Chapter D: Freeman (3)

The explanation belongs to the department of meteorology, and not to astronomy. But the fact of having looked to the astronomers shows how little the world knows of meteorology and how few meteorologists there are able, ready, and willing to rise and explain in face of the opposition of the public, who seem to think that the explanation must necessarily belong to astronomy. Astronomy proper deals with the position of the earth in space and its relation to the other heavenly bodies, whether suns, fixed stars, planets, satellites, comets, or other bodies in the vast space about us. Meteorology deals with the atmosphere of the globe, in all its forms. Astronomy could be studied in the early ages; its grand facts were not wholly dependent upon the advanced condition of the mechanic arts; it could be studied even without the aid of telescopes, though telescopes have added much to its advancement. Meteorology, on the contrary, depended on the advancement of the arts and sciences; they must first be perfected ere we could know much about this branch of science. To one unfamiliar with the advancement and perfection of meteorology within the past ten years, this statement may seem strange, yet it is an undisputable fact that, prior to the establishment of the daily weather reports, the knowledge on this subject amounted to very little, and was not even worthy of being designated a science. Prior to the advent of the weather map the world was in absolute ignorance of the laws governing the atmosphere. Sure, we had had large volumes on the laws of storms, but the later revelations leave them shelved high and dry on the shores and as useless as a wreck in a similar condition; with the daily weather map before us we have no need to even open these huge volumes; they are completely circumvented, and only negative in value--to show how little was known of the subject without the full and complete facts daily collected and spread before us on the map published by the Weather Bureau.

In order to understand the color of our sky, we must understand the subject which is so immediately connected with it and its creation.

The earth is a sphere in space; generally speaking, it is composed of land and water. These are two factors; the heat that it derives from the sun forms a third factor; the three--land, water, and heat--are essential to life, at least the higher conditions of life which culminate in man. The old physical geography taught us this much, but it was not able to go further and tell us why it was cold or warm independent of the seasons; it could not explain why it was at times as warm, and even warmer, half-way to the pole than at the equator; why it was at times very warm in the extreme northeast while very cold in the Southern States; cold in the northwest when it was warm in the northeast, and warm in the northwest when cold all along the upper Atlantic seaboard; it could not forewarn us of storms. These and a host of other facts, which the weather map makes as plain as astronomy demonstrates that Jupiter is a planet, the new revelation, through the instrumentality of the perfected telegraph system, makes exceedingly plain to us if we will but seek the easily obtained information.

The principal revelations of the weather map are the facts in regard to the areas of high and low barometer, and the influence they exert upon the climate of the globe.

These conditions--high and low barometer--move on general lines from the west towards the east, or towards the rising sun, and around the world in irregular belts. The centers of low barometer are various distances apart, from a thousand to two thousand and even more miles apart--call the average about two thousand miles.

The clouds are formed from the moisture present by the action of the sun's heat. The direction of the wind is from the area of high barometer to that of low. The nearer the winds approach the center of "low" (low barometer), the more they partake of the lines of the volute curve, or curve of the sea shell or water in a whirlpool. High barometer is the atmospheric hill; low barometer is the atmospheric valley. But time at present will not permit more than these general statements; a close study of the weather map for a season will reveal the beautiful minor details.

To the reader it may seem a long way round, yet in order to fully understand the nature of the atmosphere which surrounds our globe we must pay due attention to these newly discovered physical laws.

The red sky which was so noticeable, in the fall of 1883, the astronomers have told us was due to "meteoric dust" which was produced by the volcanic eruption on the island of Java, August 27, 1883.

This "meteoric dust" they say combined with the atmosphere, followed it around the earth, and caused the beautiful redness of the sky at morning and evening. For one, I do not believe dust of any description in the atmosphere would produce such an effect.

There is nothing luminous, transparent, or delicate about dust. Dust would not remain in the atmosphere for months, it would settle in a very short time, and if thick enough in the atmosphere to obstruct the light of the sun it would be visible, discernible, to the eye, and manifest on the face of nature. Years ago, before the age of the weather map, we might have thought that the atmosphere followed the surface of the earth like the water on a grindstone, but it does not. As already seen, the wind is from the area of high barometer to that of low, and there are many of these "low centers."

From the best calculation we can make at present, there would be at least some six centers on an average between the center of the United States and the island of Java. In addition to this there would also be a number of belts of "low" centers, which would complicate the thing threefold at least. At all these different centers the winds would be blowing from all points of the compass at the same time. Such winds would not be apt to bring the "meteoric dust" from Java to the United States, either in an easterly or westerly direction. But, it is said, "dust" has been gathered.

