Chapter X: BIOGRAPHY.--Gaston Plante, the Scientist.--With portrait (3)

It is thus seen that there is room for a very important economy in the treatment of wool. I have endeavored to show how economy may be practiced in scouring by the old process with soap, and how one dye stuff may be profitably recovered. It is to be hoped that means of extracting other dyes from the residue may soon follow. Unless the process were too costly to repay the trouble of extraction, it would be well worth practicing; for it would not merely be a solution of the problem of how to avoid waste, but would at the same time prevent the pollution of our streams, now, unfortunately, only too rarely pellucid; and were the last process to have as successful a future as I hope it may have, a very important saving of expense would result, and a large quantity of valuable fatty matter would no longer be thrown away.

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COAL AND ITS USES.

[Footnote: From a paper lately read before the Association of Foremen Engineers.]

By JAMES PYKE.

The records from which geologists draw their information can scarcely be compared to written or printed histories. There are, however, nations of whom no written account exists, who perhaps never had any written history, but about whom we are still able to gather from other sources a vast amount of information. Their houses, their monuments, their weapons, and their tools have survived, and these tell us the kind of life, the state of civilization, and the skill of the men to whom they belonged; from the contents of their tombs we learn what manner of men they were physically; sometimes a sudden change in the appointments and belongings of the folk indicates that tribes which had for a long time inhabited a district were driven out and replaced by a new race. Thus, then, from waifs and strays we can piece together a fairly connected account of the events of a period long antecedent to any written history.

The investigations of Dr. Schliemann on the supposed site of the city of Troy furnish a good example of this method of research. He found lying, one on the top of another, traces of the existence of five successive communities of men, differing in customs and social development, and was able to establish the fact that some of the cities had been destroyed by fire, and that later on other towns had grown up over the buried remains of the earlier settlements. The lowest layers were, of course, the oldest, and the position of each layer in the pile gives its date, not in years, but with regard to the layers above and below it.

Now, from time immemorial nature has been at work building up monuments and providing tombs which tell us what were the events going on, and what kind of inhabitants the earth had long before man made his appearance on its surface. The monuments are the rocks which compose the ground under our feet, and these, like many ancient monuments of human construction, are the tombs of the creatures that lived while they were being built.

Many facts testify that the earth's crust did not come into existence exactly as we find it now, but that its rocks have been built up by the slow action of natural agencies. These rocks constantly inclose the remains of plants and animals, and as it is evident that neither plant nor animal could have lived in the heart of a solid rock, this fact shows that the rock must in some way have gathered round the remains that are now found in it. Again, many of these remains, or fossils, belonged to animals that lived in water, the larger part, indeed, to marine creatures. This indicates that the rock was formed beneath the sea, and when we examine the way in which the constituents of the rock are arranged, we frequently find it to correspond exactly with the manner in which the sand and mud that rivers sweep down into the sea or lakes are spread out over the bottom of the water. In a pile of rocks formed in this way it is clear that the lowest is the oldest of all, and that any one stratum lying above is younger than the one beneath it. Further, the occurrence of rocks inland containing marine fossils far above the sea level shows that the sea and land have changed places. When, again, we find that the fossils of one group of rocks differ entirely from those of a group lying above them, we learn that one race of creatures died out and was supplanted by a new assemblage of animal forms.

These general remarks will, I trust, give some notion of the evidence which is available for reconstructing the history of those remote periods with which geology deals, and of the kind of reasoning which the geologist employs for interpreting the records that are submitted to him.

We will now briefly examine, by aid of these methods, the group of rocks in which coal occurs in Great Britain, and see how far we can read the story they have to tell.

The group with which we have to deal is called the carboniferous or coal bearing system, and it includes four classes of rocks, viz.: 1, sandstone; 2, shale or bind; 3, limestone; 4, coal and underclay.

We will take the sandstones and shales first. They are grains of sand known to mineralogists as quartz, and consisting of a substance called silica by chemists. The grains of sand are bound together by a cement which in some few cases is identical in composition with themselves, and consists of pure silica, but usually is a mixture of sandy, clayey, and other substances. The shales are made up very largely of clay, mixed, however, usually with sand and other substances, forming a conglomerate. Both sandstones and shales are divided into layers or beds, and are said to be stratified. It is this stratified or bedded structure that gives us the first clew to the way in which these rocks were formed. Rivers are constantly carrying down sand and mud into the sea or lakes, and when their flow is slackened on entering the still water the materials they bring down with them sink and are spread out in layers over the bottom. The structure of the sandstones and shales shows that they were formed in this way; they often inclose the remains of plants that have been carried down from land, and occasionally of animals that lived in the water where they were deposited.

The next we have to consider is limestone, which is mainly made up of a substance known to chemists as calcium carbonate, or carbonate of lime.

