Chapter XI

_Chili continued.--Customs, manners, arts, character, religion,
language, &c., of that nation of Chili called Araucanians._

The word _auca_ signifies _free_; and the Araucanians pride themselves on their liberty and independence. They possess great strength of constitution, and enjoy their health and faculties till they are very old. They rarely begin to be gray before they are sixty or seventy, and are not bald or wrinkled till eighty.

Their complexion is of a reddish brown, but much clearer than that of any other Indians. One tribe, the Boroanes, which live on the mountains, have as fair complexions, red and white, as Europeans; but, in general, the Araucanians are well distinguished as “red men.” They have round faces, small, animated eyes, a rather flat nose, a handsome mouth, even and white teeth, and small feet and hands.

The men pluck out their beards, but the hair on their heads they permit to grow to a great length. It is coarse, and black, and they wind it in tresses around their heads, and on no account allow it to be cut. The women are delicately formed, and many of them, especially among the Boroanes, are very handsome.

Their moral qualities are superior to those of any other of the native nations of America. They are courteous, hospitable, faithful to their engagements, grateful for services rendered them, and, generally, generous and humane towards the vanquished. They are exceedingly brave and patriotic, and enthusiastic lovers of liberty.

These noble qualities are obscured by the vices inseparable from the half-savage state of life they lead, unrefined by literature, and unenlightened by the Christian religion. They are often guilty of drunkenness; they practise polygamy, and they are very proud of themselves, and entertain a haughty contempt for all other nations.

The men dress in the following manner: they wear a shirt, vest, and a pair of short, close breeches; and a cloak, called a _poncho_. It is an oblong piece of cloth, about three yards long and two wide, with an opening in the middle for the head--and is a very commodious and useful garment.

Their clothes are made of wool, which they manufacture into cloth; and all the dress, except the poncho, is colored a greenish blue. This is the favorite color of the nation; but the poncho may be either white, red, or blue, with stripes a span broad, on which are wrought the figures of flowers and animals, in all manner of colors, and the border is ornamented with a handsome fringe.

The Araucanians wear on their heads a bandage of embroidered wool, in the form of the ancient diadem. They raise this, as a mark of courtesy, when saluting any one; when going to war, they ornament it with beautiful plumes. They also wear, around the body, a long woollen girdle, handsomely wrought. Persons of rank wear woollen boots, of various colors, and leather sandals; but the common people always go barefooted.

The dress of the women is very modest and simple. It consists of a tunic, a girdle, and a short cloak: the tunic descends to the feet; it has no sleeves, and is fastened on the shoulders by silver brooches. The color of the dress is always blue, and the fashion is never varied. But women seldom “forget their ornaments;” and these Araucanian ladies decorate their hair, which, divided into tresses, is allowed to float gracefully over their shoulders, with a profusion of false emeralds, and they wear necklaces of glass, and rings of silver on every finger, if they can obtain them.

They build their houses of a quadrangular form; the walls are made of wood, plastered with clay, and sometimes of brick; and the roof is covered with rushes. The size of the dwelling corresponds with the number of women a man can maintain, as each wife has her own fire-place. The interior of these houses is very simple, as they have no more furniture than is absolutely necessary. They live in scattered villages, each family on lands inherited from its ancestors--the right of private property being sacredly established. They will not live in walled cities, because they think the walls are a mark of slavery.

They manufacture their cloth from the wool of the Chilihueque, or Araucanian camel. They make use of the spindle and distaff, and have two kinds of looms; the first is somewhat like our common loom. The women perform all the domestic manufacture, and are likewise expert at sewing. They had needles and looms when first discovered by the Spaniards; in short, all the arts I shall describe, existed among them then, in as great perfection as they do at the present day.

From the excellent clay of their country the men manufactured pots, plates, cups, and large jars to hold their fermented liquors. They baked their pottery in ovens, made in the declivity of hills; and they had the art of varnishing their ware. They also extracted gold, silver, copper, tin, and lead from the earth, purified it, and made a variety of curious and useful articles.

They had discovered the art of making salt upon the sea-shore; and, from the juice of plants and from mineral earths, they procured dyes of all colors for their clothes, and also knew how to fix the color, by means of a certain luminous stone. They used the bark of the tree _guallai_, as a substitute for soap, and obtained oil from the seeds of the _madi_.