How high from the surface of the ground has this _dust_ been gathered--at what elevation?

There is undoubtedly a little dust in the air most of the time, but I do not think that it extends very high. Where it would be the highest and most perceptible would be on the arid plans of Africa and Asia, when the _simoom_ is passing, or in the track of a tornado. But from the multiplicity of these storm centers and the varied winds they would produce even this dust could not travel from Java to America.

Again, all clouds, no matter how high or how low, are affected by the low centers, as the movement of clouds prove, and travel from the "high" to the "low," from and to all points of the compass. High authority gives the heights of the clouds as follows: lower clouds, 16,000 feet; upper clouds, 23,000 feet.

As all clouds, from the highest to the lowest, are affected by the centers as above referred to, it follows that if this "meteoric dust" follows the earth around, as it would have to do in order to make good this theory, it would have to travel suspended in the atmosphere above the upper clouds, or at a height of more than 23,000 feet, or at an elevation of over four miles!

Now, is it reasonable to believe that dust, however fine, will remain in the atmosphere at that elevation for over six months?

As a side argument it is suggested that the smoke of the burning woods, or few years ago in Michigan, caused as peculiar condition of the atmosphere. This extensive fire was on a day when the area of low barometer was on a high line of latitude and passing to the eastward. This naturally took the smoke, which is far lighter than dust, along with it. It mingled with the muggy condition of an extensive "low," and produced a yellowness of the atmosphere. This however was of only a few hours' duration, and was only visible in favorable localities.

Here again we see the advantage of the weather maps; but for this map we would never have been able to have satisfactorily explained the peculiar phenomenon produced by the great Michigan fire.

If the delicate redness of the sky is not caused by dust, what is it caused by?

But for the weather map, I think we should still be in the dark in regard to it.

In the first place, this redness is nothing new, only the conditions are more favorable sometimes than at others. It has always existed and always will exist, independent of earthquakes, volcanoes, etc. Nature is ever changing; the movements of the atmosphere more resemble the kaleidoscope than any thing else.

The summer and fall of 1883, the movements of "high" (high barometer) over the United States were quite central and extensive, causing this peculiar phenomenon over a wide extent of territory.

We have no information of the condition of the barometer over the other part of the world; we speak move particularly of the United States; yet if certain conditions produce certain effects here, it is quite safe to say that the same effects are produced by the same cause elsewhere.

As now well established by the map, the surface wind is from the area of high barometer to that of low--from the atmospheric hill to the atmospheric valley.

The tendency of this is to free "high" of all clouds and moisture; but then it is impossible to free "high" entirely of moisture; a little will remain, and it is just this little, which is highly rarefied, that produces the result. We look around us and above, we see little or no evidence of evaporation, yet it is the while going on. When the sun is immediately below the horizon, where it will shine horizontally through the mass of light, suspended moisture, the delicate presence of vapor heretofore unnoticed is revealed. The action of the sun's rays is the same as when illuminating a well formed cloud--it is an embodiment of the same principle, but the material is much more expanded. The particles of suspended moisture are very fine, few and far between, therefore the effect of the light upon it is more diffused and transparent. It is much like looking through a piece of window glass flatwise and endwise; flatwise we do not perceive any color; endwise, from seeing through a greater mass, the glass has a very perceptible green color.

We see the same idea also in the rising and setting sun and moon. On a clear, cloudless night, when nothing seems to interfere with the brightness of the stars, we cannot, by looking upward, perceive any moisture present in the atmosphere; but if we cast our eyes to the horizon, whereby we see through the mass of atmosphere endwise, as it were, and note the appearance of the stars there, or the rising or setting moon, we will see that the atmosphere there gives a redness to the rising body, which it does not have when it has ascended to mid-heaven. On a clear night, which is caused by the presence of the area of high barometer, the moon when in mid-heaven is of a clear, silver-white, and it is the same moon that at the horizon was a deep red. The color of the moon has not changed; it is simply the medium through which it is seen that produces the difference in color.

Occasionally, on a clear, bright ("high") night, when the moon is full, prior to rising, when just below the horizon, it will so illuminate this lower strata of atmosphere as to appear like a great fire; the moon rises red, but its deep color gradually fades as it rises, and when well up in the heavens we perceive that this deep coloring was an illusion and merely the influence of its surroundings. I never, though, knew of any one to attempt to account for this by "meteoric dust;" and yet it is an embodiment of the same principle. Place the sun where the moon is, and from its far superior abundance of light we have a much grander display.

