Chapter XXVIII: Science, Etc

Its infancy -- Virtuosi -- Gresham College -- Visit to the Royal
Society's Museum -- Their curiosities -- Their new house --
Geology -- Experimental philosophy -- Courses of chemistry --
Mathematics -- List of patents -- Hydraulic machinery -- Savery's
steam engine -- Description.

Exact science, as we understand the term, hardly existed. Sir Isaac Newton was just lighting the spark which has been fanned by succeeding generations into such a mighty flame. The Royal Society was an absolute laughing-stock, and men called virtuosi pottered about, looking (and doubtless thinking they were) mighty wise.

Any man who investigated nature after his lights, and with the imperfect materials which were at his command, was looked upon as a fool.

'The _Will_ of a VIRTUOSO.[495]

[Footnote 495: _Tatler_, No. 216.]

'I _Nicholas Gimcrack_ being in sound health of mind, but in great weakness of body, do by this my last Will and Testament bestow my worldly Goods and Chattels in manner following.

'_Imprimis_. To my dear wife, One box of butterflies, One drawer of Shells, A female Skeleton, A dried Cockatrice.

'_Item._ To my Daughter _Elizabeth_. My Receipt for preserving dead Caterpillars. Also my preparations of winter May dew, and Embryo-Pickle.

'_Item._ To my little daughter _Fanny_, Three Crocodile's Eggs. And upon the birth of her first Child if she marries with her mother's consent, the Nest of a Humming Bird.

'_Item._ To my eldest Brother, as an acknowledgment for the Lands he has vested in my Son _Charles_, I bequeath my last Year's Collection of Grasshoppers.

'_Item._ To his Daughter _Susanna_, being his only Child, I bequeath my English Weeds pasted on Royal paper, with my large Folio of Indian Cabbage.

'Having fully provided for my nephew _Isaac_ by making over to him, some years since, a Horned Scarabæus, the Skin of a Rattle snake, and the Mummy of an Egyptian King, I make no further Provision for him in this my _Will_.

'My eldest Son _John_ having spoken disrespectfully of his little Sister, whom I keep by me in Spirits of Wine, and in many other instances behaved himself undutifully towards me, I do disinherit, and wholly Cut off from any part of this my personal estate, by giving him a single Cockle shell.

'To my second Son _Charles_, I give and bequeath all my Flowers, Plants, Minerals, Mosses, Shells, Pebbles, Fossils, Beetles, Butterflies, Caterpillars, Grasshoppers, and Vermin, not above specified; as also my Monsters, both wet and dry; making the said _Charles_ whole and sole _Executor_ of this my last _Will_ and _Testament_; He paying or causing to be paid, the aforesaid Legacies within the space of six Months after my Decease. And I do hereby revoke all other _Wills_ whatsoever by me formerly made.'

_Clarinda._ A Sot, that has spent £2000 in Microscopes, to find
out the Nature of Eals in Vinegar, Mites in a Cheese, and the
blue of Plums which he has subtilly found out to be living
Creatures.

_Miranda._ One who has broken his brains about the nature of
Magots, who has studied these twenty years to find out the
several sorts of Spiders, and never cares for understanding
Mankind.[496]

[Footnote 496: _The Virtuoso_, by Shadwell.]

It is needless to say that Gresham College, then the home of the Royal Society, affords a wealth of merriment to Ward. It is 'Wise Acres Hall,' or 'Maggot Mongers' Hall'; but his description,[497] although whimsical, is truthful, and shows the puerility (as we might term it) of science in those days. 'My Friend conducted me up a pair of Stairs, to the Elaboratory-Keeper's Apartment and desir'd him to oblige us with a Sight of his Rarities; who very curteously granted us the Liberty; opening his Warehouse of _Egyptian Mummies_, old musty Skeletons, and other antiquated Trumpery: The first thing he thought most worthy of our Notice, was the _Magnet_, with which he show'd some notable Experiments, it made a Paper of Steel Filings Prick up themselves one upon the back of another, that they stood pointing like the Bristles of a _Hedge Hog_; and gave such Life and Merriment to a parcel of Needles, they danced the Hay, by the motion of the Stone, as if the Devil were in 'em; the next things he presented to our view, were a parcel of Shell Flies almost as big as _Lobsters_, arm'd with Beaks as big as _Jack-Daws_: then he commended to our observation that Wonderful Curiosity, the _Unicorn's_ Horn; made, I suppose, by an Ingenious Turner, of the Tusks of an _Elephant_; it is of an excellent Virtue; and, by report of those that know nothing of the matter, will expel Poison beyond the _Mountebanks Orvieton_; Then he carry'd us to another part of the Room, where there was an _Aviary_ of Dead Birds, Collected from the extream parts of _Europe_, _Asia_, _Africa_, and _America_; amongst which were an _East India_ Owl, a _West India_ Bat, and a Bird of _Paradise_, the last being Beautified with variety of Colours, having no discernable Body, but all Feathers, Feeding, when alive, upon nothing but Air, and tho' 'tis as big as a Parrot, 'tis as light as a Cobweb. Then he usher'd us among sundry sorts of Serpents, as the _Noy_, _Pelongy_, _Rattle Snake_, _Aligator_, _Crocodile_ &c. That looking round me, I thought myself hem'd in amongst a legion of Devils; When we had taken a survey of these pin-cushion Monsters, we turn'd towards the Skeletons of Men, Women, and Monkeys, Birds, Beasts and Fishes; Abortives put up in Pickle, and abundance of other Memorandums of Mortality; that they look'd as Ghostly as the Picture of _Michael_ Angelo's Resurrection; as if they had Collected their Scatter'd Bones into their Original Order, and were about to March in search after the rest of the Appurtenances.'

