Chapter VII: ASTRONOMY, ETC--On Determining the Sun's Distance by a (4)

For removing old paint on wood I use a burner. From iron, I have found the quickest and most effectual way is to dissolve as much sal soda in warm water as the water will take up, and mix with fresh lime, making a thick mortar; spread this on the tank, about an inch thick, with a trowel; when it begins to crack, which will be in a few minutes, it has softened the paint enough, so that with a wide putty knife you can take it all off; then wash off tank with water. This takes off paint, rust, and everything, including the skin from your hands, if you are not careful. Plaster one side of tank, and use mortar over again for the other side.

Engine oil used to brighten smoke stacks, no matter with what painted, will cause blistering. Tallow and "japan drop black" mixed, and apply while stack is hot, with an occasional rubbing over with the same, will remain bright a long time.

Rust always contains dampness, and will feed on itself, extending underneath and destroying solidly painted surfaces. It is, therefore, necessary, in order to secure good results, that the rust should be killed before priming, or that the priming be so mixed that it will assimilate with the rust and prevent spreading.

Steel tanks will not rust as rapidly as iron, but the scale is more apt to flake off by the expansion and contraction of the metal, taking the paint with it.

Heated oil, or heated oil priming, will dry faster and be more penetrating than cold. I consider heated "boiled oil" and red lead the best primer for iron.

In regard to ornamentation, my _taste_ is governed by the fact that I work "by contract," and get no more for a highly ornate locomotive than I do for a plain one, therefore I like the _plain ones best_, and I hope that our "good brother Burch's" prophecy, that "the days of 'fancy locomotives' will return," will never be fulfilled until after I go out of the business. There is a happy medium between a hearse and a circus wagon, and the locomotive painter, when not tied down by "specifications," can produce a neat and handsomely painted engine without the "spread eagle" or "star spangled banner." My own ideas are in the direction of simple lines of striping, following the lines of the surfaces upon which they are drawn.

Finally, take all the time you can get, the more the better, and use _oil_ accordingly.

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"CRACKLE" GLASS.

An ingenious process of producing glass with an iced or crackled surface, suitable for many decorative purposes, has been invented in France by Bay. The product appears in the form of sheets or panes, one side of which is smooth or glossy, like common window glass, while the other is rough and filled with innumerable crevices, giving it the frozen or crackled appearance so much admired for many decorative purposes. This peculiar cracked surface is obtained by covering the surface of the sheet on the table with a thick coating of some coarse-grained flux mixed to form a paste, or with a coating of some more easily fusible glass, and then subjecting it to the action of a strong fire, either open or in a muffle. As soon as the coating is fused, and the table is red-hot, it is withdrawn and rapidly cooled. The superficial layer of flux separates itself in this operation from the underlying glass surface, and leaves behind the evidence of its attachment to the same in the form of numberless irregularities, scales, irregular crystal forms, etc., giving the glass surface the peculiar appearance to which the above name has been given. The rapid cooling of the glass may be facilitated with the aid of a stream of cold air, or by continuously projecting a spray of cold water upon it. By protecting certain portions of the glass surface from contact with the flux, with the use of a template of any ornamental or other desired form, these portions will retain their ordinary appearance, and will show the form of the design very strongly outlined beside the crackled surface. In this manner, letters, arabesque, and other patterns in white or colored glass can be produced with great ease and with fine effect.

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HOW MARBLES ARE MADE.

Marbles are named from the Latin word "_marmor_," by which similar playthings were known to the boys of Rome, 2,000 years ago. Some marbles are made of potter's clay and baked in an oven just as earthenware is baked, but most of them are made of a hard kind of a stone found in Saxony, Germany. Marbles are manufactured there in great numbers and sent to all parts of the world, even to China, for the use of the Chinese children.

The stone is broken up with a hammer into pieces, which are then ground round in a mill. The mill has a fixed slab of stone, with its surface full of little grooves or furrows. Above this a flat block of oak wood of the same size as the stone is made to turn round rapidly, and, while turning, little streams of water run in the grooves and keep the mill from getting too hot. About 100 pieces of the square pieces of stone are put in the grooves at once, and in a few minutes are made round and polished by the wooden block.

China and white marbles are also used to make the round rollers which have delighted the hearts of the boys of all nations for hundred of years. Marbles thus made are known to the boys as "chinas," or "alleys." Real china ones are made of porcelain clay, and baked like chinaware or other pottery. Some of them have a pearly glaze, and some are painted in various colors, which will not rub off, because they are baked in, just as the pictures are on the plates and other tableware.

Glass marbles are known as "agates." They are made of both clear and colored glass. The former are made by taking up a little melted glass on the end of an iron rod and making it round by dropping it into a round mould, which shapes it, or by whirling it around the head until the glass is made into a little ball.

Sometimes the figure of a dog or squirrel or a kitten or some other object is put on the end of the rod, and when it is dipped into the melted glass the glass runs all around it, and when the marble is done the animal can be seen shut up in it. Colored glass marbles are made by holding a bunch of glass rods in the fire until they melt; then the workmen twist them round into a ball or press them into a mould, so that when done the marble is marked with bands or ribbons of color. Real agates, which are the nicest of all marbles, are made in Germany, out of the stone called agate. The workmen chip the pieces of agate nearly round with hammers and then grind them round and smooth on grindstones.--_Philadelphia Times_.