They also manufactured baskets, mats, fishing-nets, ropes, and all their implements of labor and weapons of war. Their agricultural labors were considerable. They cultivated Indian corn, pulse of various kinds, potatoes, pumpkins, pepper, and large strawberries. They made use of spades, and a light plough, in tilling their grounds. They had domesticated the _Chilihueque_, an animal shaped like a camel, but having long hair, or rather, wool, which served for all purposes of making cloth. They had also hogs and domestic fowls in plenty.

Their government is like that of Venice--an aristocratic republic. They have three orders of nobility, the dignities of each hereditary in the male line; but these nobles, though they administer the laws, have no power to make laws, but are obliged to govern according to the customs and traditions of the people. The highest rank is the Toquis; next, Apo-Ulmenes; third, Ulmenes. But these chiefs have no power of exacting contributions, or taxes, from the people; nor can they call upon them for their service, except in time of war.

The offences which are deemed deserving capital punishment, are, treachery, murder, adultery, the robbery of any valuable article, and witchcraft. Husbands and fathers are not subjected to any punishment for killing their wives and children, as they are declared to be the natural masters of their lives. In this particular, the odious wickedness of barbarous life is most strikingly displayed. No influence, save that of the _Christian religion_, can protect women and children from oppression; and yet there are women in _Christian countries_, who appear indifferent to, or wholly insensible of, the precious privileges which the Gospel of Peace has bestowed on them!

The ulmenes are judges in all cases between the people; in questions of national importance, the whole body of nobles meet together in grand council.

Whenever the grand council determines to go to war, they elect a commander-in-chief; and he is chosen for his fitness, without regard to rank. Sometimes they elect one from the common class, if there is no one among the nobles more distinguished for bravery.

The new general assumes the title of toqui, and a stone hatchet; and all nobles and people take an oath of obedience to his orders. He is, in fact, dictator; but yet his power is not quite supreme, for he cannot put any one to death without the consent of his officers.

Every Araucanian is born a soldier and a patriot--all are ready to fight for their country; so that there is no difficulty in raising an army, which usually consists of five or six thousand men. The toqui appoints his lieutenants; these appoint subordinates; and so on, till the army is organized.

The army is at present composed of infantry and horse. They formerly had only foot-soldiers; but, perceiving the great advantage which the Spaniards derived from their cavalry, the shrewd Araucanians set themselves to providing horses, and, in 1568--only seventeen years after their first opposing the Spanish arms--they were able to furnish several squadrons; and, in 1585, they had their cavalry regularly organized.

The infantry is divided into regiments and companies; each regiment has 1000 men, and contains ten companies. The cavalry is divided in a like manner. They have all their particular standards, but each bears a _star_, the national device. The soldiers are not clothed in uniform, but all wear, beneath their usual dress, cuirasses of leather, hardened by a peculiar mode of dressing; and their shields and helmets are made of the same material.

The cavalry is armed with swords and lances; the infantry with pikes and clubs, pointed with iron. They formerly used bows and slings; but, when fighting with the Spaniards, they found these would not do; so, to avoid the effect of the musketry, they adopted pikes and clubs, and immediately closed in and fought hand to hand with the enemy.

They used fire-arms with great skill, whenever they took powder and muskets from the Spaniards; but, as soon as the powder was expended, they returned to their own way of fighting. They were, however, very anxious to learn the secret of making powder, and, it is reported, tried one very extraordinary experiment.

There happened to be a few _negroes_ with the Spanish troops; these, the Araucanians thought, were the powder magazines; or, at least, that the Spaniards used them in making powder. So, happening to take a poor black man prisoner, the Araucanians first covered him with stripes from head to foot, and then burned him to a coal, in order, by reducing it to powder, to obtain the so much wished for secret. But the cruel experiment failed!

The troops of this warlike nation are very vigilant, and always choose excellent positions. They are, moreover, acquainted with the art of constructing military works, and of protecting themselves with deep ditches, which they guard with branches of thorn.

When action becomes necessary, they separate the cavalry into two wings, and place the infantry in the centre; the files being arranged in such a manner that a pikeman and one who carries a club always fight side by side. They are brave, indeed utterly fearless, in battle.

Though they know full well that the first ranks will be exposed to almost certain destruction, they eagerly contend with each other for these posts of honor. As soon as the first line is cut down, or swept away by the cannon, the second occupies its place, and then the third, pressing on, until they succeed in breaking the front ranks of the enemy. In the midst of their fury, they preserve the strictest order, and perform all the evolutions directed by their officers. The most terrible of these are their club-bearers, who, Hercules-like, destroy or beat down all before them.

