Chapter VI: The Poison Lore of Toads and Spiders

From early times the toad has had an unenviable reputation and has been suspected of poisonous properties. Some of the early historians attribute the death of King John of England to a friar who placed a toad in his cup of wine. The story is no doubt fictitious, but there is some ground for the evil reputation that has so long been associated with this unlovely reptile. The venom of some toads is believed to possess poisonous properties in certain countries throughout the world, and some species are said to be particularly virulent. A few years ago Phisalix and Bertrand undertook an investigation to ascertain if there was any truth in the story of the poisonous properties attributed to toads. They succeeded in extracting two powerful principles from the parotid gland and skin of the common toad. One of these was found to act on the heart in a similar manner to digitalis, and the other known as bufotenine exercises a powerful paralysing action on the nerve centres.

The _Ceratophrys ornata_, a toad found in South America, is of a very poisonous nature. It will bite anything that comes in its way and then hang on with the tenacity of a bulldog, poisoning the blood with its glandular secretion. Death may follow its bite, and it has been known to kill a horse by gripping him by the nose, while the animal was cropping grass.

Shakespeare alludes to the evil reputation of the toad in two of his plays and the

“Toad, that under cold stone,
Days and nights went thirty-one
Swelter’d venom sleeping got,”

formed an ingredient in the witches’ hell-broth in “Macbeth.” When dropped into the wine cup it was believed to act with deadly effect on those who drank its contents.

In connection with the poison of the toad there is an interesting record on a medical diploma at present in the Library of Ferrara, which was granted to one Generoso Marini in 1642. Marini appears to have made an application for a diploma of medicine and the judges who had the power of granting such degrees, ordered him to produce some efficient proofs of his capability to practise the healing art. Marini agreed to comply with their demand and the result is recorded on his diploma, which was discovered by Cittadella among the archives of Ferrara some years ago; it reads as follows:—

“Having publicly examined and approved the science and knowledge of medicine of Signor Generoso Marini, and his possession of the wonderful secret called ‘Orvietano,’ which he exhibited on the stage built in the centre of this our city of Ferrara, in presence of its entire population, so remarkable for their civilisation and learning, and in presence of many foreigners and other classes of people, we hereby certify that, also in our presence, as well as that of the city authorities, he took several living toads, not those of his own providing, but from a great number of toads, which had been caught in fields in the locality by persons who were strangers to him, and which were only handed to him at the moment of making the experiment. An officer of the court then selected from the number of toads collected, five of the largest, which the said Generoso Marini placed on a bench before him, and in presence of all assembled spectators, he, with a large knife, cut all the said toads in half. Then, taking a drinking cup, he took in each hand one half of a dead toad, and squeezed from it all the juices and fluids it contained into the cup, and the same he did with the remainder. After mixing the contents together, he swallowed the whole, and then placing the cup on the bench he advanced to the edge of the stage, where for some minutes he remained stationary. Then he became pale as death and his limbs trembled and his body began to swell in a frightful and terrible manner; and all the spectators began to believe that he would never recover from the poison he had swallowed, and that his death was certain. Suddenly taking from a jar by his side some of his celebrated ‘Orvietano,’ he placed a portion of it in his mouth and swallowed it. Instantly the effect of this wonderful medicine was to make him vomit the poison he had taken, and he stood before the spectators in the full enjoyment of health.

“The populace applauded him highly for the indisputable proof he had given of his talent, and he then invited many of the most learned of those present to accompany him to his house, and he there showed them his dispensary as well as his collection of antidotes, and among them a powder made from little vipers, a powerful remedy for curing every sort of fever, as he had proved by different experiments he had made on people of quality and virtue, all of whom he had cured of the fever from which they were suffering, etc.

“In consequence of the rare talent exhibited by Signor Generoso Marini, and as a proof of our love and respect for his wisdom, we have resolved by the authority placed in our hands publicly to reward him with a diploma so that he may be universally recognised, applauded and respected. In witness thereof we have set our hands and the public seal of the municipality of Ferrara.

“Data in Ferrara con grandissimo applauso il di 26 Luglio, 1642.

“JOANNES CAJETANUS MODONI,
Index sapientum Civitatis Ferrari.

“FRANCISCUS ALTRAMARI,
Cancellarius.”

But although the toad under certain conditions was credited with poisonous properties, during the Middle Ages it was esteemed a valuable remedy for the plague and was employed for that purpose in Austria as late as the year 1712.

The country people of Brazil believe the milky secretion of the common toad possesses wonderful curative properties and use it externally as a cure for shingles. In these cases living toads are generally applied to the part affected.

The poisonous drug known as “Senso” in China and Japan is said to be composed of the dried poison from a species of toad. It has been found to contain cholesterol, the bufagin of Abel and Macht; bufotenine, and a base resembling epinephrine. Bufagin causes a marked rise of blood pressure, and acts as a diuretic. It is toxic in small doses. Bufotenine acts as a local anæsthetic, causes convulsions of the medullary type, and is pharmacologically allied to picrotoxin. The base, resembling epinephrine, is a powerful sympathicomimetic poison.

Certain species of spider possess poisonous properties, notably the _Chiracanthium nutrix_ and the _Epeira diadema_. The bite of the female of the former is distinctly venomous, and one milligramme of the juice of the latter variety injected into a cat resulted in death.

Some curious methods of the manner in which some Indian tribes of South America utilize a poisonous grass as a method of defence have been investigated by Bomain. He found that a belt of this plant formed a natural barrier between the Indian tribes who lived on each side of a range of mountains, where it flourished. Animals died as soon as they ate the poisonous grass, and thus a hostile tribe was prevented from encroaching on the territory of another.

On scientific investigation, it was discovered that a few hundred grains of the grass would kill a horse or a mule in an hour or two, the deadly effect being due to the production of prussic acid, which was caused by the decomposition of a glucosive under the influence of a ferment.

A mysterious poison is said to be known among some of the gipsy tribes of Europe which is supposed to consist of the germs of a certain poisonous fungus. When mixed with food it causes death in from two to three weeks after administration. The symptoms produced are said to be similar to those of typhoid fever. A case of poisoning with this substance, which is known to the gipsies by the name of “Dri” or “Drei,” was reported in London in 1864.