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DRAWING-ROOM PHOTOGRAPHY.

Among the examples we have received are some which would certainly do credit to any professional artist, alike for the posing, lighting, and general treatment; indeed, we may say that some of the poses are of a high artistic order, and quite a relief from the conventional positions and accessories so frequently seen in professional work. The expressions secured are also, as a rule, unusually pleasing and natural. This is, no doubt, in a great measure due to the sitter feeling more at ease in the amateur friend's drawing room than in a stranger's studio. Particularly is this the case in some excellent work--full-length pictures--sent from the other side of the Atlantic, and taken in a room of very modest dimensions, and with only one window. Among the failures (if such they may be called) the chief fault lies in the lighting, and from either under or over exposure--the former chiefly arising when a landscape lens was used, and the latter when a portrait combination was employed. Some correspondents also complain of the long exposure that, in their case, had been imperative; but, curiously enough, with all the successful pictures a very brief exposure has always been mentioned, and generally with an exceedingly small window.

With a view to the further assistance of those who have met with difficulties, we recur again to the subject of the lighting, for upon this must entirely depend the success or failure in producing satisfactory results; and, as we explained in previous articles, unless proper _chiaroscuro_ is secured on the model, it will be impossible to obtain it in the picture. The chief defect in this respect has been either that the light has been too abrupt, and consequently the high lights are very white and the shadows heavy, giving the pictures an under-exposed appearance, or the face is devoid of shadow, one side being as light as the other; hence it lacks the roundness necessary to constitute a good picture. In most instances the former defect has arisen from the reflecting screen not being properly placed so as to reflect back the light in the right direction, or it has been too far from the model; hence it has lost the greater part of its value. It should be borne in mind that the nearer the sitter is to the source of light the nearer the reflector must be to him, and also that at whatever angle the light falls upon the reflector it is always thrown off at a corresponding one.

Now, supposing that the light falls upon the model at an angle of, say, 40°: we shall have to place our reflecting screen at somewhat the same angle, and the nearer it is approached the greater will be the effect produced. If the sitter be placed very close to the window and the reflector a long way off, or if it project the light in a wrong direction, it is manifest that in the resulting pictures the shadows will, of necessity, be heavy, and the negative will have an under-exposed appearance, however long may have been given, simply because there was no harmony in the lighting of the model. In the case where the picture has been flat it has arisen from the sitter being placed too far back from the window, so that the direct light falling upon him has been too feeble to produce any strong lights, and the reflector arranged so that it received a stronger illumination than the model, then reflecting it on to the latter, quite overpowering the dominant lights. The remedy for this is simply to bring the sitter more forward, so as to obtain a stronger dominant light.

With regard to the time of exposure: we must again impress upon the student the necessity for placing the sitter as close to the window as can be conveniently done, for then he will receive the strongest illumination; and, no matter how strong the shadows which may be produced, they can always be modified sufficiently by the judicious use of the reflector. Of course, in practice there is a limit as to the closeness the sitter can be placed, inasmuch as if too near there will not be room enough for the background. As we have before said, the effective light falling upon the sitter is governed by the amount of direct skylight to which he is exposed. For experiment, let any one seat himself, say, one foot from the window and sideways to it, and note the amount of sky that can be seen from this position, then take a seat six feet within the room, and note it from thence. The difference will be very marked indeed, and it will fully account for the long exposure that some have found imperative.

In our previous articles we directed special attention to the advantage accruing from arranging the sitter in such a position that he received as much direct light as possible, so that it practically helps to soften the shadows; hence the sitter should be placed so that he is turned as little away from the source of light as will enable the desired view of the face being obtained. That this may the more advantageously be done the camera should always be placed as close as possible to the side wall in which the window is situated. As an experiment illustrating the advantage of this: let a camera be placed close to the wall, then the sitter arranged so that from that point of view a three-quarter face is obtained, and it will be noticed that there is very little need of the reflector at all. Let a negative now be taken, and the camera brought, say, five feet into the room, and the sitter, without changing his seat, turned round until a similar view of the face is obtained from that point. It will now be seen that the shadows are very much deeper than before, and the reflector will have to be brought pretty close in order to overcome them; nevertheless they may be obtained quite as soft and harmonious as in the former case. Let a second negative now be taken, giving the same exposure as before, and it will be found that if the first one were correctly timed the second will be considerably under-exposed. Yet the sitter was at the same distance from the window in each case.

This shows the advisability of utilizing all the direct light it is possible to do, and thereby leaving as little as we can to be accomplished by the reflector. When the sitter is arranged to the best advantage at a window of ordinary size, fully exposed pictures can generally be obtained with a portrait lens (full opening) in fairly good light, on moderately sensitive plates, with one or two seconds' (or even less) exposure. If a longer exposure than this be necessary, it may fairly be assumed that the lighting has not been properly managed.--_British Journal of Photography_.

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A NEW METHOD OF PREPARING PHOTOGRAPHIC GELATINE EMULSION BY PRECIPITATION OF THE BROMIDE OF SILVER.

By FRANZ STOLZE, Ph.D.