The prisoners they take are usually made slaves, until they are exchanged or ransomed. They seldom put a prisoner to death.

The religious system of the Araucanians differs, in some respects, from that of other Indian nations. They acknowledge a Supreme Being, the author of all things, whom they call _Pillan_--a word derived from _pulli_, the soul, and signifies the supreme essence. This Supreme Being is the great Toqui of the invisible world, and has a number of subordinate spirits, to whom is entrusted the administration of affairs of less import. There is a god of war, a benevolent deity, and the _guembu_, a malignant being, the author of all evil. If a horse tires, the guembu has rode him; if the earth trembles, this evil spirit has given it a shock; and he suffocates all who die,--so think the Araucanians.

Then the people believe in genii, who have charge of all created things, and who, united with the benevolent meulor, are constantly at war with the power of the wicked guembu. These genii are of both sexes--the females are lares, or familiar spirits, and always watch over mankind. Every Araucanian thinks he has one in his service. They sometimes invoke these deities, and implore their aid on urgent occasions; but they have no temples of worship, nor idols of any description; nor do they offer any sacrifices, except in case of some great calamity, or on concluding a peace. At such times they sacrifice animals and burn tobacco.

They believe in the immortality of the soul. This consolatory truth is deeply rooted, and seems innate with them. They think the soul, when separated from the body, goes to a country west, beyond the sea: one part of this land is pleasant, and filled with everything delightful--it is the abode of the good; the other part--desolate and wretched--is the habitation of the wicked.

Missionaries are much respected, and well-treated among them, and have full liberty of preaching their tenets; but yet, very few of the natives have ever been converted to Christianity. Still, they would seem to be the most likely of any of the Indian nations, to become, by suitable instruction, rational and real Christians. Their mode of worship, or manner of thinking respecting religious subjects, is more pure and spiritual than that of any other heathen people; and if books, in their own beautiful language, could be furnished them, and schools could be established among them, and good men and women, teachers of righteousness, in example as well as precept, would devote themselves to the work of instruction, it seems as though this interesting nation might be soon raised to the high rank of a civilized and Protestant Christian republic.

The Araucanians divide time as we do, into years, seasons, months, days, and hours; but in a different method. They commence their solar year on the 22d of December, calling this solstice _Thaumathipantu_, the head and tail of the year; and they denominate June, _Udanthipantu_, the divider of the year, from its dividing it into two parts.

They divide the year into twelve months, of thirty days each, and add five intercalary days to make out the solar year. The months are named from the most remarkable things produced at the time: thus--January is called _Avuncujer_, the month of fruit; February, _Cogi-cujer_, the month of harvest--and so on. The natural day is divided into twelve parts, six being allotted to the day, and six to the night; so that the Araucanian hour is as long as two of ours.

In astronomy, they have made wonderful progress, considering that they have had no written signs, to perpetuate their observations. They have divided the stars into constellations, and named these from the number of remarkable stars that compose them. Thus, the Pleiades are called _Cajupal_, the constellation of six; and the Antartic Cross, _Meleritho_, the constellation of four; because the first has six stars that are very apparent, and the last four.

They are well acquainted with the planets, and believe that these globes are so many earths, inhabited in the same manner as ours; for this reason they call the sky _Guenu-mapu_--the country of heaven; and the moon, _Cuyen-mapu_--the country of the moon. They believe comets to be exhalations or vapors from the earth, inflamed in the upper regions of the air; and never exhibit any fear at the sight of these, or of eclipses of the sun or moon. It is plain that they consider these as natural phenomena, but whether they know the course of eclipses or not, cannot be gathered from the imperfect knowledge we have of their language.

The Araucanians hold oratory in high estimation. The eldest son cannot succeed to the right of his birth, if he is deficient in this talent. So parents accustom their young sons, from childhood, to speak in public, and carry them to the national assemblies, where the best orators of the country display their eloquence.

They are as careful as ever were the Greeks, to speak their language correctly, and to preserve its purity. They are so particular about introducing foreign words, that when a foreigner settles among them, they oblige him to relinquish his name, and take another in the Chilian language.

The speeches of their orators are in the Asiatic style, highly figurative, allegorical, and elevated. They abound with parables and apologues; and yet they are seldom deficient in all the essential parts required by the rules of rhetoric; they have a suitable exordium, a clear narrative, a well-founded argument, and a pathetic peroration.

