sometimes pale or of a smoky hue, especially in young plants. The pileus is flesh color when young, becoming darker when old, and the flesh is quite thin, whitish toward the gills and darker toward the surface. The =gills= are broad, nearly white, flesh color near the base, coarsely serrate, becoming cracked in age and in drying, narrowed toward the base of the pileus, not forked, crowded, 4--6 mm. broad. The cap and gills are tough even when fresh. The plant has an intensely pungent taste.

Figures 131, 132 represent an upper, front, and under view of the pilei (No. 3315, C. U. herbarium).

=Lentinus lecomtei= Fr., is a very common and widely distributed species growing on wood. When it grows on the upper side of logs the pileus is sometimes regular and funnel-shaped (cyathiform), but it is often irregular and produced on one side, especially if it grows on the side of the substratum. In most cases, however, there is a funnel-shaped depression above the attachment of the stem. The =pileus= is tough, reddish or reddish brown or leather color, hairy or sometimes strigose, the margin incurved. The =stem= is usually short, hairy, or in age it may become more or less smooth. The =gills= are narrow, crowded, the spores small, ovate to elliptical 5--6 × 2--3 µ. According to Bresadola this is the same as _Panus rudis_ Fr. It resembles very closely also _Panus cyathiformis_ (Schaeff.) Fr., and _P. strigosus_ B. & C.

=Lentinus lepideus= Fr., [_L. squamosus_ (Schaeff.) Schroet.] is another common and widely distributed species. It is much larger than _L. lecomtei_, whitish with coarse brown scales on the cap. It is 12--20 cm. high, and the cap is often as broad. The stem is 2--8 cm. long and 1--2 cm. in thickness. It grows on wood.

=Lentinus stipticus= (Bull.) Schroet. (_Panus stipticus_ Bull.) is a very small species compared with the three named above. It is, however, a very common and widely distributed one, growing on wood, and may be found the year around. The pileus is 1--3 cm. in diameter, whitish or grayish, very tough, expanded in wet weather, and curled up in dry weather. The stem is very short, and attached to one side of the cap. When freshly developed the plant is phosphorescent.

SCHIZOPHYLLUM Fr.

This is a very interesting genus, but the species are very few. The plants are tough, pliant when fresh, and dry. The gills are very characteristic, being split along the edge and generally strongly revolute, that is, the split edges curve around against the side of the gill. This character can be seen sometimes with the aid of a hand lens, but is very evident when a section of the cap and gills is made and then examined with a microscope. The spores are white.

=Schizophyllum alneum= (L.) Schroet.--This species usually goes by the name of _Schizophyllum commune_, but the earlier name is _S. alneum_. It is a very common plant and is world wide in its distribution, growing on wood, as on branches, trunks, etc. It is white, and the =pileus= is very hairy or tomentose, with coarse white hairs. It is 1--3 cm. in diameter, and the cap is sessile, either attached at one side when the cap is more produced on one side than on the other, or it may be attached at or near the center of the top, when the cap is more evenly developed on all sides. It is often crenate or lobed on the margin, the larger plants showing this character more prominently. The margin is incurved. The =gills= are white, wooly, branched and extend out toward the margin of the cap like the radiations of a fan. The gills are deeply split along the edge, and strongly revolute. It is a very pretty plant, but one becomes rather tired of collecting it because it is so common. It may be found at all seasons of the year on dead sticks and branches, either in the woods or elsewhere, if the branches are present. It is very coriaceous, and tough. During dry weather it is much shrunken and curled up, but during rains it expands quickly and then it is seen in its beauty.

Figure 133 shows the plant in the expanded condition, from the under side. The plants were growing on a hickory branch, and were dry and shrunken when brought in the laboratory. The branch and the fungus were placed in water for a few hours, when the fungus expanded, and was then photographed in this condition.

TROGIA Fr.