I consider the method of precipitation described below as far superior to any other hitherto employed, particularly on account of its infallible certainty. I began at first with a thirtieth of the whole quantity of gelatine, and increased that quantity to a tenth without the precipitate forming with greater difficulty. The salts were dissolved in the usual quantity of water, the bromide of potassium was added to the separately-dissolved gelatine, and both solutions cooled in iced water. I soon found that even this was not necessary. I accelerated the solution of the salts by vigorous agitation, so that the temperature became so much lowered that, even after the addition of the warm gelatine, it still remained low enough to give the precipitate when mixed. The mixing took place gradually, all the usual precautionary measures being observed; such as pouring the silver solution into No. 2 in small quantities at a time, and constantly stirring, and the separation from the mother lye was complete.

The formula according to which I worked latterly was as follows:

SOLUTION I. Nitrate of silver...................... 463 grains. Water................................... 16¾ ounces.

SOLUTION II. Bromide of potassium................... 355 grains. Iodide of potassium..................... 15 grains. Gelatine................................ 46 grains. Water................................... 16¾ ounces.

After the mixing is completed the perfect separation of the precipitate takes place in four minutes at most. The clear fluid may be decanted off almost to the last drop, after which the precipitate is washed three times with water. In order to dissolve the precipitate pour over it a solution of 1.5 part of bromide of potassium in 100 parts of water, agitate, and then add a solution formed of 8 parts of ammonia of the usual strength in 600 parts of water. The emulsification will begin at once without any further heating. When now heated on the water bath--already at from 95° F to 104° F--the whole precipitate will be suspended, and thin films of the emulsion, when looked through, will have a grayish tint, but when dry they will appear partially red. Digestion at 104° F is continued--from half an hour to an hour is usually long enough--until the film, even when dry, remains violet through and through. The remaining gelatine, 450 grains dissolved in 16 ounces of warm water, is then added, filtered, and plates coated with the resultant emulsion. But if it be desired to prepare emulsion for storage, wash the precipitate finally with alcohol, and store it either under alcohol or dry it as usual. To use it dissolve in the manner described above and mix with gelatine.

The great advantages of this process are evident. Not only is the troublesome washing saved, but, what is more important, the great mass of the gelatine is added to the emulsion in a condition which secures to the film a hitherto unattainable firmness. Also, it enables one to prepare a keeping emulsion with a minimum of alcohol, and, since the quantity of gelatine in the original emulsion is so small, it dries, when it is not desired to keep it under alcohol, so much more rapidly, and thereby also furnishes a more constant preparation.

I am convinced that this process is as yet but in its infancy, and that it is susceptible of great improvement. From the purely theoretical standpoint, the property possessed by gelatine, of combining in sufficiently cold solutions with bromide of silver in the nascent state, and falling to the bottom in a flaky condition, is exceedingly interesting. Evidently this property plays a part in the preparation of emulsion which has not until now been recognized. I do not doubt that it may be possible to effect, by a sufficiently low temperature, precipitation even from solutions rich in gelatine, if experiments in that direction were set on foot. What influence variations in temperature may have upon the subsequent sensitiveness of the emulsion, and whether the action of the ammonia and the bromide of potassium is more energetic, in the absence of the elsewhere-present nitric salts, are questions which can only be answered after thorough examination; and the parts played by the various additions of iodide or chloride of silver in this method of emulsification must likewise also be ascertained by experiment. The object of this article is to point out this rich province for research, and to induce experimenters to turn their attention to it; for it is only after the behavior of emulsion under all these conditions has been thoroughly examined that we can hope to reap the best results from the new process.--_Wochenblatt_.

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TAYLOR'S FREEZING MICROTOME.

This microtome presents all the advantages of any plan heretofore employed in hardening animal or vegetable tissues for section cutting, while it has many advantages over all other devices employed for the same purpose.

Microscopists who are interested in the study of histology and pathology have long felt the necessity for a better method of freezing animal and vegetable tissue than has been heretofore at their command.

In hardening tissues by chemical agents, the tissues are more or less distorted by the solutions used, and the process is very slow. Ether and rhigolene have been employed with some degree of success, but both are expensive, and they cannot be used in the presence of artificial light, because of danger of explosion. Another disadvantage is that two persons are required to attend to the manipulations, one to force the vapor into the freezing box, while the other uses the section-cutting knife.

The moment the pumping of the ether or rhigolene ceases, the tissue operated on ceases to be frozen, so ephemeral is the degree of the cold obtained by these means.

The principal advantages to be obtained by the use of this microtome are, first, great economy in the method of freezing, and, second, celerity and certainty of freezing. With an expenditure of twenty-five cents, the tissues to be operated on can be kept frozen for several hours at a time.

Small objects immersed in gum solutions are frozen and in condition for cutting in less than one minute.