Their poets are called _gempin_, signifying _lords of speech_. What a beautiful and expressive name! Unrestrained enthusiasm is the prime characteristic of their poetry. The principal subject of the songs is the exploits of their heroes, somewhat in the manner of Ossian. Their verses are composed mostly in stanzas of eight or eleven syllables--a measure that appears most agreeable to the human ear. They are blank, but occasionally a rhyme is introduced, according to the taste of the poet.

The Araucanians have three kinds of physicians: the _ampines_, who employ only simples. These doctors are skilful in their knowledge of herbs, and understand pretty well the curing of most common diseases. Then there are the _vileus_, a class of doctors who believe that all contagious disorders proceed from insects: these are the regular physicians, and despise the poor herb-doctor as much as our own regular-bred M. D.’s do the quacks. The third class--_machis_--maintain that all serious disorders proceed from witchcraft, and pretend to cure by supernatural means; for which reason they are employed in desperate cases, when the exertions of the other doctors have failed. Sometimes the three kinds of physicians are called to hold a regular consultation--but they seldom agree.

Besides these professors of medicine, there are surgeons--_gutorne_-- who remedy dislocations, and cure wounds and ulcers. And there is also a class who dissect bodies, in order to learn from the entrails if they are infected with poison; and in this way they obtain a tolerably correct notion of the human anatomy.

Before the arrival of the Spaniards, the Araucanians made use of bleeding, blistering, clysters, emetics, cathartics, and sudorifics--all which remedies have their peculiar names in their language. They let blood with the sharp point of a flint, fixed in a small stick; and they still prefer this instrument to a lancet. Almost all their medicines are obtained from vegetables.

The internal commerce--that is, the traffic among themselves--is entirely carried on by barter, and regulated by a kind of conventional tariff, according to which all commercial articles are appraised under the name of _cullen_, or payment, as was the custom in the time of Homer. Thus, a horse or bridle forms one payment; an ox, two--and so on.

Their external commerce is carried on, also, in the same way of barter; the Araucanians receive wine and European merchandise in exchange for _ponchos_, or Indian cloaks, horned cattle, horses, ostrich feathers, curiously wrought baskets, and other trifles.

The Spaniard who engages in this trade, applies directly to the heads of families. If they tell him he may trade, he proceeds to their houses, and distributes, indiscriminately, his merchandise to all those who may present themselves. When he has completed his sale, he gives notice of his departure, and all the purchasers hasten to deliver to him, in the first village he arrives at, the articles agreed upon as payment; and never has there been known an instance of the least failure of punctuality. Would that those who bear the name of Christians, would always observe as good faith in their contracts as these Indians!

The pride of this people has been before noted. They are as proud of their valor and liberty as ever were the Romans. They believe themselves the only people in the world that deserve the name of men! This high opinion of themselves makes them hold every other nation in great contempt. They call the Spaniards by names which signify _vile soldiers_ and _assassins_. The other Europeans they call _moruche_, or strangers. But to each other they are all benevolence; and their language seems formed to express their kindness. They have six or seven very expressive words in their language for the term _friend_. For their relations of the most distant degree, they have terms which express particular regard and good will. In consequence of this mutual affection, they are always ready to assist each other. Not a beggar or an indigent person is to be found throughout all the Araucanian territory; even the most infirm and incapable of assisting themselves, are decently clothed. What a lesson should this furnish to Christian nations!

Nor is the benevolence of the Araucanian confined to his own countrymen: he is hospitable towards all strangers, of whatever nation; and a traveller may live in any part of the country, without the least expense.

They are very eloquent in expressing their good will, and sometimes rather tiresome in their compliments. They are naturally fond of honorable distinction, and they will not endure to be treated with the least contempt or neglect. If a Spaniard begins to speak to one of them with his hat on, the Indian immediately says--“_Entugo tarmi curtesia_”--take off your hat!

By attention and courtesy, anything may be obtained from them; and the favors they receive are always remembered; but ill-treatment exasperates them to such a degree, that nothing but revenge can appease them.

The Araucanians allow polygamy; a man may marry as many wives as he can purchase and maintain. This is the worst feature in their social policy, and seems almost the only obstacle which retards their civilization, or prevents them from becoming Christians. But even in these marriages, they show a higher sense of the natural laws of man, than the profligate Caribs did. The Araucanians, in their marriages, scrupulously avoid the more immediate degrees of relationship.

Their marriage ceremonies have very little formality, and consist in nothing more than carrying off the bride by pretended violence; and the bridegroom is obliged to give a variety of presents to the parents of the bride, and provide a grand entertainment for all the relations.