[Footnote 497: _London Spy._]

That this account is not exaggerated is shown by an extract or two of Dr. Green's catalogue of these curiosities.

'Tortoises, when turned on their backs, will sometimes fetch deep sighs and shed abundance of tears.

'A bone, said to be taken out of a Mermaid's head.

'A stag-beetle, whose horns, worn in a ring, are good against Cramp, &c.'

The Royal Society, however, under Newton's presidency, woke up wonderfully in Anne's reign, although they still pottered after such things as dissecting dolphins,[498] etc. In 1705 the Mercers' Company gave them notice to quit Gresham College, and they petitioned the Queen for a grant of land near Westminster, but the petition was refused. Then they applied to the trustees of the Cotton Library for permission to meet at Cotton House, Westminster, but could not obtain it. And so they tried for six years to get their own premises, and at last succeeded in buying the house (really two houses) of Dr. Brown, in Crane Court, Fleet Street, which house, but little altered, is now standing, and is in the occupation of the Scottish Corporation. This cost them 1,450_l._, 550_l._ of which they paid out of their own funds, and borrowed the remainder at six per cent.; but it also required 1,800_l._ to fit these houses for the requirements of the Society: yet somehow they managed to hold their first meeting there on Nov. 8, 1710.

[Footnote 498: Thoresby.]

Addison, in the _Tatler_,[499] cannot resist the temptation of making fun of this Society: 'When I married this Gentleman he had a very handsome estate, but upon buying a set of Microscopes he was chosen _a Fellow of the Royal Society, from which time I do not remember ever to have heard him speak as other people did_, or talk in a manner that any of his family could understand.' Steele,[500] too, must needs give a little stab: 'When I meet with a young fellow that is an humble admirer of these Sciences, but more dull than the rest of the Company, I conclude him to be a Fellow of the Royal Society.'

[Footnote 499: No. 221.]

[Footnote 500: _Tatler_, 236.]

The science of geology was very little known, although Dr. Woodward, in his 'Natural History of the Earth,' notes its division into strata, but in that, as in all other sciences, they were but in a very elementary stage. They had only got as far as this: 'An Account of the Origin and Formation of Fossil-Shells, &c., wherein is proposed a Way to reconcile the two different Opinions, of those who affirm them to be the Exuviæ of real Animals, and those who fancy them to be Lusus Naturæ.'

But science was making such steps that men were willing to be taught, and consequently teachers were found. The stage physical science had reached in 1706 is shown by the following advertisement: 'For the Advancement of Experimental Philosophy, and for the Benefit of all such Gentlemen as are willing to lay the best and surest Foundation for all useful Knowledge: There are provided Engines for rarefying and condensing Air, with all the Appurtenances thereunto belonging; also Barometers, Thermometers, and such other Instruments as are Necessary for a Course of Experiments, in order to prove the Weight and Spring of the Air, its usefulness in the propagation of Sounds and Conversation of Life, &c., with several new and surprising Experiments concerning the production of Light in Vacuo: Likewise Utensils proper for making the Hydrostatical Experiments to determine the Laws of Fluids Gravitating upon each other. By J. Hodgson and F. Hawksbee, Fellows of the Royal Society. This Course will begin &c.... at which times Lectures will be Read for the better understanding the Experiments, and for the drawing of such Conclusions and Uses as flow from them. Those Gentlemen that are desirous to be present must pay 2 Guineas, one at the time of Subscription, and the other on the 3rd Night after the Course begins.' Hawksbee continued these lectures till his death, about 1710 or 1711.

Courses of chemistry had existed ever since the commencement of the reign: _vide_ 'A Course of Chimistry, commencing the 27th of April, 1702, containing above 100 Operations, will be performed by George Willson at his Elaboratory in Well Yard, by St. Bartholomew's Hospital in Smithfield.' His fee was two and a half guineas.

What was meant by this course we cannot tell, but there is another advertisement in 1712 which may throw some light upon it: 'A Compleat Course of Chymistry containing about 100 Operations, illustrated with the proper Scholia, has been perform'd at the Laboratory of Mr. Edward Bright, Chymist, in White Friars near Fleet Street, to the entire Satisfaction of the Gentlemen that attended it, &c.... In these Courses Endeavours are used to demonstrate the Constituent Parts of each Medicine, their Virtues and Doses; to which will be added many useful Observations applicable to the Practice of Physick.

The higher branches of mathematics were also publicly taught in 1705: 'On Tuesday next being the 2nd Day of October, at the Marine Coffee house in Birchin Lane, Mr. Harris will go on with the Public Mathematic Lecture; beginning them with Geometry anew; and he will explain largely the Uses of all the Propositions as he goes along: with a particular regard to the principles of true Mechanick Philosophy.' This latter was highly necessary, for mechanics were in an exceedingly elementary state: even such a common thing as a wind dial was new, and wonderful, in 1706. 'The WIND DIAL, lately set up at Grigsby's Coffee and Chocolate House, behind the Royal Exchange, being the first and only one in any publick House in England, and having given great Satisfaction to all that have seen it, and being of Constant use to those that are in any wise Concerned in Navigation: We think it may not be improper to describe it to the Publick, viz. The Dial Board is fixed to the Ceiling of the Publick Ground room, upon which are all the points of the Compass in Gold Letters, and a Hand Points to each of them, continually as the Wind varies. The Hand is directed by an Iron work, which is turned by a Fan placed 90 foot high, to prevent the effects of Eddy Winds.'

Condensing sea water, in order to make it potable, is, if an old invention, quite a modern practice; yet we see it in use in 1705. 'Mr. Walcot's Engines for making Sea Water Fresh and Wholesome, are sold by him at his Warehouse in Woolpack Alley in Houndsditch at reasonable rates being of great use and advantage for all Ships, especially such as go long voyages.'

Perhaps the best method of gauging the mechanical genius of the age is to examine the patents granted, and, as they are very few in this reign, a short list of them will fulfil this condition, and yet not be wearisome.

Jan. 1, 1703. A grant to George Sorocold, gent., of a new invention by him contrived and found out, for cutting and sawing all kinds of boards, timber, and stone, and twisting all kinds of ropes, cords, and cables, by the strength of horses or water.

April 8, 1704. A grant to Benjamin Jackson, gent., of the sole use and exercise of a new invention for ordinary coaches, calashes, shazes, waggons, and other carriages and machines of that nature, that though the wheels or carriages may be overset, yet the bodies of them shall remain upright.

May 1, 1704. A grant to Nicholas Fain, gent., Peter Defaubre, and Jacob Defaubre, watchmakers, for making use of precious or more common stones, crystal or glass, as an internal and useful part of watches and other engines.

July 29, 1704. A grant unto Richard Cole, gent., of his invention of forming glasses into conical figures, and lamps for the better dispersing and casting of light.

April 12, 1706. A grant unto Henry Mill, gent., of his new invention of a mathematical instrument, consisting of several new sorts of springs for the ease of persons riding in coaches, chariots, calashes, and chaises.

June 6, 1706. A grant unto Robert Aldersey of his new invention in contriving a floating dam to carry lighters and other vessels over the greatest flats and shallows in any navigable river.

1706. A grant unto Thomas Savery, Esq., of his new invention for making double hand-bellows, which by the power of springs and screws will produce a continual blast.

July 26, 1709. A grant unto Jeremiah Wieschamer of his new invention of a mill or engine for the more easy grinding or pressing of sugar-canes with a less number of oxen, horses, or cattle than by those mills formerly used.

April 3, 1712. A grant unto Israel Pownoll of his new invented engine or machine for taking up ballast, sullage, sand, etc., of very great use in cleansing rivers, harbours, etc.

June 17, 1712. A grant unto Nicholas Lewis Mandell, Esq., and John Grey, carpenters, of their two new invented engines; the one of a small size for the weighing and raising up any weight far beyond what can be performed by any crane or capstone; and the other for raising water in a new and surprising manner, of great use in extinguishing fire.