The method of using this microtome can be understood by reference to the illustration. A represents a revolving plane, by which the thickness of the section is regulated, in the center of which an insulated chamber is secured for freezing the tissue. It resembles a pill-box constructed of metal. A brass tube enters it on each side. The larger one is the supply tube, and communicates with the pail, a, situated on bracket, s, by means of the upper tube, t. To the smaller brass tube is attached the rubber tube, t b, which discharges the cold salt water into a pail placed under it. (See b.) The salt and water as it passes from pail, a, to pail, b, is at a temperature of about zero. The water should not be allowed to waste. It should be returned to the first pail for continual use, or as long as it has freezing properties. As a matter of further economy, it is necessary to limit the rate of exit of the freezing water. This is regulated by nipping the discharge-tube with the spring clothes pin supplied for the purpose. Should the cold within the chamber be too intense, the edge of the knife is liable to be turned and the cutting will be imperfect. When this occurs the flow of water through the chamber is stopped by using the spring clothes-pin as a clip on the upper tube. In order to regulate the thickness of the tissue to be cut a scale is engraved on the edge of the revolving plate, A, which, in conjunction with the pointer, e, indicates the thickness of the section.--_Microscopical Journal_.

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THE ST. GOTHARD TUNNEL.--It appears that the traffic through the St. Gothard Tunnel has increased, since the inauguration of through international services, to such an extent that the Company have already obtained sanction for laying the second pair of rails in the tunnel. The Great Eastern Railway Company has increased its steamer traffic, and built additional station accommodation at Harwich.

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VINCENT'S CHLORIDE OF METHYL ICE MACHINE.

Chloride of methyl was discovered in 1840 by Messrs. Dumas and Peligot, who obtained it by treating methylic alcohol with a mixture of sea salt and sulphuric acid. It is a gaseous product at ordinary temperature, but when compressed and cooled, easily liquefies and produces a colorless, neutral liquid which enters into ebullition at 237.7° above zero and under a pressure of 0.76 m.

Up to recent times, chloride of methyl in a free state had received scarcely any industrial application, by reason of the difficulty of preparing it in a state of purity at a low price. Mr. C. Vincent, however, has made known a process which permits of this product being obtained abundantly and cheaply. It consists in submitting to the action of heat the hydrochlorate of trimethylamine, which is obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of potash of beets. The hydrochlorate is thus decomposed into free trimethylamine, ammonia, and chloride of methyl. A washing with hydrochloric acid takes away all traces of alkali, and the gas, which is gathered under a receiver full of water, may afterward be dried by means of sulphuric acid, and be liquefied by pressure.

Pure liquid chloride of methyl is now an abundant product. There are two uses to which it is applied: first, for producing cold, and second, for manufacturing coal tar colors.

At present we shall occupy ourselves with the first of such applications--the production of cold.

The apparatus serving for the production of cold by this material are three in number: (1) the _freezer_ (Figs. 1, 2, and 3), in which is produced the lowering of temperature that converts into ice the water placed in carafes or any other receptacles; (2) the _pump_ (Figs. 4, 5, and 6), which sucks the chloride of methyl in a gaseous state up into the freezer and forces it into the liquefier; and (3) the _liquefier_, which is nothing else than a spiral condenser in which the chloride of methyl condenses, and from thence returns to the freezer to serve anew for the production of cold.

_The Freezer_.--This consists of a rectangular iron tank, 1 meter x 1 meter x 1.5 meters, containing a galvanized plate iron cylinder, A, kept in place by iron supports. This cylinder contains 24 horizontal tubes, which are open at the ends and riveted to vertical plates like those of tubular steam boilers. The tank is filled with a mixture of water and chloride of calcium, forming, as well known, an incongealable liquid. Into this liquid are plunged the receptacles containing the water to be converted into ice. The chloride of methyl is introduced through the cock, B, into the body of the cylinder, A, and surrounds and cools the tubes, as well as the incongealable liquid uninterruptedly circulating in the latter, by means of a helix, C, set in motion by a belt from the shop. This liquid is thus greatly lowered in temperature and freezes the water in the receptacles.

_The Pump_.--The pump in the larger apparatus has two chambers of unequal diameter, that is to say, it operates after the manner of compound engines.

The machine under consideration, being one that produces a moderate quantity of ice, has but a single chamber, as shown in Figs 4, 5, and 6. It is a suction and force pump, whose piston, E, is solid and formed of two parts, which are set into each other, and the flanges of which hold a series of bronze segments.

The chamber, properly so-called, is of iron, cast in one piece, and is surmounted with a rectangular tank, F, in which constantly circulates the cold water designed for cooling the sides of the cylinder; these latter always tending to become heated through the compression of the methyl chloride.

The cylinder heads are hollowed out in the middle, and carry the seats of the suction valves. Each of the latter communicates with a chamber, G G¹, in which debouches the pipe, H, communicating with the cylinder, A, of the freezer (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).

Above the cylinder there are two delivery valves which give access to the chamber, D, communicating with the worm of the liquefier (Fig. 7) through the pipe, J.

The piston of the pump is set in motion by a pulley, K, and a cranked shaft actuated by a belt from the shafting. The piston head is guided by a slide keyed to the frame.

_The Liquefier_.--This apparatus consists of a cylindrical tank, L, of 3 mm. thick boiler plate, mounted vertically on a masonry base and designed to be constantly fed with cool water. It contains a second cylindrical tank, M, of 6 mm. thick galvanized iron. This latter tank is provided with a cast-iron cover, on which are mounted the worm, N, and a pipe, O, connected with the tube of the pressure gauge. To the base of the tank, M, there is affixed, on a cast iron thimble, a cock, P, for setting up a communication between the tank and the pipe, R, which returns to the freezer through the cock, B (Fig. 1).