The first wife is always respected as the real and legitimate one; the others are called _iardimo_, or secondary wives. The first wife has also the authority of the mistress of the house; but the other wives are not always obedient, and the husband who has a number of these help-meets, has a deal of trouble to maintain harmony among them, though they generally treat him with great respect.

Celibacy is considered as ignominious. Old bachelors and old maids are called by names that signify old, idle, good for nothing.

Besides the usual female occupations of taking care of the house and children, spinning, weaving, and so on--that females in all countries perform--the women are not obliged to do much of the labor of living. But they pay the greatest attention to the cleanliness of their houses, sweeping them and the courts several times in the course of the day. Whenever they make use of any utensil, they immediately wash it.

The same attention to cleanliness is paid to their persons; they comb their hair twice a day, and once a week wash it with the soap made from the bark of the _quillai_; which keeps the hair very clean. There is seldom to be seen on their clothes the least spot of dirt.

The men are likewise equally fond of being neat and clean. In warm weather they bathe themselves several times a day, and it is rare, even in winter, that they do not bathe at least once a day.

Children are very kindly treated, and rarely, if ever, punished--the Araucanians holding it as an established truth, that chastisement only renders men base and cowardly.

The usual diet of this people is very simple. They are fond of Indian corn, and potatoes: of the last they have cultivated more than thirty different kinds, from time immemorial. Although they have both large and small animals, and birds in plenty, yet they eat but little flesh, and that is simply boiled or roasted. They rarely eat pork, though they know how to prepare black puddings and sausages; nor do they make much use of fish. They prefer bread and vegetables, especially potatoes, roasted, with a little salt.

Their usual drinks consist of various kinds of beer, and of cider, made from Indian corn, apples, and other fruits. They are extremely fond of wine, which they purchase from the Spaniards; but they have never taken any pains to cultivate the vine, which might be easily raised in the country.

The master of the house eats at the same table with his wives and children. The plates are earthen; the spoons and cups are made of horn and wood. The ulmenes, or nobles, have, in general, wrought plate for the service of their tables; but they only make use of it when they entertain some stranger of rank--then they make all the show possible, as they like to be considered rich. In summer, they are fond of dining in the shade of trees, which for this purpose are always planted round the house. Besides dinner, supper, and breakfast, they have, every day, their luncheon, which consists of a little flour of parched corn, steeped in hot water in the morning, and in cold in the evening.

Such is their common mode of living; but, on the occasions of funerals, marriages, or any other important event, they make great entertainments. Sometimes, three hundred persons are present, and the feasting continues two or three days. These are called _cahuin_, or circles, because the company seat themselves in a circle around a large branch of cinnamon wood.

They have also a custom, somewhat similar to our New England raisings, huskings, and quiltings. When there is any work which requires the combined aid of several persons--such as threshing their grain, building a house, &c.--the Araucanians, or all who wish to partake of the feast, assemble, and work until the labor is completed. But they generally come in sufficient numbers to finish the job in a few hours, and then devote the remainder of the day to amusement.

Music, dancing and play, form their customary diversions. Their musical instruments are very rude, their voices rather harsh, and the manner of singing not very agreeable to a stranger. But their dances, of which they have several, are lively and pleasing. The men and women sometimes dance together, but oftener apart.

Their games are very numerous, and, for the most part, very ingenious; they are divided into sedentary and gymnastic. It is a curious fact, and worthy of note, that they have the game of chess, which they call _comican_, and which has been known to them from time immemorial. They have also a game, _quechu_, which is almost similar to our backgammon.

The youth exercise themselves frequently in wrestling and running, and playing ball, which they like exceedingly. But the _penco_ is a favorite game, because it has some resemblance to the siege of a fortress--and they delight in war.

The _penco_ is thus played. Twelve or more persons join hands, and form a circle, in the centre of which stands a little boy. Their adversaries, who are equal in number, and sometimes superior, endeavor by force or stratagem to break the circle, and obtain the boy, in which the victory consists. But this is no easy matter. The defenders make almost incredible efforts to keep themselves closely united, and the besiegers are often compelled, by weariness, to relinquish the attempt; and then the defenders shout for their victory.

The aboriginal inhabitants of Chili, from the ocean to the Andes, from Peru to Magellan, all speak the same language. It is a regular, harmonious, and rich language, and so elegant, expressive, and copious, that Europeans who have studied it, think the Chilians must, in former times, have possessed a much greater degree of civilization than at present; because mere savages could never have formed a dialect so perfect.

