Chapter V: Appendix: The Second

§ 262.

Foſſils externally reſembling animals or vegetables, originate from foreign matters, which by ſome peculiar proceſs are changed in the boſom of the earth, or are ſo impregnated by mineral particles gradually occupying the place of thoſe which have putrified, that they no longer reſemble organic ſubſtances, except in figure.—Theſe are commonly called PETREFACTIONS.

§ 263.

The harder ſhells of animals expoſed to the weather, are not always exempt from deſtruction; for their gelatinous matter being gradually deſtroyed by putrefaction, they become brittle, and in a manner calcined. In leſs expoſed ſituations, ſome of them preſerve the nature of their materials, but acquire a ſpar-like texture.

§ 264.

We muſt carefully diſtinguiſh betwixt the foreign bodies themſelves, changed or petrified, and their impreſſions upon the ſurrounding matrices. Sometimes the body is entirely deſtroyed, forming a cavity in the ſurrounding matter, and this cavity afterwards is filled with other materials. Nuclei, or kernels, are likewiſe found, formed within the cavities of the harder ſhells, and bearing the form of their internal ſurface.

§ 265.

I am far from thinking the knowledge of petrefactions is barren and uſeleſs. We may, and ought, to conſider them as medals depoſited by the hand of nature, in memory of the more remarkable changes on the ſurface of the earth, and from which the time and order of the work may, in ſome meaſure, be judged of, whilſt other monuments are ſilent. Theſe, being properly interpreted, ſhew us their native ſituations in the former ſtate of the ſurface of the earth, and teach us the unbounded empire of the ſea, and the conſequent changes. By them we learn to diſtinguiſh the ancient and modern foundations of the mineral kingdom; for thoſe which are not formed of petrefactions, and never contain them, are doubtleſs of greater antiquity than animals or vegetables; and, laſtly, by their figure they ſhew us the inhabitants of our globe, eſpecially thoſe of the greateſt depths of the ocean.

§ 266.

Mr. CRONSTEDT has admirably arranged the petrefactions; we think it right, therefore, to retain his method. The Genera are built upon the Genera of foſſils, and arranged like the four claſſes thereof; the ſpecies upon their ſpecies, and the varieties upon the organic ſubſtances that have been changed. The following are the Genera hitherto diſcovered.

_Saline Calcareous Earth_ with an _organic Form_.

§ 267.

Gypſeous petrefactions are very rare.

_Saline Iron_ with an _organic Form_.

§ 268.

Human bodies have ſometimes been found indurated and penetrated by vitriol of iron; so likewiſe have plants, their roots eſpecially. In the open air they moulder away.

_Mild Calcareous Earth_ with an _organic Form_.

§ 269.

This conſtitutes the ſubſtance of moſt petrefactions.

_Clay_ with an _organic Form_.

§ 270.

It is remarkable, that petrefactions found in clay are compreſſed, although, in ſubjacent calcareous ſtrata, they preſerve their natural figure. Similar compreſſed petrefactions are alſo found in the marly ſchiſtus.

_Siliceous Earth_ with an _organic Form_.

§ 271.

Siliceous petrefactions are ſometimes met with, but, in general, this material forms only nuclei (§ 264). Trunks of trees are ſometimes found changed into agate. The celebrated FERBER has ſeen petrefactions in chert and jaſper, and the illuſtrious BORN mentions corallines (porpitæ) in ſinople or martial jaſper.

_Earth organic._

§ 272.

Animals and vegetables are reſolved by putrefaction into an earth, which may be regarded as forming a peculiar genus, until every appearance of organization being obliterated, at length it comes to be conſidered as common earth.

_Petroleum_ impregnating _organic Bodies_.

§ 273.

Wood, penetrated by indurated petroleum, forms a remarkable variety of coal.

_Silver_ with an _organic Form_.

§ 274.

Native ſilver is ſometimes inherent in petrefactions, but never, to my knowledge, conſtitutes the ſubſtance of them, unleſs mineralized with copper and ſulphur.

_Quickſilver_ in an _organic Form_.

§ 275.

When mineralized by ſulphur, it ſometimes, though very rarely, conſtitutes petrefactions.

_Copper_ with an _organic Form_.

§ 276.

Bones and teeth are ſometimes found replete with the blue calx of copper. Bits of copper pyrites often ſtick in petrefactions, but ſeldom conſtitute their whole ſubſtance. I have some such from Norway, in a matrix of magnetical iron ore.