In some districts, especially in volcanic countries, springs occur very highly charged with carbonate of lime. The warm springs of Matlock are a case in point; they are probably the last vestige of volcanic action which was in operation in that neighborhood during carboniferous times. Limestone is chiefly formed by the agency of small marine creatures of low organization. By the aid of these animals the carbonate of lime is brought back to a solid form; at their death their hard parts fall to the bottom and accumulate in a mass of pure limestone, which afterward becomes solidified into limestone rock.

The information that limestone gives us is this:

When we find, as is often the case, a mass of limestone hundreds of feet thick, and composed of little else but carbonate of lime, we know that the spot where it occurs was, at the time it was formed, far out at sea, covered by the clear water of mid ocean; and when we find that this limestone grows in certain directions earthy and impure, and that layers of shale and sandstone, thin at first, but gradually thickening out in a wedge-shape form, come in between its beds, we know that in those directions we are traveling toward the shore lines of that sea whence the water was receiving from time to time supplies of muddy and sandy sediment.

The next class of rocks are the clays that are found beneath every bed of coal, and which are known as _underclays_, or _warrant_, or _spavins_. They vary very much in mineral composition. Sometimes they are soft clay; sometimes clay mixed with a certain portion of sand; and sometimes they contain such a large proportion of silicious matters that they become hard, flinty rock, which many of you know under the name of _gannister_. But all underclays agree in two points: they are all unstratified. They differ totally from the shales and sandstones in this respect, and instead of splitting up readily into thin flakes, they break up into irregular lumpy masses. And they all contain a very peculiar vegetable fossil called _Stigmaria_.

This strange fossil was for a long time a sore puzzle to fossil botanists, and after much discussion the question was fairly solved by Mr. Binney by the discovery of a tree embedded in the coal measures, and standing erect just as it grew, with its roots spread out into the stratum on which it stood. These roots were Stigmaria, and the stuff into which they penetrated was an underclay. Sir Charles Lyell mentions an individual sigillaria 72 feet in length found at Newcastle, and a specimen taken from the Jarrow coal mine was more than 40 feet in length and 13 feet in diameter near the base. It is not often these trees are found erect, because the action of water, combined with natural decay, has generally thrown them down. They are, however, found in very large numbers in the roof of the coal, evidently having been tossed over, and lying there flat and squeezed thin by the pressure of the measures that lie above them.

Lastly, we come to coal itself--a rock which constitutes a small portion of the whole bulk of the carboniferous deposits, but which may be fairly looked upon as the most important member of that group, both on account of its intrinsic value and also from the interest that attaches to its history. That coal is little else but mineralized vegetable matter is a point on which there has for a long time been but small doubt. The more minute investigations of recent years have not only placed this completely beyond question, but have also enabled us to say what the plants were which contributed to the formation of coal, and in some cases even to decide what portions of those plants enter into its composition. It is a thing so universally admitted on all hands, that I shall take it for granted you are all perfectly convinced that coal has been nothing in the world but a great mass of vegetable matter. The only question is: How were these great masses of vegetable matter brought together? And you must realize that they were very large masses indeed. Just to take one instance. The Yorkshire and Derbyshire coal field is somewhere about 700 to 800 square miles in area, and Lancashire about 200. Well, in both these coal fields you have a great number of beds of coal that spread over the whole of them with tolerable regularity and thickness, and very often with scarcely any break whatever. And this is only a very small portion of what must have been the original sheet of coal, so that you see we have to account for a mass of vegetable matter perfectly free from any admixture of sand, mud, or dirt, and laid down with tolerably uniform thickness over many hundreds of square miles.

At one time it was supposed that coal was formed out of dead trees and plants which were swept down by rivers into the sea, just in the same way as shales and sandstones were formed out of mud and sand so swept down. The fatal objection to this theory, however, is that rivers would not bring down dead wood alone, but they would bring down sand and mud, and other matters, and that in the bottom of the sea the dead wood would be mixed with these matters, and instead of getting a perfectly unmixed mass of vegetable matter, we should get a mixture of dead plants, sand, mud, and other things, which would give rise to something like coal, but something very different, as any one who tries to burn such coal will soon find out, from really good, pure house coal. So that this theory, which is generally known as the "drift" theory, was totally inadequate to account for the facts as we know them.

The other theory was that coal was formed out of plants and trees that grew on the spot where we now find coal itself. On this supposition it is easy to account for the absence of foreign admixtures of sand, mud, and clay in the coal; and we can also understand very much better than by the aid of the drift theory how the coal had accumulated with such wonderful uniformity of thickness over such very large areas. This theory was for some time but poorly received; but after the discovery of Sir William Logan, that every bed of coal had a bed of underclay beneath, and the discovery of Mr. Binney, that these underclays were true soils on which plants had undoubtedly grown, there was no doubt whatever that this was the real and true explanation of the matter.