It differs from every other American language, not less in its words than in its construction. It is so copious, that a complete dictionary of it would require more than one large volume; and in sweetness and variety it greatly excels the other Indian dialects.

The Araucanians are very particular to teach their children to speak with propriety and elegance; and it is probably this care which has preserved the language so pure. They will not converse in Spanish, though they easily learn that language, or, indeed, any other; but they scrupulously adhere to their own tongue,--and it is through this medium that, if ever they embrace Christianity, they must be taught. It seems, from many circumstances, as though this people were peculiarly prepared to become Protestant Christians, whenever they can be instructed in the arts of reading and writing, and furnished with the Word of God.

Such are the character and manners of the Araucanians of the present day: most of the customs we have described are original, though a few of them have been derived from the Spaniards.

A Long Nap.

Did you ever see a bear? A bear is a creature as large as a small cow.--Some bears are black, some white, and some brown.

Bears live far away in the woods and mountains. They do not get together, as people do, and build houses: not they!

Every bear looks out for some hole in a tree, or cave in a rock, and there he makes his bed. If he can get enough to eat, he cares for nobody else.

When winter comes, bears of some kinds grow sleepy, and, crawling into a hole, or lying down beneath the shelter of thick trees, they shut their eyes and go to sleep. Like the little striped squirrel, and wood-chucks, and toads and lizards, they thus sleep till spring.

Lord Bacon.

The word _bacon_ is usually applied to a piece of smoked pork, and sometimes means nothing more than _ham_. But, in the present case, it is applied to one of the greatest and most useful men that ever lived,--and this may show that the same word may signify very different things.

Now, this Lord Bacon--whose Christian name was Francis--as I have said, was a great and useful man; but what did he do? He was no warrior, and never fought a battle; he was no king, and never wore a crown; he was no giant, and never performed any great feat of bodily strength: but he did more for the good of mankind than any giant, king, or warrior. He taught the world how to think, how to reason, how to find out truth!

He was born in London, in the year 1561. He was bred a lawyer, and held office under Elizabeth, then queen of England. But, after a time, he offended the queen, and his hopes of high preferment were disappointed. After queen Elizabeth died, and James I. came to the throne, he was made a judge, and held several important stations, and at last was honored with the title of Viscount St. Albans--which meant that he was one of the nobles of the land; or, in other words, that he was to be called a lord.

But the offices and honors he enjoyed, were not the foundation of Bacon’s claims to the respect and gratitude of mankind. You must remember that he lived almost three hundred years ago; and then the people, even those who were learned, held many absurd opinions, and, what was the worst of all, they had false and foolish modes of reasoning. Thus it often happened, that even the learning and philosophy of those days rather led to error than to truth.

Now, Bacon applied himself to the teaching of better modes of thinking and reasoning. Instead of bewildering the mind with theories and fancies, he taught the world to study into facts; to gather stores of knowledge; and to make this knowledge the starting-point--the foundation of their philosophy. He taught this great and simple truth, and the result of it has been, that mankind, since his time, have discarded many absurd errors, and gone on making new and wonderful discoveries. Many of the great inventions, and much of the science and knowledge now current among mankind, are the result of Bacon’s wise and useful lessons.

This great man died in 1626; and though he did so much for the world, he can hardly be said to have led a happy life. He was once imprisoned in the Tower of London--a dreary old castle--fined 200,000 dollars, turned out of parliament, and declared unworthy of serving his country! Perhaps he did something wrong, though the general opinion is, that he suffered this on account of unjust accusations. He was liberated from the tower, and the fine was remitted by the king; but from this period, he lived in privacy, devoting himself to the writing of books. They are now held in great estimation, for their stores of wisdom.

Habits which concern Others.

Not only for our own sakes, but on account of all with whom we associate, it is our duty to take great care of our habits. The general principle which should lead us to do this is, that we cannot live for ourselves alone. We must think of others; we must speak and act with them in our minds. And we are bound to form such habits as shall tend to their good--to make us useful in the world. We must, in a word, deny ourselves. If, while we are children, we take pleasure in giving a part of what we enjoy, be it only a bunch of flowers, or an apple, to one of our school-mates, we shall thus prepare ourselves to make others good and happy, when we come to manhood. But a selfish habit will be very hard to change hereafter.

We should form the habit of associating with good persons. A lad may have many pleasant things about him; he may be witty, or bold, or smart; but, if he is coarse in his manners--if he is vulgar, profane, or addicted to falsehood, we should shun his company. We are apt to become like those with whom we freely associate; and although we do not mean to imitate their faults, and do not think there is any danger of it, yet we may soon fall into the same bad habits. To be safe, therefore, we should never trust ourselves unnecessarily with any but good people.