Under no other conditions or relations of the sun and earth is it possible to have this phenomenon of the delicate red sky but when a positive area of high barometer is passing and extends over us. In order to produce this effect we must have the clear atmosphere of high barometer, when there is a minimum of moisture present. The action of the sun's rays upon this extensive area of slightly moist rarefied air is unconfined by clouds, and reaches far and wide, and produces a delicacy of color which from no other source or condition can be realized.

ISAAC P. NOYES.

Washington, D. C., 1884.

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A THEORY OF COMETARY PHENOMENA.

_To the, Editor of the Scientific American_:

The following subject, substantially, was written more than a year ago with a view to its publication. It was not, however, until January of the present year that I sent a brief communication to the _Brooklyn Eagle_, which was published Feb. 3, giving my views in relation to cometary phenomena. With this I might remain satisfied, were it not that the interesting paper by G. D. Hiscox, published in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, Feb. 16, impressed me with the idea that the theory I advanced might assist in explaining others, if brought to the notice of those interested through the columns of your valuable journal.

The theory that I advance to account for the several phenomena relating to comets' tails is, that comets are non-luminous, transparent bodies; that they transmit the light of the sun; that the transmitted light reflected by the particles of matter in space constitutes the tails of comets. "Like causes produce like effects." By contraries, then, like effects must be produced by similar causes; for, if an effect produced by a cause which is known is similar to an effect produced by a cause which is not known, the cause which is known must be similar to the cause which is not known. This is true or not.

I submit the following experiments to substantiate the theory advanced.

Partially fill a vial or a tumbler with water, hold it by the rim, and move it around a lighted candle placed upon a table. A shadow surrounding the transmitted light will be cast upon the table. As the tumbler approaches the light, the shadow follows the tumbler, and when receding the tumbler follows the shadow; and as the tumbler is moved around the light, the shadow will swing round from one side to the other. If the tumbler be held so that a puff of smoke can be blown into the transmitted rays, the particles of smoke will reflect the transmitted light, and will illustrate my idea of what constitutes a comet's tail. A dark band may be observed in this stream of light, as also in the light cast upon the table.

In these experiments, we see the effects produced by a cause which is known; the effects are similar to those observed in the tails of comets, the cause of which we do not know; but is it not reasonable to assume that the cause is similar?

Assuming now that comets are transparent, can any other phenomena peculiar to comets be accounted for upon this hypothesis? Next to the tail itself, the curve is the most noticeable feature, and if we consider the extraordinary length of these appendages, the astounding velocity at which comets move in their orbits, and the time that would elapse before a ray of light, emitted from the nucleus, would reach the end of the tail, perhaps the curve--which, if I am not deceived in my observations, always dips toward its orbit--can be accounted for. If a comet moved in a direct line toward the center of the sun, there would be no curve to the tail. But taking Donati's comet of 1858 as an example, the tail of which was said to be about 200,000,000 miles long, a ray of light traveling at the rate of 192,000 miles per second would be about twenty minutes in going from the nucleus to the end of the tail.

But during that time the comet would move in its orbit, say, 50,000 miles, and as light moves in a straight line, and other rays are constantly emerging from the nucleus as it moves along in its course, the result is that the tail has a curved appearance.

I have no data at hand regarding this comet, but what I have said will serve to illustrate my ideas. Again, referring to this comet, I remember to have read the statement of an astronomer that, after passing round the sun, a new tail was formed opposite the original one. Now, it seems to me that that is just what would happen, for in moving round the sun the comet would travel say 3,000,000 miles; the greater portion of the tail then, would extend millions of miles upon one side of the sun, while from the nucleus upon the opposite side of the sun a new tail would appear to be formed.

Upon this hypothesis, the extraordinary length of their tails and the fact that stars are visible through the densest portion of them is explained; as also the fact that they so rapidly disappear from view when moving from the sun, the light received by them from the sun being in proportion to their distance from it, and but little of that reflected.

JOHN M. HUGHES.

Brooklyn, N. Y.

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[FOR THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.]

ON COMETS.

When we see a comet approaching the sun with its tail following in the orbit of the nucleus, we have no great difficulty in believing the common theory that a comet consists of nucleus attracted toward the sun, while the tail is repelled; and that we see the whole of it. But as it approaches the sun, difficulties arise that make us doubt whether the theory be true.