_Iron_ with an _organic Form_.

§ 277.

Calciform iron ſometimes is found in the ſhape of roots and branches of trees. When mineralized by ſulphur, it frequently exiſts in petrefactions, but ſeldom conſtitutes the whole maſs.

_Zinc_ with an _organic Form_.

§ 278.

I have ſeen pſeudo-galena (black jack), in the form of coral.

§ 279.

Some modern writers, as well as Mr. CRONSTEDT, place the productions of _volcanoes_ in an appendix by themſelves; but, I think, to no good purpoſe. Things formed by the hand of nature, whether by a liquid or a dry proceſs, muſt not be diſjoined; for ſhe frequently avails herſelf of both methods in one and the ſame inſtance. And, indeed, the origin of many things is ſo very doubtful, every veſtige thereof being obliterated, that even an Œdipus could not with certainty determine how they were produced. And, on the other hand, many aſſert, that almoſt the whole of the mineral kingdom is the product of fire. To avoid error, therefore, it is better to claſs foſſil ſubſtances according to their conſtituent parts, which proper experiments will lay open to us; for we can seldom know their origin or formation.

Homogeneous ſubſtances joined together, but not primitive, will find a place among the ſtones, or elſewhere, in the firſt appendix.

FINIS.

INDEX.

N. B. _The Numbers refer to the Sections._

Acids, how known § 25

Aerial acid 37

Alkali minerale aeratum 55

—— —— nitratum 48

—— —— ſalitum 49, 76

—— —— vitriolatum 47

—— vegetabile aeratum 54

—— —— nitratum 45

—— —— ſalitum 46

—— —— vitriolatum 44

—— volatile aeratum 56

—— —— nitratum 51

—— —— ſalitum 52

—— —— vitriolatum 50

Alkalies, how known 38

Alkaly fixed foſſil 41

—— —— vegetable 40

—— mild foſſil 55

—— —— vegetable 54

—— volatile 42

—— —— mild 56

Alum 67, 78, 79

—— ore 117

—— ſlate 118

Amber 140

—— acid of 36

Ambergriſe 141

Ammoniac, fixed 62

Antimonium (see antimony)

Antimony, properties of 237

—— ſpecies of 238–240

Argentum (ſee ſilver)

Argilla, what 111

—— properties of 112

—— ſpecies of 113, 122

—— porcellana 113

Argilla vitriolata 67, 78, 79

Argillaceous earth, what 111

—— properties of 112

—— ſpecies of 113, 122

Arsenic, properties of 219

—— ſpecies of 220–224

Auripigmentum, 223

Aurum (ſee gold)

Baſaltes 120

Biſmuth, properties of 210

—— ſpecies of 211–214

Bitumina (see inflammables)

Black jack 236

Black-lead 135

Bloodſtone 202

Blue John 96, n. 30

Blue vitriol 69

Bole 114

Boracic acid 35

Borax 53

Brimſtone 134

Cœruleum Berolinenſe nativum 206

Calcareous earth pure 92

—— its properties 93

—— ſpecies of 94–102

Calcedonius 126

Calk 58

Calx 92, 93

—— aerata 63, 94, 95

—— fluorata 96

—— nitrata 60

—— ponderoſa 33

—— ſalita 61

—— vitriolata 59

Carnelian 126

Chalcedony 126

Chalk 63, 94, 95

Chert 129

Choak-damp n. 37

Chryſopraſius 131

Cinnaber 176

Clay 114

Coal 139

—— yields vol. alkaly n. 50

Cobalt properties of 225

—— ſpecies of 226–231

Cobaltum (ſee cobalt)

Common ammoniac 52

—— ſalt 49, 76

Copper, its properties 188

—— ſpecies of 189–196

Corniſh fluor, n. 30

Cubic nitre 48

Cuprum (ſee copper)

—— nicolai 218

—— vitriolatum 69, 80, 82

Derbyſhire fluor, n. 30

Diamond 142

Digeſtive ſalt 46

Dyer’s earth 114

Earths properties of 21

—— have an attraction for each other 103

—— primitive and derivative 83–86

—— ſaline 85

Earthy compounds 251–253, 260

Emerald 119

Epſom ſalt 63, 77, 104, 105

Federertz 171

Fœtid ſtone 95

Feldſpath 130

Feldſpathum 130

Ferrum (ſee iron)