You may think it will be easy to break away from the company and acquaintance of a boy, when you find him to be very bad; but it will not be so. Many have been ruined for life by the friendships they have formed with vicious children, while at school with them. They continued to associate with them, and caught their vices in youth, and even up to manhood. If we wish to do good in the world, we must be good; and we cannot be good, if we are very intimate with bad persons.

It is our duty habitually to speak well of others. We are accustomed to do the opposite of this--to say all the bad things of others which we think the truth will allow. This is wrong. A little boy once said to his mother--“When will these ladies be gone, so that we can talk about them?” And what was to be said about those ladies? Probably the family were in the habit of speaking of the faults of their visiters. If there was anything that could be ridiculed in their dress or their remarks, then was the time to discuss it.

Now, we all know the power of habit; and if we could only learn to think what _good_ things we could say of others, and keep all that was bad to ourselves, what an immense improvement there would be among school-children, and in the whole world! It is our duty to love all men; let us, therefore, try to speak well of every one, and we shall soon love them. If we talk much against them, we cannot love them.

We should practise punctuality, for the sake of others, as well as ourselves. He who is punctual, will accomplish far more in a day, than he who is not so. Washington was remarkable for this virtue. He once rode into Boston without any escort, because the soldiers were not punctual to meet him on the line, at the time they promised. His mother taught him, when a boy, to have certain hours for every employment, and to do everything at the appointed time. This habit helped, in his after life, to make him a good man. He was able to do what, without it, he never could have done.

We injure others by a neglect of punctuality. A girl says to herself--“It is a little too cold, or a little too warm, to go to school to-day;” or--“I feel a slight headache;” and so she remains at home. Now, she thus not only loses all she might that day have learned, but gives her teacher trouble. He must note her absence; and when the time comes for a recitation the next day, she is behind her class, and gives him and them farther trouble. We ought never to say--“It is only once--I will not do so again;” and think thus to excuse ourselves; for, from the force of habit, the oftener we are tardy, or otherwise fail in our duty, the more frequently shall we be likely to do so, and the more injury shall we do others, of course, by this fault. So that, on every account, we should be punctual.

Among the habits essential to a good character, is moral independence. We hear much said about being independent in regard to property. Some persons think that condition all-important. But it is only so, if it can be proved indispensable to a higher and nobler independence--that of character. Let us inherit a patrimony, or earn a fortune by industry and economy, or by the power of superior talents; we shall still be miserably dependent on others, if we do not form our own opinions, as respects our duty, and practise what we feel to be right, and not merely what others tell us is right.

We should first understand in what true independence consists. It is not eccentricity, or oddity, or affectation; nor is it an unreasonable pride and confidence in ourselves. We sometimes see boys, at school, who put on airs, and pretend to be very independent in all they say and do. There is no virtue in this. Ann is called very smart, because she is not afraid to _speak her mind_, as she terms it, about everybody and everything. She does it, when she knows it will give others pain. This is not true independence.

Sarah is always saying queer, strange, and, what some call, independent things. But she does this merely for display. She is very dependent, for she lives on the opinion of others. She is always imagining what people will say of her. Another girl is trying to be eccentric. If she can find out what her companions expect her to think, or do, or say, she will strive to think, act, or speak, in exactly the opposite way.

True independence is a habit of forming our own opinions on all subjects, without regard to those of our neighbors. It leads us, under all circumstances, to think, speak, and act according to what we believe to be our duty. We should never wait for others to act, through fear of doing differently from them. It is our duty to be considerate of the feelings of others, and to be prudent and accommodating where their happiness is concerned. But if we feel any course to be right, we should always pursue it, let us suffer as we may from the unjust censure of others.--_English Magazine._

The Black Skimmer of the Seas.

This bird, which is sometimes called _sheerwater_, is a lover of the ocean, and spends nearly his whole life in skimming along its surface, or in sitting upon its shores.

A person, on looking at the creature’s bill, might think it a very clumsy contrivance; for the lower mandible, or jaw, is a great deal longer than the upper one. People used to think that there was some mistake of nature, in giving this bird what seemed to them so inconvenient a tool for getting a living with. But this was only one of those instances in which ignorance led to presumption, and presumption to folly. A better knowledge of the sheerwater’s ways of life has served to show, that in this case, as in all others, the Author of nature has shown wonderful skill in adapting means to ends; in supplying His creatures with the best possible contrivances for the trade or profession they are to follow.

Now, the black skimmer is made for a fisherman; he is made to feast upon shrimps, and small fishes of various kinds, that live near the surface of the water. Accordingly, he is provided with a bill, the lower part of which is the longest, and which he can dip in the water while he is skimming close over its face. In order to prevent this from impeding his progress, it is shaped like the blade of a knife, and thus it cuts the water with ease. As he speeds along, his bill scoops up the little fishes, and by the impetus of his flight, they are carried along in his bill, and swallowed as he goes.

No better proof of the success of the ingenious contrivance furnished by nature to the sheerwater can be needed, than that he is a lucky fisherman, and seems to enjoy an almost perpetual banquet. His wings are made of vast length, on purpose to assist him in sustaining his continued flight; and thus he seems to sail as if the wind were made on purpose for him; and he feasts as if the wide ocean were his larder.

This singular and interesting bird comes to us along the northern shores of the Atlantic, in May, and retires to the south in autumn, where he spends the winter. His favorite haunts are low sand-bars, raised above the reach of the tides. He builds his nest on dry flats, near the ocean. His body is nineteen inches long, and his wings, when expanded, are forty-four inches from tip to tip. Thus the sheerwater, instead of being shabbily treated, is a striking instance of the adaptation of nature’s work, to the purposes of its great Author.

The Squirrel.

The more we examine the works of nature, the more we shall be made to feel that there is infinite variety in them--that almost every part of the universe is filled with inhabitants appropriate to it; and that each individual thing is fitted to the place it occupies. Among plants, for instance, there are nearly a hundred thousand kinds already recorded in the books of the botanists; among animated beings, there are, perhaps, even a greater number of species. And what a countless number of each individual kind, whether in the vegetable or animal world! Every part of the earth is occupied. The earth, the air, the sea--each and all are inhabited by myriads of living things. And how wonderfully are they all adapted to their several designs! How well is the fish fitted to his element; how admirably is the bird adapted to the life he is to lead!

Among quadrupeds, the lively little fellow, whose name we have placed at the head of this article, is a pleasing illustration of the success with which nature accomplishes her designs. The squirrel is made to enliven the forest, to live among woods, to gather his food and make his nest, and spend a great part of his life amid the branches of the trees. And how perfectly is he at home in his domain! He springs from limb to limb--from tree to tree; he ascends or descends the trunks at pleasure, and seems to be as safe, in his airy evolutions, as the ox, or the horse, upon the solid ground--or the bird in the air, or the fishes in the river.

How perfect an instance of adaptation is this! How nice must be a piece of machinery, that could be made to operate with such celerity, in such a variety of ways, and with such certain success! And how pleasing, as an object of mere beauty, is the squirrel! How graceful his form--how cheerful his aspect--how seemingly happy his existence!

Gothic Architecture.

The modes of building in different countries, and in different ages of the world, have resulted in several distinct styles of architecture.

Among the ancient Egyptians, it would seem, from the low and massy forms of their edifices, that they were fashioned in imitation of caves--the first habitations of savage man. The temples, of which many ruins remain along the borders of the Nile, seem almost like structures hewn out of the rock; so heavy are the columns, and so low the arches.

Among the Greeks, the style of architecture seemed to be suggested by the wooden cabin, supported upon the trunks of trees. Thus the lighter and loftier columns supporting their edifices, seem to be a leading feature of their buildings.

In China, the houses appear to be fashioned after the tent, as if the idea had been borrowed from the pastoral age, when the inhabitants subsisted upon flocks, and dwelt in tents.

The Gothic architecture appears to be an imitation of the grove; the roof being supported by pillars, branching upward. The engraving will give some idea of this style of building. It flourished from the year 1000 to 1500, A. D., and was particularly used in the construction of churches, monasteries, and other religious buildings, during that period. In France and Germany there are still to be seen many churches in this style; and though they have an ancient and gloomy appearance, they are very beautiful, and the sombre light within, seems well fitted to a place of worship. In England, also, there are many Gothic edifices of the olden time, among which Westminster Abbey, in London, is a fine specimen. In Boston, Trinity Church is somewhat in the Gothic taste; and at Hartford there is a fine specimen, in the Episcopal Church. There are also several other edifices in this country, of recent structure, which are imitations, in part, of ancient Gothic buildings; but a pure example of this style is hardly to be found, except in Europe, and among the edifices of past centuries.

Merry’s Life and Adventures.