Let us suppose a comet with a tail 50,000,000 miles in length, and that it will require two days to pass round the sun. Now the tail, being always in a line drawn through the center of the sun and center of the nucleus, will, when it reaches the long axis of the elliptical orbit, stand perpendicularly to the orbit of the nucleus. That is, the extremity of the tail farthest from the sun, in addition to its onward motion, has acquired a lateral motion that has lifted it 50,000,000 miles in the first day of its perihelion. The velocity of the extremity has been vastly accelerated over that of the nucleus, and it has moreover a sheer lift above the orbit of the nucleus. Now this lift is in opposition to gravity; neither is it in consequence of any previous momentum, for its velocity is accelerated and its previous momentum would be a hindrance; nor is the lift in consequence of any repelling force from the sun, for such force would be diminished in proportion to the square of the distance, and the far end would be acted on less than the nucleus end of the tail, whereas the velocity of the former is increased a hundred fold over that of the latter. A polar force in the comet would merely draw the comet into the sun. We therefore find no force adequate for such a lift, but on the contrary all the forces are opposed to it.

But if the first day of the perihelion overwhelms us with difficulty, the second day will prove disastrous to the common theory. For the extremity of the tail farthest from the sun will be required to pass with lateral motion from its perpendicular 100,000,000 miles, so that it may be in advance of the nucleus and again rest on its orbit. This orbit is an impassable line, and therefore instantly arrests the prodigious lateral velocity of the tail. That impassable orbital line is to it as solid and inflexible as a wall of adamant. The motion so instantly arrested would be disastrous to any tail, whether composed of gas, meteorites, or electricity, whatever that may be.

Having shown that the common theory of comets is filled with insuperable difficulties, I will again call attention to a theory proposed about eighteen months ago in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.

According to this theory, a comet consists of a nucleus and an atmosphere, for the most part invisible, surrounding it on all sides to an extent at least equal to the length of the tail. The rays of the sun in passing through or near the nucleus are so modified as to become visible in their further progress through the cometic atmosphere, while all the rest remain invisible. What we call the tail is merely a radius of the cometic atmosphere made visible, and as the comet moves through space, only different portions of the atmosphere come in sight, in obedience to the ordinary laws of light. There is no difficulty in accounting for the rise and fall of the tail at perihelion, nor for the tail preceding the nucleus afterward.

The spherical theory accounts easily for the different forms of tail seen in different comets. The sword shaped tails, at variance with the common theory, can be accounted for by supposing a slight difference in density or material in the cometic atmosphere, which will deflect the light as seen. The comet of 1823, which cannot be explained on the common theory, is very easily explained on the spherical. That comet showed two tails, apparently of equal length, which moved opposite to each other, and perpendicularly to the orbit of the nucleus, and showing no signs of repulsive force from the sun. On the spherical theory it is only necessary to suppose such an arrangement of the nucleus as would reflect the rays of the sun laterally; a slight modification of the nucleus would give not only two but any number of tails pointing in different directions.

It may be objected to the spherical theory that a tail 50,000,000 miles long would call for a sphere 100,000,000 miles in diameter, and that would be too vast for our solar system. But it is claimed for this sphere that it consists of the same material as the so-called tail, and that it has the same capability of moving among planets without manifest disturbance to either.

The sphere at the perihelion would envelop the sun, and as a noticeable reduction is sometimes found in its so-called tail, the cometic atmosphere may impart to the sun at that time whatever is necessary to its use.

That there is something in common between the sun's corona and cometary matter was shown by the last solar eclipse observed in South Pacific Ocean, where the spectrum of sun's corona was found to be the same as that of a comet's tail. Are we to attribute in any degree the different appearances of the sun's corona to the presence or absence of a comet at its perihelion? At the eclipse of the sun seen in Upper Egypt two or three years ago, a comet was seen close to the sun, but I have seen no account of the appearance of the corona at that time.

FURMAN LEAMING, M.D.

Romney, Tippecanoe Co. Indiana.

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FORMS OF IVY.

It is scarcely possible for us to bee too emphatic in our praises of the most distinct forms of ivy, since but few other hardy climbing plants ever give to us a tithe of their freshness and variety. A good long stretch of wall covered with a selection of the best green-leaved kind is always interesting, and never more so than during the winter months, especially if at intervals the golden Japanese jasmine is planted among them or a few plants of pyracantha or of Simmon's cotoneaster for the sake of their coral fruitage. The large-leaved golden ivy is also very effective here and there along a sunny wall, especially if contrasted with the small-leaved kind--atropurpurea--which has dark purple or bronzy foliage at this season. Of the large-leaved kinds, one of the most distinct is canariensis, or large-leaved Irish ivy, and Raegner's variety, with leathery, heart-shaped foliage, is also handsome. The birdsfoot ivy (pedata) is curious, as it clings to the stones like delicate leaf embroidery, and for shining green leafage but few equal to the one called lucida. The two other kinds sketched are hastata and digitata, both free growing and distinct sorts.