The cold water requisite for condensation enters the tank, L, through a pipe terminating in a pump or a reservoir. The waste water flows off through the tubulure, Q. The tank is emptied, when necessary, through the blow-off cock, S.

_Operation of the Apparatus_.--As has been remarked above, the cylinder, A, is filled with chloride of methyl. The pump, through suction, produces in this cylinder a depression from which there results the evaporation of a portion of the chloride of methyl, and consequently a depression of temperature which is transmitted to the incongealable liquid circulating in the tubes, and to the receptacles (carafes or otherwise) containing the water to be converted into ice.

The pump sucks in the vapor of mythyl chloride through the pipe, H, and through its suction valves, and forces it into the chamber, D, through its delivery valves, and from thence into the worm, N, through the pipe, J. Under the influence of compression and of the water contained in the tank, L, the methyl chloride liquefies and falls into the receptacle, M, from whence it returns to the freezer through the pipe, R.

Two pressure-gauges, one of them fixed on the freezer and the other on the liquefier, permit of regulating the running of the machine. The vacuum in the freezer is 0 to ½ atmosphere, and the pressure in the liquefier is 3 to 4 atmospheres. These apparatus make opaque ice, but will likewise produce transparent, if a pump for injecting air is adjoined. This, however, doubles the time that it takes to effect the freezing, and carries with it the necessity of doubling the number of moulds to have the same quantity of ice.

The cost price of ice made by this system depends evidently on the price of coal in each country, on the perfection of the boiler and motor, as well as on the power of the freezing machine. Putting the coal at 20 francs per ton, and the consumption at 2 kilogrammes per horse and per hour, ice may be obtained at a cost of about half a centime per kilogramme. The apparatus shown in the accompanying figures have been constructed according to the following data:

Production of ice per hour............ 25 kilogrammes.
Production of heat units per hour..... 2.5 grammes.
Quantity of ice produced per
kilogramme of coal burned........... 5 kilogrammes.
Water of condensation per hour........ 0.75 cubic meter.

These machines are employed not only for the manufacture of ice, but also in breweries for cooling the air of the cellars and fermenting rooms, or that of the vats themselves; in manufactories of chemical products; in distilleries; in manufactories of aerated waters, etc.

They may also be used in the carrying of meats and other food products across the ocean, and, in a word, in all industries in which it is necessary to obtain artificial cold.

The power necessary to operate apparatus that produce 25 kilogrammes per hour is about that of 3 horses.--_Annales Industrielles_.

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CARBONIC ACID IN THE AIR.

[Footnote: An address before the Paris Academy.]

By M. DUMAS.

Of all the gases that the atmosphere contains, there is one which offers a special interest, as well on account of the part ascribed to it in the mutual interchange going on between the two organic kingdoms, as on account of the relation that it has been observed to occupy between earth, air, and water; this gas is carbonic acid.

Ever since the fact has been established that animals consume oxygen and give out carbonic acid as the product of respiration, while plants consume carbonic acid and give out oxygen, the question has often been asked whether the quantity of carbonic acid contained in the air did not represent a sort of sustaining reservoir which was being continually drawn on by the plants and resupplied by animals, so that it has doubtless remained unchanged owing to this double action.

On the other hand, Boussingault has long since shown that volcanic regions give out through crevices and fumaroles enormous quantities of carbonic acid. The deposition of carbonate of lime that is continually taking place on the sea-bottom is, on the other hand, fixing carbonic acid in quantities which we may accurately estimate from the strata of limestone seen on the surface of the earth. We might imagine, that in comparison with the huge volumes of carbonic acid sent forth in volcanic districts, even in the oldest one, and the mass of carbonate of lime deposited on the sea bottom, the results attributed to the life of plants and animals would be of no consequence either for increasing or diminishing the physiological carbonic acid in the air comparable with those which are accomplished by the purely geological exchange.

Schloesing has recently succeeded, by a happy application of the principle of dissociation, in showing that the amount of carbonic acid in the air bears a direct relation to the quantity of bicarbonate of lime dissolved in sea water. If the quantity of carbonic acid diminishes, the bicarbonate of the water is decomposed, half of its carbonic acid escapes into the atmosphere, and the neutral carbonate of lime is precipitated. The aqueous vapor condensed from the air dissolves part of the carbonic acid contained therein, and carries it along, when it falls as rain upon the earth, and takes up there enough lime to form the bicarbonate, which is thus carried back to the sea.

The physiological role of carbonic acid, its geognostic influence, and its relations to most ordinary meteorological phenomena on the earth's surface--all these contribute to give special weight to studies concerned in the estimation of the normal quantity of carbonic acid in the air.

Nevertheless, this estimation is attended with great difficulty. Not everyone is able to take up such questions, and not all processes are adapted to it. The first thought which would naturally arise would be to inclose a known volume of air in a given vessel, and then determine its carbonic acid by measuring or weighing it. In this way we should obtain the exact relation between a volume of air and the volume of carbonic acid in it, for any given moment, and in any given place. If, however, this be done with a ten-liter flask, for example, it would only hold 3 c.c. of carbonic acid, weighing 6 milligrammes; and, whether it is weighed or measured, the error may easily equal 10 per cent. of the real value, hence no deductions could be drawn from the observed facts.

For this reason larger volumes of air were taken, and a current of air, whose volume could be accurately measured by known methods, was passed through condensers capable of retaining the carbonic acid. But in this case the air must pass very slowly through it, so that the process may last several hours; and since the air is continually in motion, owing to vertical and horizontal currents, the experiment may be begun with the air of one place, and concluded with air from a far distant spot. For example, if an experiment lasting twenty-four hours was made in Paris when the air moved but four meters per second (nine or ten miles per hour), it might be begun with air from the Department of the Seine, and end with air from the Department of the Rhone, or the Belgian frontier, according to the direction of the wind.

So long as we had no analytical methods of sufficient delicacy to estimate with certainty the hundredth, or at least the tenth of a milligramme of carbonic acid, it was very difficult to determine the quantity in the air at a given time and place. It is frequently possible to analyze upon the plain air that has descended from the heights above, and to examine by bright daylight the effect of night upon the atmosphere.

Still other difficulties show themselves in such investigations. It seems very easy to collect carbonic acid in potash tubes, and to determine its amount from the increase in weight of the tubes; but, alas! to how many sources of error is this method exposed. If the potash has been in contact with any organic substance, it will absorb oxygen. If the pumice that takes the place of the potash contains protoxide of iron, it will also absorb oxygen. In both cases the oxygen increases the weight of the carbonic acid.

Every experimenter who has been compelled to repeat the weighing of a somewhat complicate piece of apparatus, with an interval of several hours between, knows how many inaccuracies he is exposed to if he is compelled to take into calculation the changes of temperature and pressure, and the moisture on the surface of the apparatus. After fighting all these difficulties, and frequently in vain, the experimenter begins to mistrust every result that depends only on difference in weight, and to prefer those methods whereby the substance to be estimated can be isolated, so that it can be seen and handled, weighed or measured, in a free state, and in its own natural condition.

The classical experiments of Thenard, of Th. de Saussure, of Messrs. Boussingault, on the quantity of carbonic acid in the air, are well known to every one: they need only to be organized, repeated, and multiplied.

J. Reiset, who has conducted a long and tedious series of experiments on this subject, has adopted a process that seems to offer every guarantee of accuracy. The air that furnishes the carbonic acid is aspirated through the absorption apparatus by two aspirators of 600 liters capacity. The temperature and pressure of the air are carefully measured. The carbonic acid is absorbed by baryta water in three bulb apparatus. The last bulb, which serves as a check to control the operation, remains clear, and proves that no binoxide of barium is formed. The baryta water used is titrated before and after the operation, and from the difference is calculated the quantity of carbonate formed, and hence of the carbonic acid.

These tedious experiments, which varied in duration from 6 to 25 hours, require at least two days of continuous labor. They were repeated 193 times by Reiset in 1872, 1873, and 1879. They were made in still weather, and in violent winds and storms. The air was taken at the sea-shore, in the middle of the fields, on the level earth, during harvests, in the forests, and in Paris. Under such varied conditions, the quantity of carbonic acid varied but little; the numbers obtained were between 2.94 and 3.1, which may be taken as a general average of the carbonic acid in the air.

The quantity of carbonic acid in the free atmosphere is tolerably constant, which must necessarily be the case according to Schloesing's proposed relation between the bi-carbonate of lime in the sea and the carbonic acid in the air. The only cause that seems at all competent to change the geological quantity of carbonic acid in the atmosphere is the formation of fog. As the aqueous vapors condense, they collect the carbonic acid; and the foggy air, as a rule, is more heavily laden with this gas than ordinary air.

It is not surprising that there is less carbonic acid in the air collected on clear summer days, in the midst of clover, etc., that is in an active reducing furnace; if anything is surprising, it is that the quantity of carbonic acid does not sink below 2.8.

It is also a matter for surprise that in Paris, among so many sources of carbonic acid, the furnace fires, the respiration of men and animals, and the spontaneous decomposition and decay of organic substances, the quantity of carbonic acid does not exceed 3.5.

If, then, the great general mean of normal atmospheric carbonic acid deviates but little from 2.9 or 3.0, it is not doubtful that under local conditions, in closed places, and under exceptional meteorological conditions, considerable variations may occur in these proportions. But these variations do not affect the general laws of the composition of the atmosphere.

There are two entirely distinct points from which the measurement of the atmospheric carbonic acid may be contemplated.

The first consists in considering it as a geological element which belongs to the gaseous envelope of the earth in general, and it leads us to express the general relation of carbonic acid to the quantity of air, as about three volumes in 10,000.

The second, which relates to accidental and local phenomena, to the activity of man and beast, to the effect of fires and of decomposing organic matter, to volcanic emanations, and finally to the action of clouds and rain, permits us to recognize the changes which can occur in air exposed to the influences mentioned, and to a certain extent confined. Without denying that it is of interest from a meteorological and hygienic standpoint, it does not take the same rank as first.

J. Reiset's experiments, by their number, accuracy, the large volumes employed, and the interval of years that separate them, have definitely established two facts on which the earth's history must depend: the first is, that the percentage of carbonic acid in the air scarcely changes; the second, that it differs but little from three ten-thousandths by volume.