April 2, 1714. A grant unto John Wilks of his new invented engine or mill for grinding all sorts of wood dry for the use of dying.

May 27, 1714. A grant unto John Coster, gent., and John Coster, jun., gent., of their new invented engine for drawing water out of deep mines.

These are all the mechanical patents worthy of notice during Anne's reign. Hydraulic machinery was particularly useful, and attention was specially paid to its perfection. Here is the record[501] of a draining feat happily completed: 'The Lands in Havering and Dagenham Levels in Essex, having lain these 6 Years under Water, were, after a great deal of Industry and Expence happily recovered on the 29th Day of October past, being the same Day 6 years that that Breach happened. The Gentlemen concerned in that Undertaking have given to the Artificers and Labourers an Ox and a Sheep to be Roasted whole, and a Hog to be barbicui'd, with large Puddings in their Bellies, on the 13th of this present Instant, on the said Works.'

[Footnote 501: _Daily Courant_, Nov. 11, 1713.]

But few people remember that the steam engine was a living and working fact, and a commercial commodity, in Queen Anne's time, and this owed its being to the general utility of hydraulic machinery. Salamon de Caus and the Marquis of Worcester are rivals as to the invention of a working steam engine, and Papin came very near to being successful, even going so far as to propel a ship with revolving oars or paddles, which could in speed beat the king's barge manned by sixteen rowers. But it was reserved to Savery to make it commercially valuable. In 1698 he took out a patent. 'A grant to Thomas Savery gentl, of the sole exercise of a new invenc̃on by him invented, for raising of water, and occasioning moc̃on to all sorts of Mill Works, by the impellent force of fire, which will be of great use for draining mines, serving towns w{th} water, and for the working of all sorts of Mills where they have not the benefit of water nor Constant winds, to hold for 14 years; with usual clauses. Testibus apud Westm̃ 25{o} die Julij anno supradc̃o.'

He could not have wasted much time in perfecting his invention and putting it on a sound commercial basis, for we find an advertisement in the _Postman_, March 28/31, 1702: 'Captain _Savery's_ Engines which raise Water by the force of Fire in any reasonable quantities and to any height, being now brought to perfection, and ready for publick use; These are to give notice to all Proprietors of Mines and Collieries which are encumbered with Water, that they may be furnished with Engines to drain the same at his Work house in _Salisbury Court, London_, against the Old Play house, where it may be seen working on _Wednesdays_ and _Saturdays_ in every week from 3 to 6 in the afternoon; where they may be satisfied of the performance thereof, with less expence than any other force of Horse or Hands, and less subject to repair.'

He must, even then, have had some at work, for he says in the preface to his little work,[502] dated Sept. 22, 1701: 'That the _attending_ and working the _Engine_ is so far from being so,[503] that it is familiar and _easie_ to be learned by those of the _meanest Capacity_, in a very little time; insomuch, that I have Boys of 13 or 14 years of _Age_, who now _attend_ and _work_ it to perfection, and were _taught_ to do it in a few days; and I have known some _learn_ to work the Engine in _half-an-hour_.'

[Footnote 502: _The Miner's Friend, or, an Engine to raise
Water by Fire described_, &c. by Thomas Savery, Gent.
London. 1702.]

[Footnote 503: _I.e._ intricate and difficult to work.]

He had visions of its future power, and knew somewhat of its vast capabilities: 'Whereas this _Engine_ may be made _large_ enough to do the _work_ required in employing _eight_, _ten_, _fifteen_, or _twenty horses_ to be constantly maintained and kept for doing _such a work_; it will be improper to stint or _confine_ its Uses and Operation in respect of _Water Mills_.' He then suggests that it would pump water to the top of a house, for domestic supply, for fountains, and in case of fire--or supply towns with water, draining fens, mines, and coal pits, nay, he even suggests their use through the furnace and shaft, as ventilators. More than all, he says, 'I believe it may be made very _useful_ to Ships, but I dare not meddle with that matter; and leave it to the Judgement of those who are the best Judges of Maritain Affairs.'

His engine was as ingenious as it was simple. Two boilers with furnaces supplied the steam. This was admitted alternately, by means of a handle worked by a man or boy, into one of two elliptical receivers, where it condensed, formed a vacuum, and the water rushed in and filled its place--the same principle which is the foundation of that invaluable feed-pump, Giffard's injector. When full, the application of steam ejected it from the receiver, and forced it up the pipe, and so _de novo_. His idea was to utilise the water thus raised to turn a water-wheel, and thus get effective power for working machinery in mills.