_Ivy Leaves_.--Common ivy is tolerably plentiful nearly everywhere, but it is not common to find a good distinct series of its many varieties even in the best gardens. Of all the different forms of ivy, I think the large-leaved golden one of the best; certainly the best of the variegated kinds. Raegner's variety is also very bold, its great glossy, heart-shaped leaves most effective. Algeriensis is another fine-leaved kind, the form dentata producing foliage even still larger when well grown. For making low evergreen edgings on the turf, for carpeting banks, the covering of bare walls and the old tree stumps, we have no other evergreen shrub so fresh and variable, or so easily cultivated as are these forms of the ivy green. Perhaps one reason why the finer kinds of ivy are comparatively uncommon is the fact that a strong prejudice exists against ivy in many minds. It is an erroneous notion that ivy injures buildings against the walls of which it is planted; it never injures a good wall, nor a sound house, but on the contrary, hides and softens the stony bareness of the one and adds beauty and freshness to the other.--_The Garden_.

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PROPAGATING ROSES.

In an article on this subject an English horticultural journal describes the method pursued by a London florist. After stating that out of a case containing 310 cuttings only five failed to root, the article proceeds: The case or box is made of common rough deal boards. It is five feet six inches long and one foot in depth. Within half an inch of the top a groove is cut inside the box, into which the glass is slid, after the manner of a sliding box lid. In the end of the third week in July the box was placed in the kitchen garden under the shadow of a high north wall; it was then about half filled with good turfy loam, to which had been added a little leaf mould and a good sprinkling of sharp sand. The soil was then pressed down very firmly (the box being nearly half full when pressed), and then thoroughly well soaked with rain water, and allowed to stay uncovered until the next day. The next day good stout cuttings were taken of all the roses, both tea and hybrid perpetual, which it was desired to add to the stock. They were then inserted closely and firmly in the soil, just over the bottom leaf, the glasses were slipped on and puttied down; the grooves in which the glass slid, and even the joints in the glass, being filled with putty, so as to exclude the air. The whole thing completed, nothing more remained to be done but to leave the box in its cool, shady nook for five or six weeks, when the growing points of the free starting kinds gave notice that the glasses might be removed, a bit at a time, with safety. Nothing could be more simple, or demand less skill, and the operation may be carried out successfully by an amateur at any time during the season, when good firm cuttings can be got, and when six weeks' tolerably fine weather may be counted on. The success of the whole thing depends on having the glasses fixed so that they may not be removed until the cuttings are rooted, and in placing the boxes in a shady place. So treated, carnations and many of our shrubs and herbaceous perennials may be propagated by unskilled persons with certainty, and without much trouble.

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A FEW OF THE BEST INULAS.

Of the fifty-six species of Inula described in scientific works, probably not more than thirty are at present in cultivation in this country, and those are chiefly confined to botanic gardens, notwithstanding the fact that many of them are useful garden plants. They are principally distributed throughout Southern Europe, although we find them extending to Siberia and the Himalayas; indeed, it is to the Himalayas we are indebted for the kinds that are most ornamental. Some of the low-growing species are extremely useful for the rockery, such as I. montana (the Mountain Inula), a fine dwarf plant with woolly lanceolate leaves and dense heads of orange-colored flowers, resembling in habit and general appearance some of the creeping Hieraciums. It is a handsome and desirable plant for the decoration of old walls and similar places, where it can be a little sheltered from rain and drip. Another very useful species for this purpose is I. rhizocephaloides, found plentifully in the Himalayas. It is one of the prettiest Alpine composites we have. It seldom attains more than from one inch to two inches in height, forming a dense rosette of short, hairy, oval leaves, in the center of which the bright purple involucres, in the form of a ball, are extremely interesting. It is easily cultivated, requiring, however, a rather snug nook, where it will not be allowed to become too dry. It is best propagated from seed. Then there is the woolly Inula (I. candida), a pretty plant with small oval leaves, covered with a thick, silky down, and much in the way of the white-leaved I. limonifolia, both of which are very effective when grown in masses, which should always be low down near the front of a rockery, or as an edging for a mixed border. The glandular-leaved Inula (I. glandulosa), of which a good representation is here given, is a beautiful hardy perennial. It is a native of Georgia and the Caucasian Alps, near the Caspian Sea. It is a rather robust-growing species, with large, bright, orange-yellow flowers, varying from three to five inches in diameter, the narrow and very straggly ray florets contrasting nicely with the rather prominent disk. The leaves, although quite entire, seem notched, owing to large black glands which form on their margins. They are lanceolate, and clasp the stem. The plant is very variable, both as regards robustness and size of flowers, and this may in a measure account for the confusion existing between it and I. Oculus-Christi.

The soil most suitable for the full development of I. glandulosa is a strong, clayey, retentive loam; it does not thrive well in the light shallow soils in the neighborhood of London, except in shady positions. I. Hookeri is a free-flowering perennial, with pointed lanceolate leaves, of a delicate texture, bright green, and very finely toothed. The flowers, which are sweet-scented, are not so large as those of I. glandulosa, and are produced singly, the ray florets being, however, much more numerous, rarely numbering less than thirty. It is found in abundance in rocky places in Sikkim, where it replaces the nearly allied I. grandiflora, a dwarfer species, with much shorter, shining leaves; both are very desirable plants either for rockery or flower border work. The Elecampane (I. Helenium) is an imposing, robust-growing species, having large, broad leaves a foot or more in length. It grows from four feet to five feet in height, and its thick, shaggy branches are crowned with large yellow flowers. For isolating in woods this plant, is very useful, and with the exception of Telekia cordifolia, it would be hard to find a rival to it. It is, I believe, pretty extensively used for planting in shrubberies, but unless they are thin and open it is seldom seen to advantage. It is found wild or naturalized in some parts of England. It flowers in June and July, and even into August when the season has been favorable.

For naturalizing in woods the following will be found useful, _viz_., I. salicina, I. Oculus-Christi, I. squarrosa, I. britannica, and many more, the true beauty of which can only be realized in this way. With the exception of I. rhizocepbaloides, they are all propagated by division with the greatest ease, or by seed, which is best sown as soon as it is ripe.--_D.K., The Garden_.

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FRUIT GROWING.

By P.H. FOSTER.

In the first place, if you contemplate appropriating a portion of your land for the raising of fruits, you should have the orchard so situated that no large animals can run at large on the grounds. Prepare your soil in the most thorough manner; underdrain, if necessary, to carry off surplus water; dig deep, large holes; fill in the bottom with debris; in the very bottom put a few leaves, clam and oyster shells, etc., then sods; above and below the roots put a good garden or field soil; do not give the trees fresh manure at the time of setting, but the following fall manure highly with any kind on top of the ground; dig it in the following spring; keep the soil frequently worked during the summer, and, if convenient, mulch with hay, straw, or leaves.

Now you are on the road to progress, provided you have made no mistake in the selection of your trees. The purposes for which you intend your fruit is highly important. You should well consider at the outset if for family or market use. This is a business which requires a long look ahead, for it is said, "He who plants pears looks ahead for his heirs."

Caution should be used in procuring your stock; little should be planted that is not fairly tested on the Island, purchased of parties who can be fully relied upon to give you what you want. Do not buy your stock of parties who carry labels in their pockets to make to order what you want out of the same bundle of trees.

Now, having your trees set out in a proper manner, of such varieties as you desire, the next important step is to bring the trees into usefulness. My plan is to use bone--fine bone--very freely about every three years. Another important matter is that of trimming. "Fire purifies," and the knife regulates the grand balance or equilibrium between roots and tops. In most cases the top outgrows the roots, the consequence of which is an ultimate weakness of the tree. It is thrown into excessive fruiting, disease, and premature decay. To avoid this result, use the knife when required. Thin out the inside branches when small, and if the tree does not make a satisfactory growth, cut back half way to the ground.

We will suppose that you have got your trees growing nicely, and they have begun to bear fruit. There are other important steps to be taken, which will be of little cost to you. Provide a wind-break for the orchard. Evergreens answer the purpose, being a protection against the wind. Having this matter attended to, there are other enemies with which we must contend. I refer to the apple and peach tree borers. The former will live in the tree for three years, if unmolested; the latter, one year only. They are very easily destroyed by looking over the trees and taking them out with a knife; or maybe prevented from touching the trees by wrapping a piece of felt paper, 8 inches wide, around the tree near the ground, the bottom being covered with dirt and the top tied tightly above. The pear is not generally disturbed by these insects--only the apple, peach, and quince. We have another insect very destructive to the plum, peach, cherry, and apple--the _curcutio_, or plum weavel. This season for the first time in twenty years we have gathered a small crop of that very desirable plum, the Purple Favorite. We simply threw air-slaked lime over the trees nearly every morning for from four to six weeks, from the time the tree was out of bloom. Peach trees should be treated in the same manner. Another method of fighting this insect is to spread a sheet under the tree, and with a blow jar off the little Turk and secure him on the sheet. But I consider the lime procedure the less trouble and more effective. The tent caterpillar, which is easily seen, should be destroyed at once. We have yet another insect to contend with which infests the apple and pear, commonly called the Coddling Moth, and the larva, the apple-worm (_Garpocapsa pomonella_). The loss by the ravaaes of this insect alone to the fruit growers of the United States fan hardly be estimated, as in many cases the whole crop is rendered worthless. Such a vast destruction of two of the most valuable fruits the world produces should stimulate scientists in this age of progress to discover an effectual remedy against such a gigantic evil.

I have never yet discovered nor tried an effectual remedy against this insect. The nearest I have approached his extermination is in the following manner: After it has entered the fruit and accomplished its damage, the time arrives when it has to leave the fruit and hide itself in a quiet, secure position to undergo the transition from the larva to the pupa state, which requires, in the early part of the season, eight or ten days; after this time the miller is hatched and is again ready to besiege the fruit with its sting. The insect, being two-brooded in this climate at least, if not disturbed, has an aggregating force to do mischief the second time. The progeny for the succeeding year have alone to depend on the security of this second generation of larvæ. As they may often be found in bark of apple trees during winter, my plan of destruction is, about the first of July to take woolen rags long enough to wrap around the trees, and say four inches wide. Each week I look over the trees, and destroy the worms secreted under the rags and wherever I find them until the fruit is off the trees. I have all the green fruit, of every kind, carefully picked up as soon as it falls, thereby destroying many of the curculio as well as the apple-worms.

One word upon the grape--the insect part of the question. The _Phylloxera vastatrix_, or grape-vine louse, is already at work on Long Island. It is found very difficult to raise many of our fine, new grapes with us in consequence of the depredations of this very minute insect, it being almost too small to be seen by the naked eye. There has lately been discovered a remedy which is entirely chemical and as yet but little disseminated. Very soon, no doubt, a discovery will be made that will stay the progress of this destructive enemy.

We should plant aplenty of cherry and small fruit trees to yield feed for birds. In return they will assist us in our efforts to preserve a bountiful supply of this health producing element.

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COARSE FOOD FOR PIGS.

A recent subscriber wants advice how to feed pigs of 25 to 35 pounds weight, that are to be kept over winter and fitted for sale at about six months old--whether coarse food will not help them as much in winter as in summer. How roots and pumpkins will answer in lieu of grass, and what can be fed when this green food is gone? He has had poor success in growing young pigs on corn alone. He has a reasonably warm pen for winter.

The question of food is constantly recurring, and this is one of the best evidences of the advancement of the country in the feeder's art. When people are making no inquiry as to improved methods in any direction, no progress can be made. There has been more progress made in the philosophy of feeding during the last thirty years than in the century and a half previous.

In pig feeding in the dairy districts, young pigs generally grow up in a very healthy condition, owing to the refuse milk of the dairy, which furnishes the principal food of young pigs. Skim-milk contains all the elements for growing the muscles and bones of young pigs. This gave them a good, rangy frame, and, when desired, could be fed into 400 or 500 pounds weight. But the fault attending this feeding was, that it was too scanty to produce such rapid growth as is desired. It took too long to develop them for the best profit. It had not then been discovered by the farmer that it costs less to put the first hundred pounds on the pig than the second, and less for the second than the third, etc.; that it was much cheaper to produce 200 pounds of pork in six months than in nine and twelve months. When it became evident that profit required more rapid feeding, then they began to ply them continually with the most concentrated food--corn meal or clear corn. If this was fed in summer, on pasture, no harm was observed, for the grass gave bulk in the stomach, and the pigs were were healthy and made good progress. But if the young pigs were fed in pen in winter upon corn meal or clear corn, the result was quite different; this concentrated food produced feverish symptoms, and the pigs would lose their appetite for a few days, drinking only water, which, after a while, would relieve the stomach, and the pigs would eat vigorously again. Now, had they been fed a few quarts of turnips, carrots, beets, or pumpkins, to give bulk to the stomach, and separate the concentrated food, no harm would have come. This gives the gastric juice a free circulation through the contents of the stomach, the food is properly digested and applied to the needs of the body instead of causing fever by remaining in the stomach.--_Live Stock Journal_.

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METE KINGI.

Our engraving is a portrait of a familiar character in New Zealand, chief Mete Kingi, who recently died at the age of one hundred years. He was a fine specimen of the Maori race, the native New Zealanders, a branch of the Malayo-Polynesian family. The New Zealanders surpassed all other people in the art of tattooing, to which their chiefs gave especial attention. Mete Kingi, as our picture shows, was no exception. Tattooing on the face they termed _moko_. The men tattoo their faces, hips, and thighs; the women their upper lips; for this purpose charcoal made from kauri gum is chiefly used. It has the blue color when pricked into the skin, growing lighter in shade in the course of years. The subject of our illustration embraced Christianity, and was much respected. Our engraving is from the _Illustrated Australian News_.

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LAKE TAHOE.

Some very interesting information by Prof. John Le Conte, is given in the _Overland Monthly_, being the result of some physical observations made by the author at Lake Tahoe, in 1873. Lake Tahoe, also called Lake Bigler, is situated at an altitude of 6,247 feet in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, partly in California, partly in Nevada. The lake has a length of 22 and a width of 12 miles. As regards its origin, the author regards it as a "plication hollow," or a trough produced by the formation of two mountain ridges, afterward modified by glacial agency. The depth of the lake is remarkable; the observations taken at ten stations along the length of the lake gave the following depths in feet: 900, 1,385, 1,495, 1,500, 1,506, 1,540, 1,504, 1,600, 1,640, 1645. This depth exceeds that of the Swiss lakes proper--Lake Geneva, for example, has a maximum depth of 1,096 feet--but is considerably less than that of Lakes Maggiore and Como, on the Italian side of the Alps. A series of observations of the temperature of the water were taken between the 11th and 18th of August. The average corrected results are as follows:

Depth in feet. Temp. (C.)
0(surface).................................19.4
50..........................................17.2
100..........................................12.8
150..........................................10.0
200.......................................... 8.9
250.......................................... 8.3
300.......................................... 7.8
330 (bottom)................................. 7.5
400.......................................... 7.2
480 (bottom)................................. 6.9
500.......................................... 6.7
600.......................................... 6.1
772 (bottom)................................. 5.0
1506 (bottom)..............,.................. 4.0

The temperature, therefore, diminishes with increasing depth to about 700 or 800 feet, and below this remains sensibly the same down to 1,506 feet; or in other words, a constant temperature of 4° C. prevails at all depths below about. 820 feet. This is in accordance with the theory, the temperature named being that of the maximum density of water, and it confirms the recent observations of Prof. Forel in Switzerland; he found, for example, that a constant temperature of 4° C. was reached in Lake Zurich at a depth of nearly 400 feet, the lake being then covered with 4 inches of ice. The explanation of the observed fact that Lake Tahoe does not entirely freeze over even in severe winters is found in the extreme depth; and the fact that the bodies of drowned persons do not rise to the surface after the lapse of the usual time is explained by the low temperature prevailing near the bottom, which does not allow the necessary decomposition to go forward so as to produce the ordinary result.

The water of Lake Tahoe is remarkable both for its transparency and beauty of color. A series of observations made at the close of August or beginning of September showed that a horizontally adjusted dinner plate of about 9½ inches diameter was visible at noon at a depth of 108 feet. The maximum depth of the limit of visibility as found by Prof. Forel, in Lake Geneva, was 56 feet. He showed, moreover, that this limit is much greater in. winter than in summer, as explained in part by the greater absence of suspended matter and in part by the fact that increase of temperature increases the absorbing power of water for light. The maximum depth of visibility in the Atlantic Ocean, as found by Count de Pourtales, was 162 feet, and Prof. Le Conte states his belief that winter observations in Lake Tahoe would place the limit at even a greater depth than this. The author gives a detailed and interesting discussion in regard to the blue color of lake waters, reviewing in full the results of previous writers on the subject, and concludes that while pure water unquestionably absorbs a larger part of the red end of the spectrum, and hence appears blue by transmitted light, the color seen by diffuse reflection is mainly due to the selective reflection from the fine particles suspended in it.

The last subject discussed by the author is that of the rhythmical variations of level, or "seiches," of deep lakes; he applies the usual formula to Lake Tahoe, and calculates from it the length of a complete longitudinal and of a transverse "seiche;" these are found to be eighteen or nineteen minutes in the first case and thirteen minutes in the second.

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