I dare say many of you have had occasion to walk across peat bogs. The peat bog is a great mass of vegetable matter, which is every year growing thicker and thicker; and underneath it there is almost always a bed of thin clay, in look very much like the underclays, and this thin clay is penetrated by the rootlets of the moss forming the peat, exactly the same way as the underclays of the coal measures are penetrated by the stigmaria and its rootlets. But you must not suppose that the plants out of which coal was formed were exactly the same low type of moss which forms our present peat bogs. However, it is pretty certain that they were for the most part of a loose, succulent texture, and that they grew very rapidly indeed.

You will have noticed that there is one step more wanted to make good this theory of the growth of coal on the spot where we now find it. The coal is found, as already described, interbedded with shales and sandstones. These shales and sandstones, as shown, were formed beneath the water of the sea, and as long as they remained there of course no plants could grow upon them. The question is, How was the land surface formed for the growth of plants? It must have been formed in some way or other by the sea bottom having been raised above the level of the water. Now, we have distinct proof in many cases that elevation of the sea bottom and depression of the land is now going on in many parts of the earth's surface. And, therefore, we shall be assuming nothing beyond the range of experience if we say that such elevations and depressions went on during coal measure times. The coal measure times must have been times during which the same spot was now below the sea, and now dry land, over and over again. There was a land surface on which plants grew fast and multiplied rapidly, and as they died fell and accumulated in a great heap of dead vegetable matter. After a time this layer of vegetable matter was slowly and gently let down beneath the waters of the sea--so slowly that the water flowing over it did not, as a rule, disturb the loose, pasty mass; and then, by the method I have described to you, shales and sandstones were deposited on the top of this mass of dead vegetable matter. By their weight they compressed it, and by certain chemical changes (which we have not time to go into this evening) this dense mass of vegetable matter became converted into coal. After a time the shales and sandstones which had been piled above this stuff, which was to form coal for the future, were again elevated to form a land surface; upon this another forest sprang up, and by its decay produced another mass of vegetable matter fit to form coal. This again was let down below the water, more shales and sandstones were deposited on the top, and this process went on over and over again till the whole mass of our present coal measures was formed. You will now see how it is that trees are so seldom found in an upright position in the coal beds. As the land went down, they would in very many cases be toppled over by the water as it flowed against them, or their base would be rotted, and they would then either fall or be blown over; that is the reason why in most cases they are found lying flat on the roof of the coal bed. But in a few cases, when the depression was very gentle and gradual, the trees were not overthrown, and the shales and sandstones accumulated round them and preserved them in the position in which they grew.

I do not know that I can point out to you anything nowadays that exactly resembles the state of things that must have gone on during the times these coal measures were being formed; but there are a great many cases strikingly analogous to them. I shall not attempt to describe them to you, but may just mention the mangrove swamps that very often fringe the coasts in the tropics, and the cypress swamps of the Mississippi, which are so well described by Sir Charles Lyell in his recent works; also the great Dismal Swamp of Virginia, which appears to me to furnish the nearest analogue to the state of things that existed during coal measure times.

Having explained the way in which coal measures have been formed, we will now take a brief sketch of its uses and products. The year 1259 is memorable in the annals of coal mining. Hitherto the mineral had not been raised by authority, but in that year Henry III. granted a charter to the freemen of Newcastle-on-Tyne for liberty to dig coal, and a considerable export trade was established with London, and it speedily became an article among the various manufacturers of the metropolis. But its popularity was but short lived. An impression became general that the smoke arising therefrom contaminated the atmosphere and was injurious to public health. Years of experience have proved the fallacy of the imputation; but in 1306 the outcry became so general that a proclamation was issued by Edward I forbidding the use of the offending fuel, and authorizing the destruction of all furnaces, etc., of those persons who should persist in using it. Prejudice gradually gave way as the value of the fossil fuel became better known, and from that time downward its use has become more and more extended down to the enormous extent of our present trade. The annual increase in the production of coal in the British Isles since the year 1854 is over 2½ million tons. In that year the coal produce was about 65 million tons, and it has grown up to the year 1880 to the grand total of 135 million tons.

We will now deal with some of the uses that this valuable black diamond is now being put to. It is, in the first place, the center of all our enterprise and prosperity, and upon it depends our chief success as a manufacturing nation for the future. When it is exhausted we shall have to look forward to the condition of things which now obtains in those regions where there is no coal--that is to say, instead of our being a nation full of manufacturing and mercantile enterprise, a great nation to which all the people of the earth resort, we shall be merely a people who live for ourselves by the cultivation of the ground. The duration of our coal fields has been ascertained within certain limits. Mr. Hall, an accomplished geologist, tells us that in England at the present time we have a stock of coal sufficient for our consumption for no less than 1,000 years. On the other hand, Professor Jevons, whose opinion is worthy of the very greatest weight on such questions, calculates that 100 years is about the tenure of our coal fields, according to the present rate of increase in the consumption. Whichever view we take, sooner or later the end must ultimately come when the coal will be exhausted; when the great mainspring of our commercial enterprise will be gone, and we shall revert to that condition in which we were before the coal fields were worked. In this point of view, therefore, coal has an especial interest to us as engineers. If coal is important in this direction, it is no less important in a purely scientific point of view, apart from any mercantile end.