—— aeratum 71

—— nitratum 71

—— ſalitum 71

—— vitriolatum 70, 81, 82

Fixed air 37

—— ammoniac 62

Fluor acid 30

Fluor ſpar 96

—— Corniſh, n. 30

—— Derbyſhire, n. 30

Galena 165, 185

Garnet 120

Gemma 119

Gems 119

Glanz-cobalt 230

Glauber’s ſalt 47

Glimmer 122

Gold, properties of 144

—— ſpecies of 145–150

Granatus 120

Gypſum 59

Hæmatites 102

Heavy earth (ſee the preface)

—— —— how obtained pure 87

—— —— properties of 88

—— —— ſpar 58, 89, 90

Heliotropium, n. 25

Horn-ſilver 161

Hydrargyrum (ſee quickſilver)

Hydrophanus 126

Jaſper 127

Jaſpis 127

Inflammables, definition of, 22, 132

—— ſpecies of 133–136

Inflammable compounds 254, 255

Iron, properties of, 197

—— ſpecies of, 198–206

Kupfernickel 218, 231

Lapis calaminaris 233

—— hepaticus 90

—— ponderoſus 97

—— ſuillus 95

Lead, its properties 179

—— ſpecies of, 180–187

—— vitriol of, 181

Limeſtone 63, 94, 95

Lithantrax 139

Lithomarga 116, and n.

Litmus, n. 25

Liver ſtone 90

Loadſtone 200

Magnes 200

Magneſia, how got pure, 104

—— properties of, 105

—— ſpecies of 105–109

—— aerata 66

—— common 66

—— nitrata 64

—— ſalita 65

—— vitriolata, 63, 77

Manganeſe, properties of, 241

—— ſpecies of, 242, 243

Manganeſium (ſee manganeſe)

—— ſalitum 74

Marle 115

—— calcareous 101.

Marble 63, 94, 95

Marmor metallicum 58, 89

Metals, definition of, 23

—— properties of, 143

—— table of, 143, page 71

Metallic compounds, 256

—— ſalts, how known, 68

Mica 122

Minera argenti alba, 169

—— —— cornea 161

—— —— griſea 170

—— —— rubra 166

—— —— vitrea 163, 193

—— cupri vitrea 193

—— —— lazurea 194

—— ferri alba 203

Miſspickel 199

Molybdæna 136

—— acid of, 32

Muriatic acid 29

Naptha 138

Natron 55

Neutral ſalts, what 43

—— —— perfect 43

—— —— imperfect 43

Nevilholt water, n. 29, n. 67

Niccolum (ſee nickel)

—— vitriolatum 72

Nickel, properties of 215

—— ſpecies of 216–218

Nitre, common 45

Nitre of lime 60

—— of the ancients 55

Nitrous acid 28

—— ammoniac 51

Opal 126

Petrefactions, what, 262–265

—— genera of 266–270

—— calcareous 269

—— cinnabarine 275

—— cupreous 276

—— gypſeous 267

—— inflammable 273

—— irony 277

—— ſiliceous 271

—— ſilvery 274

—— vitriolic 268

—— pſeudo-galena 278

Petroleum 137

—— ſpecies of, 138–141

Petroſilex 129

Phoſphoric acid 34

Pipe clay 113

Pit coal 139

Platina, properties of, 151

—— how made malleable, n. 151

—— ſpecies of, 152

Platinum (ſee platina)

Plumbago 135

Plumbum (ſee lead)

Porcelain clay 113, and n.

Pruſſian blue, native 206

Pſeudogalena 236

Pyrites 204

—— argenteus 164

—— arſenicalis 224

—— aureus 149

—— cupri 195, 196

Quartz 125

Quartzum 125

Quickſilver, properties of 172

—— ſpecies of 173–178

Riſigallum 223

Rock Oil 138

Rubinus 119

Ruby 119

Sal ammoniac 52

—— gem 76

Saline compounds 247–250, 257–261

Salt common 49

Salts definition of 20

—— metallic how diſtinguiſhed 68

Salts native 24

—— triple, quadruple, &c. 75

Sapphire 119

Saphirus 119

Saxa 251

Scherle 120

Schiſtus aluminaris 118

Sedative ſalt 35

Selenite 59

Serpentine 107

Sideritis 205

Siliceous earth 123

—— properties of, 124

—— ſpecies of, 125–131

Silver, properties of, 153

—— ſpecies of 154–171

Smaragdus 119

Soaprock 107

Spar 63

—— ponderous 89

Sparry fluor, 30, 96

Stannum (ſee tin)