These results are fully confirmed by the results which were obtained by Franz Schulze, in Rostock, in 1868, 1869, 1870, and 1871. The averages which he got, with very small variation, were 2.8668 for 1869, 2.9052 for 1870, and 3.0126 for 1871.

More recently Muentz and Aubin have analyzed air collected on the plains near Paris, on the Pic du Midi, and on the top of Puy-de-Dome. Their results agree with those published by Reiset and Schulze.

The grand average of carbonic oxide in the air seems to be tolerably fixed, but after this starting-point is established it remains to study the variations that it is capable of, not from local causes, which are of little importance, but from general causes connected with large movements of the air. Upon this study, which demands the co-operation of a definite number of observers stationed at different and distant points of the earth, the experiments being made simultaneously and by comparable methods.

M. Dumas called the attention of the Academy to this point, in connection with its mission of selecting suitable stations for observing the transit of Venus. The process and apparatus of Muentz and Aubin offer the means adapted for making these experiments, and seem sufficient to solve the problem which science proposes, of determining the present quantity of carbonic acid in the air.

If these experiments yield satisfactory results, as we have good reasons to believe they will, it is to be hoped that annual observations will be made in properly-chosen places, so as to determine the variations which may possibly take place in the relative quantity of atmospheric carbonic acid during the coming century.--_Compt. Rend_., p. 589.

[Although this proposition was made by a Frenchman to his fellow scientists, would it not be well for some American to accept the challenge, and bring it before the coming meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, in the hope that we, too, may contribute our mite of effort in the same direction?--_Ed. Knowledge_.]

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THE INFLUENCE OF AQUEOUS VAPOR ON THE EXPLOSION OF CARBONIC OXIDE AND OXYGEN.

[Footnote: Read before the British Association, Southampton Meeting, Section B, 1882.]

By HAROLD B. DIXON, M.A., Millard Lecturer in Chemistry, Balliol and Trinity Colleges, Oxford.

Two years ago I had the honor of showing before the Chemical Section of the British Association some experiments, in which a well-dried mixture of carbonic oxide and oxygen was submitted to electric sparks without exploding.[1] It was further shown that the introduction of a very minute quantity of aqueous vapor into the non-explosive mixture was sufficient to cause explosive combination between the gases when the spark was passed. The hypothesis advanced to account for the observed facts was that carbonic oxide does not unite directly with oxygen at a high temperature, but only indirectly through the intervention of water-vapor present, a molecule of water being decomposed by one of carbonic oxide to form a molecule of carbonic acid and one of free hydrogen, and the latter uniting with the oxygen to re-form a molecule of water, which again undergoes the same cycle of changes, till all the oxygen is transferred to the carbonic oxide:

H_{2}O + CO = H_{2} + CO_{2}

H_{2} + O = H_{2}O

[Footnote 1: "Report of British Association," 1880, p. 503.]

For such a series of reactions a _comparatively_ few molecules of water would suffice, and the change produced by their alternate reduction and oxidation would come under the old term of "catalytic action," inasmuch as the few water molecules present at the beginning are found in the same state at the completion of the reaction.

The truth of this hypothesis has since been confirmed by experiments I have made on the incomplete combustion of mixtures of carbonic oxide and hydrogen; and on the velocity of explosion of carbonic oxide and oxygen with varying proportions of aqueous vapor. I therefore thought a description of the more convenient methods lately devised as lecture experiments for showing the influence of water on the combustion of carbonic oxide would not be uninteresting to the Section.

A glass tube from 18 inches to 2 feet long, closed at one end, and provided with platinum wires, is bent near its open end so that the shorter arm makes an angle of about 60° with the longer arm. The tube, held by a clamp, is heated in a Bunsen flame, and is then filled with mercury heated to about 130° C. The mixture of gases is then made to displace a portion of the mercury by forcing it through a fine tube, which is connected by a steel cap to the eudiometer of McLeod's gas apparatus, and passes down through the mercury in the shorter arm of the experimental tube. When a sufficient quantity of the gaseous mixture has been collected in the longer arm, some dry phosphoric oxide is introduced in the following way: A small glass tube is heated, packed with the dry powder, and pushed down into the shorter arm of the experimental tube. With a hot glass rod the phosphoric oxide is pushed out at the bottom of the small tube, and passes up into the gaseous mixture in the longer arm. After standing for a few hours in contact with the phosphoric oxide, the gases may be submitted to strong sparks from a Leyden jar without igniting. Care must be taken that none of the oxide comes in contact with the platinum wires, for if any sticks to the wires it becomes heated by the passage of the sparks, and gives off enough water to determine the explosion. In this way I have prepared several specimens of a non-explosive mixture of carbonic oxide and oxygen in the proper proportions to form carbonic acid. Some of these tubes have been submitted without explosion to sparks from a large Leyden jar, to a continuous succession of sparks from a Holtz machine, and to the discharge of a Ruhmkorff's coil, that heated the platinum wires between which it passed to bright redness. Other tubes which withstood the passage of the sparks from a Leyden jar, when submitted to the discharge of the coil, exploded after a few seconds when the platinum wires became red-hot. This I think may probably be attributed to hydrogen, occluded by the platinum, being given off on heating, and forming steam with the oxygen present.

For an easy and striking lecture experiment, I employ a tube open at both ends and bent like a W. The two open arms are short and the platinum wires are fixed at the highest bend. The tube is filled with hot mercury--one of the ends being closed by a caoutchouc stopper for the purpose--and a dry mixture of 5 volumes of air and 2 volumes of carbonic oxide is introduced into the bent tube over the mercury. A little phosphoric oxide is passed up one arm. After a few minutes the gases may be submitted to the spark without exploding. A little water may then be introduced through a pipette into the other arm; and if the spark is passed directly the gases ignite in the wet and not in the dry arm of the tube.

The admixture of the inert nitrogen renders a larger quantity of aqueous vapor necessary for the explosion than when only carbonic oxide and oxygen in proper proportion are present.

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COMPOSITION OF BEERS MADE PARTLY FROM RAW GRAIN.

At the present time English brewers are being denounced for substituting properly-prepared maize, rice, and other raw grain for barley malt, and the beers produced partly from such materials are described as being very inferior, and even injurious to health. That such denunciations are altogether unwarranted is evident to all who have paid any attention to the subject, and are acquainted with the chemical changes involved in brewing, and with the composition of the resulting beers. Unfortunately but few comparative analyses have been published of beers made solely from malt and beers made from malt in conjunction with raw grain, and therefore such wild assertions as were recently uttered in the House of Commons have remained unanswered. A German chemist, J. Hanamann, some time since made a series of analyses of beers brewed partly from raw grain, and his results completely controvert the theory that raw grain beers essentially differ in composition from malt beers. Four worts were made by the decoction system of mashing: A entirely from barley malt; B from 60 per cent. of malt and 40 per cent. of maize; C from 60 per cent. of malt and 40 per cent. of rice; and D from 60 per cent of malt and 40 per cent. of pure starch. The analyses of these respective worts gave the following results:

A B C D
Sugar............... 4.96 4.08 4.84 4.87
Dextrine............ 6.05 6.83 6.35 6.60
Total extract....... 12.29 12.27 12.30 12.32
Albuminoids......... 0.82 0.78 0.68 0.42
Other substances.... 0.46 0.58 0.43 0.43

It will be seen that these worts vary very little in composition, the chief points of difference being that those made partly from raw grain are more dextrinous and contain less albuminoids than the wort made from malt alone. The process of brewing was then continued as usual, and after fermentation the resulting beers were again analyzed with the following results:

A B C D
Alcohol............. 2.71 2.76 2.90 3.19
Sugar............... 1.05 1.12 0.98 0.35
Dextrine............ 4.54 4.31 4.42 4.74
Extract............. 6.59 6.48 6.25 5.91
Albuminoids......... 0.43 0.39 0.33 0.28
Other substances ... 0.57 0.66 0.52 0.54

It will be observed that the beers made partly from raw grain are slightly more alcoholic, but in other respects differ but very little from the pure malt beer, but none of them can in any way be pronounced as really inferior or unwholesome. The beer made partly from maize is, in fact, hardly to be distinguished in chemical composition from that made solely from malt. These worts and beers were brewed upon the German system, but analogous results would undoubtedly be obtained with beers brewed from the like materials on the English system. We hope soon to be in a position to publish some comparative analyses of beers brewed in this country from malt combined with different kinds of raw grain; but the analyses which we have now quoted constitute a sufficient refutation to those who assert that brewers using raw grain are producing an injurious or even an inferior quality of beer.--_Brewers' Guardian_.

* * * * *

DOUBLE BUTTERCUPS.

Among early summer flowers in open borders few are prettier than the double-flowered kinds of ranunculus of the herbaceous type. Having been established favorites for ages, most of them are familiar to us, and poor indeed is that hardy plant border which does not contain a good healthy tuft of what are termed Fair Maids of France, or Bachelor's Buttons, the doubled flowered variety of _R. aconitifolius_. The small, pure white rosette-like flowers produced so plentifully, and in such a graceful manner, make it an extremely pretty, and, though common, valuable plant, particularly useful in a cut state. It is one of the kinds shown in the annexed engraving. Of double crowfoots there are three others, the types of which are _R. bulbosus, acris_, and _repens_. All these are very pretty, having bright yellow, compact, rosette-like flowers, as perfect in form as that of some of the finest sorts of the Asiatic or Persian ranunculus of the florists. Both the double _R. acris_ and _repens_ are profuse flowerers, but _R. bulbosus_ is not so; it, however, bears much larger flowers than either of the others, and on this account is named _R. speciosus_. These four plants are indispensable, yielding, as they do, flowers in such abundance and in such long succession. In order to enable them to develop fully they require good culture, a good, deep loamy soil, enriched with well-decayed manure, and if the border be moist, so much the better,'for these ranunculuses delight in a cool, moist soil. Treated liberally in this way, these double buttercups are indeed fine plants.--_W. G., in The Garden_.

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LIGUSTRUM QUIHOUI.

This is a Chinese species, at present little known in this country. It forms a low bush with spreading wiry purplish downy branches, and loose terminal panicles of white flowers. Its peculiar spreading habit, dark green leaves, and abundant flowers render it a desirable acquisition to the shrubbery. It is quite hardy.--_The Gardeners' Chronicle_.

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RAPHIOLEPIS JAPONICA.