The chemist or physicist will tell you the wondrous story that the black substance which you burn is simply so much light and heat and motion borrowed from the sun and invested in the tissues of plants. He will tell you that when you sit round your firesides the flame which enlivens you, and the gas which enables you to read, and which civilizes you, is nothing in the world but so much sunlight and so much sunheat bottled up in the tissues of vegetables, and simply reproduced in your grates and gas burners. Very few persons, I am afraid, realize this, which is one of the many stories which science in its higher teachings shows us--one of those fairy tales which are the result of the most careful scientific investigation. Of the hundred and odd million tons of coal which we in this country burn in the course of a year, about 20,000,000 tons are thrown on our house fires; 30,000,000 tons find their way into our blast furnaces, or are otherwise used in the smelting and manufacture of metals; about 48,000,000 are burnt under steam boilers; 6,000,000 are used in gas-making; while the remainder is consumed in potteries, glass works, brick and lime kilns, chemical works, and other sundries which I need not speak of.

To go into the chemistry of coal is quite sufficient to take up more time than I have at my disposal this evening, therefore I will briefly touch on a few of the main points. Coal gas is made, as you are all aware, by heating coal or cannel, which is the special form of coal most valued for the purpose, on account of the high quality of gas it produces in cylindrical fireclay retorts.

The by-products obtained in the manufacture of coal gas, the tar and the ammonia water, are nowadays scarcely less important than the coal gas itself. The ammonia water furnishes large quantities of salts to be used, among other applications, as food for plants. We thus restore to-day to our vegetation the nitrogen which existed in plants of primeval times. The tar, black and noisome though it be, is a marvelous product, by the reason of scores of beautiful substances which are concealed within it.

Coal tar when distilled yields three main products: naphtha, dead oil, and pitch or asphalt. The naphtha on redistillation yields benzine, from which are prepared some of our most beautiful dyes; the dead oil, as the less volatile portion is termed, furnishes carbolic acid, used as a disinfectant and antiseptic, together with anthracene and naphthaline; all three substances the starting points of new series of coloring matters.

This discovery of these coloring matters marks an era in the history of chemical science; it exercised an extraordinary influence on the development of organic chemistry. Theoretical and applied chemistry were knit together in closer union than ever, and dye followed dye in quick succession; after mauve came magenta, and in close attendance followed a brilliant train of reds, yellows, oranges, greens, blues, and violets; in fact, all the simple and beautiful colors of the rainbow.

But there is still another story of coal tar to be told. Among the many curious substances that wonderful fluid contains is the beautiful wax-like body called paraffine, the development of which chiefly owes its origin to the genius and energy of Mr. James Young. As early as 1848, Mr. Young had worked a small petroleum spring in a coal mine in Derbyshire, and had produced oils suitable for burning and lubricating purposes, but the spring gave out, and then Mr. Young sought to obtain these oils by distilling coal. After many trials, in conjunction with other gentlemen connected therewith, he proved successful, and the present magnitude of this industry is without parallel in the history of British manufactures.

In Scotland alone there are about sixty paraffine oil works, one alone occupying a site of nearly forty acres. Here about 120,000 gallons of crude oil are produced weekly, and among the various works in Scotland about 800,000 tons of shale are distilled per annum, producing nearly 30,000,000 gallons of crude oil, from which about 12,000,000 gallons of refined burning oil are obtained in addition to the large quantities of naphtha, solid paraffine, ammonia, and other chemical products. Twenty-five years ago scarcely a dozen persons had seen this paraffine, and now it is turned out by the ton, fashioned into candles delicately tinted with colors obtained from coal tar.

I might dwell on this subject until it becomes wearisome to you, therefore I will not trespass too much on your time. But from every point we look we reach this fact, that our coal trade is one which develops itself according to laws that we are perfectly powerless to control; if it seems to promise a less rapid increase here, it is only that it may spread abroad with accelerated vigor elsewhere; if it is our slave in some aspects, it seems as if it were our master in others.

Finally, we have to ask, What of our export coals? Rapid as has been the growth of our total production during the last twenty-three years, the growth of our export of coals has been greater still. Beginning at 4,300,000 tons in '54, we find it reaching 16,250,000 tons in '76, and an increase at a corresponding ratio up to the present date as far as statistics will carry us. At such a rate of increase it would seem as if our whole annual production would be ultimately swallowed up in our exports, and it is not, perhaps, impossible that after we have ceased to be to any great extent a manufacturing people, a certain export trade in coal may still continue. Just the same as the export trade in coal preceded by centuries our own uses for it other than domestic, so may it also survive these by a period as prolonged. If our descent from our present favored position be a gradual one, much may be done in the interval to adapt ourselves to the future outcome, but it is certain that nothing will be done except under the stern persuasion of necessity.

When our coal fields become exhausted, be it soon or late, he would be a wise or, perhaps, a rash speculator who fixed himself to a year or a generation. Being inevitable, the best philosophy is to make our decline more gradual and less bitter. Sentimental regrets that these hills and valleys will no longer resound with the din of labor, or be blackened by the smoke of the factory, would surely be out of place. What we might regret is that Britain, which we know and are proud of, the Britain of great achievements in politics and literature, of free thought and self-respecting obedience, of a thousand years of high endeavor and constant progress, was indeed to perish when these factories and furnaces whirled and blazed their last. But, it is not so. This country's fortunes are gradually being merged into those of a Greater Britain, which largely, through the aid of coal, whose prospective loss we are lamenting, has grown beyond the limits of these islands to overspread the vastest and richest regions of the earth; and we have no reason to fear that the great inheritance that America and Australia and New Zealand have accepted from us will in their hands be dealt unworthily with in the future.

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GASTON PLANTE.

This eminent scientist was born in Orthez (Department of Basses-Pyrénées) on the 22d of April, 1834; at present in his fiftieth year. He began his scientific career as assistant to Edmund Becquerel at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers at Paris. In the year 1859, after resigning his position at the above named institution, he entered upon his researches in electricity, and has continued them ever since. His work entitled "Recherches sur l'Electricité" is a model of clear language and elegant demonstration, and contains all the papers presented by Planté to the Paris Academy of Sciences since 1859.

At the Paris Electrical Exhibition in 1881, Planté received a Diploma of Honor, the highest distinction conferred, while in the same year the Academy of Sciences voted him the "Lacaze" prize, and the Society for the Encouragement of National Industry presented him with the "Ampère" medal, its highest award.

Planté deserves not only the honors conferred upon him by his own country, but those of the world on account of his cosmopolitan character--a rarity among his countrymen. He sends his apparatus to all exhibitions of any consequence; they appeared at Munich and Vienna, where their interpretation by the attendant added considerably to the renown of their author.--_Zeitch f. Elektrotechnik_.

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WARREN COLBURN.

Warren Colburn, the eminent American mathematician, was born in Dedham, Mass., March 1, 1793.

He was the eldest son of a large family of children. His parents were poor, and "Warren" was, during his childhood, frequently employed in different manufacturing establishments to aid the family by his small earnings.

In early boyhood he manifested an unusual taste for mathematics, and in the common district school was regarded as remarkable in this department. He learned the trade of a machinist, studying winters, until he was over twenty-two years of age, when he began to fit for Harvard College, which he entered in 1817 and graduated with high honors in 1820. He taught school in the winter months, while in college, in Boston, Leominster, and in Canton, Mass. From 1820 to 1823 he taught a select school in Boston.

While in college he was regarded as by far the best mathematician in his class, and during this period thought there was the necessity for such a book as his "First Lessons in Intellectual Arithmetic." This conviction had been forced upon his mind by his experience in teaching. In the autumn of 1821 he published his "first edition." His plan was well digested, although he was accustomed to say that "the pupils who were under his tuition made his arithmetic for him;" that the questions they asked and the necessary answers and explanations which he gave in reply were embodied in the book, which has had a sale unprecedented for any book on elementary arithmetic in the world, having reached over 2,000,000 copies in this country, and the sale still continues, both in this country and in Great Britain. It has been translated into most of the European languages and by missionaries into many Asiatic languages.

After teaching in Boston about two and one-half years, he was chosen superintendent of the Boston Manufacturing Company's works at Waltham, Mass., and accepted the position; and in August, 1824, owing to the mechanical genius he displayed in applying power to machinery, combined with his great administrative ability, he was appointed superintendent of the Lowell Merrimac Manufacturing Co., at Lowell, Mass. Here he projected a system of lectures of an instructive character, presenting commerce and useful subjects in such a way as to gain attention and enlighten the people.

For several years he delivered gratuitous lectures on the Natural History of Animals, Light, Electricity, the Seasons, Hydraulics, Eclipses, etc. His knowledge of machinery enabled him admirably to illustrate these lectures by models of his own construction; and his successful experiments and simple teaching added much to the practical knowledge of his operatives.

He proposed to occupy the space between the common schools and the college halls by carrying, so far as might be practicable, the design of the Rumford Lectures of Harvard into the community of the actual workers of common life.

In the mean time he discharged his official duties efficiently, and the superintendence of the schools of Lowell was also added to his labors. He never relinquished, during these busy years, the design formed in his college days of furnishing to the children of the country a series of text-books on the _inductive plan_ in mathematics.

His "Algebra upon the Inductive Method of Instruction," appeared in 1825, and his "Sequel to Intellectual Arithmetic" in 1836. He regarded the "Sequel" as a book of more merit and importance than the "First Lessons."

He also published a series of selections from Miss Edgeworth's stories, in a suitable form for reading exercises for the younger classes of the Lowell schools, in the use of which the teachers were carefully instructed.

In May, 1827, he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Sciences. For several years he was a member of the Examining Committee for Mathematics at Harvard College.

He was a member of the Superintending School Committee of Lowell; and so busy were he and his coworkers that they were repeatedly obliged to hold their meetings at six o'clock in the morning.

Warren Colburn was ardently admired--almost revered--by the teachers who were trained to use his "Inductive Methods of Instruction" in teaching elementary mathematics.

In personal appearance Mr. Colburn was decidedly pleasing. His height was five feet ten, and his figure was well proportioned. His face was one not to be forgotten; it indicated sweetness of disposition, benevolence, intelligence, and refinement. His mental operations were not rapid, and it was only by great patience and long continued thought that he achieved his objects. He was not fluent in conversation; his hesitancy of speech, however, was not so great when with friends as with strangers. The tendency of his mind was toward the practical in knowledge; his study was to simplify science, and to make it accessible to common minds.

Mr. Colburn will live in educational history as the author of "Warren Colburn's First Lessons," one of the very best books ever written, and which, for a quarter of a century, was in almost universal use as a text-book in the best common schools, not only in the primary and intermediate grades, but also in the grammar school classes.

In accordance with the method of this famous book, the pupils were taught in a natural way, a knowledge of the fundamental principles of arithmetic. By its use they developed the ability to solve mentally and with great facility all of the simple questions likely to occur in the every day business of common life.

Undoubtedly Pestalozzi first conceived the idea of the true "inductive method" of teaching numbers; but it was Mr. Colburn who adapted it to the needs of the children of the common elementary schools. It has wrought a great change in teaching, and placed Warren Colburn on the roll as one of the educational benefactors of his age.

He died at Lowell, Mass., Sept. 13, 1883, at the age of 90 years.--_Journal of Education_.

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THURY'S DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINE.

Thury's dynamo-electric machine, which presents some peculiarities, has never to our knowledge been employed outside of Sweden and a few neighboring regions; but this is doubtless due to some personal motive or other of its constructors, since it has, it would seem, given excellent results in every application that has been made of it. It is represented in perspective in Fig. 1, and in longitudinal section and elevation in Figs. 2 and 3.

As may be seen, it is a multipolar (6-pole) machine in which an attempt has been made to utilize magnetically, as far as possible, all the iron used in the frame. For this reason the system has been given the form of a hexagonal prism, whose faces are formed of flat electro-magnets, A, A, xxx, constituting the inductors.

The internal angles of this prism are filled by polar expansions, P, P, xxx, alternately north and south, that thus form in the interior of the apparatus an inscribed cylinder designed to receive the armature. This latter belongs to the kinds that are wound upon a cylinder in which the wire is external thereto.

The conductors are placed upon the iron drum longitudinally and parallel with its axis. But instead of being connected with each other at the posterier end of the armature, as in the Siemens system, they are connected according to chords that correspond to a fourth, a sixth, or any equal fraction whatever of the circumference. Fig. 4 gives a perspective view of the cylinder, upon which the conductors 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on, are placed according to generatrices. The armature is supposed to be divided into six parts, each conductor passing over the bases of the drum through a chord equal to the radius, that is to say, corresponding to a sixth of the circumference.

Three conductors are all connected together in such a way as to form but a single circuit closed upon itself. Conductor 1, for example, is connected with No. 6 in such a way that the end issuing from 1 becomes the end that enters No. 6. Conductor No. 3 is connected in the same way with No. 8, and so on, up to the last conductor, which is connected in its turn with the end that enters the first.

As the figure shows, the conductor before passing from 3 to 8, for example, returns several times upon itself in following 6 and 3, and the same is the case with all the rest of the winding.

In this way the cylinder becomes inclosed within nine rectangular wire frames, each of which is connected with the following one by a conductor that is at the same time connected with one of the nine plates of the collector. The number of the rubbers corresponds to that of the inducting poles. They may be coupled in different ways, but they are in most cases united for quantity.

It will be seen that the Thury armature resembles, in the system of winding, those of the Siemens machines and their derivatives. But it differs from these, however, in the details connected with the coupling of the wires, from the very fact that the features of a two-pole machine are not found exactly in a multipolar one.

This latter kind of machine is considered advantageous by its inventors, in that there is no need of revolving it with much velocity. It must not be forgotten, however, that although we reduce the velocity by this mode of construction, we are, on another hand, obliged to increase the size of the machine, so that, according to the circumstances under which we chanced to be placed, the advantage may now be on the one side and now on the other.

It goes without saying that Fig. 4 is essentially diagrammatic, and is designed to give a clearer idea of the mode of winding the armature. In practice the number of the frames, and consequently that of the plates of the conductor, is much greater, and the arrangement that we have described is repeated a certain number of times, the conducter always forming a circuit that is closed upon itself.

The Thury machines are constructed in different styles. No. 1 is a 100-lamp (16 candles and 100 volts) machine, and Nos. 2 and 3 are nominally 250-lamp ones, but may be more. Their weight is 1,100 kilogrammes, and their velocity, for 100 volts, is from 400 to 500 revolutions, according to the mode of coupling.

A later type, now in course of construction, is to furnish from 750 to 2,000 lamps, with 250 revolutions, for 100 volts, and is not to weigh more than 2,000 kilogrammes. Let us add that Messrs. Meuron and Cuenod, the manufacturers, have likewise applied their mode of winding to conductors arranged radially upon the surface of a circle. Fig. 5 shows this arrangement.

In this case the inductors will, it is unnecessary to say, be arranged laterally as in all flat ring machines. The arrangement will recall, for example, that of the Victoria machines (Brush-Mordey).

We do not think that the inventors have applied this radial arrangement practically, for it does not appear to be advantageous. The parts of conductors which are perpendicular to the radius, and which can be only inert (even if they do not become the seat of disadvantageous currents), have, in fact, too great an importance with respect to the radial parts.--_A. Guerout, in La Lumiere Electrique_.

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BREGUET'S TELEPHONE.

Prof. G. Forbes gives the following description: The instrument which I call Breguét's telephone is founded upon the instrument which was described by Lipmann, called the capillary electrometer. The phenomenon may be shown in a variety of ways. One of the easiest methods to show it is by taking a long glass tube and bending it into two glasses of dilute acid, and, the tube being filled with acid itself, a piece of mercury is placed in the center of the tube. Then if one pole of a battery is connected with one vessel of acid, and the other pole of the battery is connected with the other vessel of acid, at the moment of connection the bit of mercury will be seen to travel to the right or left, according to the direction of the current. M. Lipmann explained the action by showing that the electro-motive force which is generated tends to alter the convexity of the surface of the mercury. The surface of the mercury, looked at from one side, has a convex form, which is altered by the electro-motive force set up when connection is made with the battery. The equilibrium of the mercury is dependent upon the convexity, and consequently when the convexity is disturbed the mercury moves to one side or the other. Lipmann also showed that if a tube containing a bit of mercury, and tapering to a point, is taken and dipped into acid, and then the tube filled with acid, on one pole of a battery being dipped into the tube and another into the acid the mercury will move up or down, showing similar action to that which I have just described.

Lipmann further showed the reverse effect, that if a piece of mercury be forcibly pressed, so as to alter the convexity of its surface, such as by bringing it into a narrower part of the tube, then there is an electro-motive force produced.

It occurred to me, and no doubt it did to Breguet also, that if we speak either against the surface of the glass tube, and caused the tube to vibrate, or if the mercury were caused to vibrate in the manner I have shown, we ought to be able to introduce a varying current in the wires which might have sufficient electro-motive force to produce audible speech in a Bell telephone. Further, the same instrument, since varying electro-motive force affected the drop of mercury and produced varying displacement, ought also to act as a receiving instrument, and should vibrate in accordance with the currents that arrive. My experiments have only been in the way of using the instrument as a transmitter; but Breguét, I find, used it as a receiver as well as a transmitter, though I am not aware that M. Breguet made any actual experiments so as to produce articulate speech. I presume that this was done, although I have not come across any description of the experiments, and it was for that reason that I thought possibly some account of my own experiments might be interesting to the members of the Society. The first tubes that I used were bits of glass tube about a centimeter diameter, and simply drawn out to a tapering point. I have the tubes here. The first experiment I tried was by tapping the glass tube so as to mechanically shift the position of the mercury, and by listening on the telephone for the effect. For a long time, at least an hour, I could get no effect at all. At last I got a sound, but could not understand how it was that at one time of tapping I could not hear, while at another time it was quite loud.

At the top I always got sound, but at the side I got no sound, although the mercury was shaking. I then tried to see how feeble a current was audible in the telephone. An assistant tapped the tube while I stood out of the way, and where I could not see. I got him to tap it gentler and gentler, and could hear the most feeble tap. A pellet of paper was next dropped from various heights down to an inch, and each tap was perfectly audible in the telephone. I tried many methods, and one, purely accidentally chosen, was a piece of glass tube which I had drawn out into a tube about 2 mm. diameter, and then nearly closed the end of it. I have that tube here, and you will see what an ill-shapen and ugly-looking tube it is, but it is one of the best tubes I ever got; and finally, I found that small bits of thermometer tube, which were simply closed at their ends with a blow-pipe, gave very good results, and I was able to make them useful for various purposes. I then tried mounting a tube on the end of a speaking-trumpet and speaking to the mercury, but got no effect. In every place where I attached the glass tube itself to a sounding-board I got a very accurate reproduction. I put one on a piece of ferrotype plate, and that gave really the best result I ever got. The tube was fastened with sealing-wax, and with it I got excellent speech heard in a Bell receiver. I tried putting in a large number of these tubes, all in quantity, on the bottom of a ferrotype plate, but with no advantage. I have not yet tried putting them in series, one behind the other, so as to increase the electro-motive force, but I think that probably would be an improvement; of course it would require many vessels of acidulated water to dip into. The most distinct articulate speech was obtained from an ordinary ferrotype telephone plate, secured at the edges, and one of the glass tubes you see here attached to it.

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MUNRO'S TELEPHONIC EXPERIMENTS.

Mr. J. Munro, whose name is well known not only as a very clear writer upon electrical subjects, but as an original investigator, has recently, with the assistance of Mr. Benjamin Warwick, been conducting a most interesting experimental investigation of the action of the microphone as a telephonic transmitter, with the result of proving that metals may advantageously be employed in the place of carbon in a transmitting instrument, a practical development of one of the very earliest of Professor Hughes' microphones. The fact that metallic electrodes can practically be employed in microphonic transmitters has been denied of late with so much assurance and in such high quarters, that Mr. Munro's successful applications of that portion of Professor Hughes' discovery possess an especial interest, and must to a considerable extent affect the aspect of litigation in future contests in which the discovery of the microphone and the invention of the carbon transmitter are vital points at issue.

In investigating the properties of metallic conductors employed in the construction of microphones, Mr. Munro's first experiments were made with wires. These, in some cases, were caused by the action of a diaphragm, to rub the one on the other in such a manner as to make the point of contact vary (under the influence of the vibrations of the diaphragms) on one side or other of a position of normal potential, so that by the movement of a wire attached to a vibrating tympan along a fixed wire conveying a current from a battery, and thereby shunting the current at various positions along the length of the fixed wire, the strength of the current in the derived circuit, in which was included a suitable receiver, was varied accordingly. In other experiments mercury was employed, either as a sliding-drop, inclosing the fixed wire, or as an oscillating column; but these experiments, though instructive and interesting, did not for various reasons give encouraging results with a view to the practical application of the principle.

They, however, led Mr. Munro to proceed with compound wire structures, such as gratings resting upon or rubbing against one another, and one of the first experiments in this direction proved very successful, and led Mr. Munro to the construction of his gauze telephone, which is the most characteristic and efficient of his practical apparatus.

This instrument consists essentially of two pieces of iron-wire gauze, the one fixed in a vertical plane, and the other resting more or less lightly against it, the pressure between them being regulated by an adjustable spring or weight. These gauze plates are so connected in a telephonic circuit as to constitute the electrodes of a microphone; for touching one another lightly in several points, they allow the current to be transmitted between them in inverse proportion to the resistance offered to it in its passage from one to the other. Under the influence of sonorous vibrations the one plate dances more or less on the other, thus varying the resistance; and very perfect articulation is produced in a telephonic receiver included in the circuit. The gauze transmitter so constructed may be fixed within a wall-box with or without a mouthpiece; but as the sound waves acting directly upon the gauze plates set them into agitation through their sympathetic vibration or by direct impact, no sort of diaphragm or equivalent device is necessary, and none is employed.

A convenient form of this apparatus is shown in Fig. 1, and to which the name of "The Lyre Telephone" has been given from its resemblance to that impossible musical instrument. In this apparatus, G¹ is a plate of iron wire gauze stretched vertically between two horizontal wires attached to a lyre-shaped framework of mahogany; against the plate rests the smaller plate, G², the normal pressure between them being regulated by an adjustable spring acting in opposition to a weighted lever, W. The two plates are connected respectively with the attachment screws, X and Y, by which the instrument is placed in a circuit with a battery and telephonic circuit.

A modification of this apparatus is shown in the diagram sketch, Fig. 2, which will probably be a more practical form. In this instrument the electrodes consist of two circular disks of iron wire gauze of different diameters, the larger disk, G¹, which is fixed, being pierced with holes of smaller diameter than the smaller disk, G². In the diagram the two disks are shown separated for the purpose of explanation, but in reality they rest the one against the other; the smaller and movable disk, G², is held up against G¹ with greater or less pressure by the spiral spring, S, the tension of which can be adjusted by a screw or other suitable device at N. This form of the apparatus is more suitable for inclosure in a wall box with or without a mouthpiece, but it does not require the employment of any kind of diaphragm or tympan. Mr. Munro can employ with all his instruments an induction coil for installations where the resistance of the line wire makes it desirable to do so; the microphone and battery being included in the primary circuit and the telephones in the secondary.

Fig. 3 is an ingenious arrangement devised by Mr. Munro, in which the adjusting spring or weight is substituted by a magnet which may be either a permanent or an electro-magnet. The figure shows an arrangement in which the fixed gauze, g¹, is perforated as in the apparatus illustrated in Fig. 2, and the movable electrode, g, is bent or dished so as to press upon g¹ around its edge. E is a magnet which by its attractive influence upon g holds t up against g¹ with a pressure dependent upon its magnetic intensity and upon its distance from the gauze. By making E an electro-magnet, and including its coil in the telephonic circuit, an instrument may be constructed in which the normal pressure between the electrodes can be automatically adjusted to the strength of the current, and in cases where an induction coil is employed the magnet, E, may be the core of such a coil.