—— ſulphuratum, (ſee preface)

Stones 251

Stone marrow 116

Succinum 140

Sulphur 133, 134

Talc 122

Tartar of vitriol, 44

Terra Lemnia 116

—— ponderoſa, (ſee preface)

—— —— 87

—— properties of, 87

—— aerata 58

—— native, n. 88

—— nitrata 58

—— ſalita 58

—— vitriolata 58, 89, 90

Terra Silicea 123

—— properties of, 124

—— ſpecies of, 125–131

Terrene nitre 60

Tin, properties of, 207

—— ſpecies of 208, 209

Tinkal 53

Topaz 119

Tourmaline 119

Trichites 79

Tungſten 97

Viſmutum (ſee Biſmuth)

Vitriol blue 69

—— green 70

—— white 73

—— of copper 69, 80, 82

—— —— iron 70, 81, 82

—— —— nickel 72

—— —— zinc 73

Vitriolic acid 27

—— —— phlogiſticated 27

—— ammoniac 50

Volatile alkaly, mild 56

Volcanic productions 279

Zeolite 121

Zinc, properties of, 232

—— ſpecies of, 233–236

Zincum vitriolatum 73.

ERRATA.

Page 9, n. for Dr. WERNER, read Profeſſor WERNER.

15, line 23, for VANDELL, read VANDELLI.

21, line 10, for red, read green.

41, line 9, for acidor, read acid or.

71, line 5, for 27,500, read 21,000.

75, note —— 27,500, read 21,000.

95, line 1, for 100 parts, read centenary.

97, line 7, for berolineuſe read, Berolinenſe.

-----

Footnote 1:

In this tranſlation they are introduced in their proper places. W.

Footnote 2:

There is no difficulty in doing this: either the foſſil, or the
vegetable fixed alkaly phlogiſticated, precipitate the terra
ponderoſa, inſtantly and entirely, out of the nitrous, muriatic, or
vegetable acids. W.

Footnote 3:

Opuſc. chemica, vol. II. page 2–10.

Footnote 4:

Conſult particularly Profeſſor WERNER’S treatiſe on the _external
characters of foſſils_ printed in German in the year 1774.

Footnote 5:

The latter part of this definition does not apply perfectly well to
ſome of the ſimple ſalts. I ſhall therefore offer another, given by
Dr. Cullen, viz. “_Saline bodies_ are ſapid, miſcible with water, and
not inflammable.” I am ſenſible too that this definition is not
perfectly unexceptionable, ſince it has been found that vol. alkaly in
an aerial ſtate is in a certain degree inflammable. W.

Footnote 6:

As the tincture of heliotropium is the niceſt known teſt of the
preſence of an acid, it may not be amiſs to mention that it may be had
from dyers under the name of litmus. It is very cheap, and generally
requires to be greatly diluted with diſtilled water before it can be
uſed. W.

Footnote 7:

De thermis pativinis.

Footnote 8:

The moſt highly coloured and fuming nitrous acid may readily be
rendered colourleſs by boiling it haſtily in an open veſſel. Part of
the acid flies off, carrying the ſuperabundant phlogiſton along with
it, in the form of nitrous air. W.

Footnote 9:

N. Acta Upſ. vol. II. p. 202.

Footnote 10:

M. Margraaf.

Footnote 11:

I have ſome reaſon to believe that the Nevil Holt water does contain
ſome of this acid in an uncombined ſtate. W.

Footnote 12:

Opuſcul: vol. II. p. 40.

Footnote 13:

Called Derbyſhire fluor; Corniſh fluor, blue John. W.

Footnote 14:

D. SCHEELE Act. Stockh. 1778.

Footnote 15:

It has been lately obtained in great abundance from bones. W.

Footnote 16:

Opuſc. chem. vol. II. p. 424.

Footnote 17:

De Sale ſedativo naturali, 1778.

Footnote 18:

It is found in a ſeparate ſtate in large quantities in ſome of our
mines and wells, and is called the _choak_ damp. In the famous Grotto
del Cano too it exiſts tolerably pure. W.

Footnote 19: