Chapter IX: Ancient Glacial Epochs, and MILD Climates in the Arctic Regions

Mr. Croll's Views on Ancient Glacial Epochs--Effects of Denudation in Destroying the Evidence of Remote Glacial Epochs--Rise of Sea-level Connected with Glacial Epochs a Cause of Further Denudation--What Evidence of Early Glacial Epochs may be Expected--Evidences of Ice-action During the Tertiary Period--The Weight of the Negative Evidence--Temperate Climates in the Arctic Regions--The Miocene Arctic Flora--Mild Arctic Climates of the Cretaceous Period--Stratigraphical Evidence of Long-continued Mild Arctic Conditions--The Causes of Mild Arctic Climates--Geographical Conditions Favouring Mild Northern Climates in Tertiary Times--The Indian Ocean as a Source of Heat in Tertiary Times--Condition of North America During the Tertiary Period--Effect of High Excentricity on Warm Polar Climates--Evidences as to Climate in the Secondary and Palaeozoic Epochs--Warm Arctic Climates in Early Secondary and Palaeozoic Times--Conclusions as to the Climates of Secondary and Tertiary Periods--General View of Geological Climates as Dependent on the Physical Features of the Earth's Surface--Estimate of the Comparative Effects of Geographical and Physical Causes in Producing Changes of Climate.

_Pages_ 169-209

CHAPTER X

THE EARTH'S AGE, AND THE RATE OF DEVELOPMENT OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS

Various Estimates of Geological Time--Denudation and Deposition of Strata as a Measure of Time--How to Estimate the Thickness of the Sedimentary Rocks--How to Estimate the Average Rate of Deposition of the Sedimentary Rocks--The Rate of Geological Change Probably Greater in very Remote Times--Value of the Preceding Estimate of Geological Time--Organic Modification Dependent on Change of Conditions--Geographical Mutations as a Motive Power in Bringing about Organic Changes--Climatal Revolutions as an Agent in Producing Organic Changes--Present Condition of the Earth One of Exceptional Stability as Regards Climate--Date of Last Glacial Epoch and its Bearing on the Measurement of Geological Time--Concluding Remarks

_Pages_ 210-237

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PART II

INSULAR FAUNAS AND FLORAS

CHAPTER XI

THE CLASSIFICATION OF ISLANDS

Importance of Islands in the Study of the Distribution of Organisms--Classification of Islands with Reference to Distribution--Continental Islands--Oceanic Islands

_Pages_ 241-245

CHAPTER XII

OCEANIC ISLANDS:--THE AZORES AND BERMUDA

_The Azores, or Western Islands_

Position and Physical Features--Chief Zoological Features of the Azores--Birds--Origin of the Azorean Bird-fauna--Insects of the Azores--Land-shells of the Azores--The Flora of the Azores--The Dispersal of Seeds--Birds as seed-carriers--Facilities for Dispersal of Azorean Plants--Important Deduction from the Peculiarities of the Azorean Fauna and Flora

_Pages_ 246-262

_Bermuda_

Position and Physical Features--The Red Clay of Bermuda--Zoology of Bermuda--Birds of Bermuda--Comparison of the Bird-faunas of Bermuda and the Azores--Insects of Bermuda--Land Mollusca--Flora of Bermuda--Concluding Remarks on the Azores and Bermuda

_Pages_ 263-274

CHAPTER XIII

THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS

Position and Physical Features--Absence of Indigenous Mammalia and Amphibia--Reptiles--Birds--Insects and Land-shells--The Keeling Islands as Illustrating the Manner in which Oceanic Islands are Peopled--Flora of the Galapagos--Origin of the Flora of the Galapagos--Concluding remarks

_Pages_ 273-291

CHAPTER XIV

ST. HELENA

Position and Physical Features of St. Helena--Change Effected by European Occupation--The Insects of St. Helena--Coleoptera--Peculiarities and Origin of the Coleoptera of St. Helena--Land-shells of St. Helena--Absence of Fresh-water Organisms--Native Vegetation of St. Helena--The Relations of the St. Helena Compositae--Concluding Remarks on St. Helena

_Pages_ 292-309

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CHAPTER XV

THE SANDWICH ISLANDS

Position and Physical Features--Zoology of the Sandwich Islands--Birds--Reptiles--Land-shells--Insects--Vegetation of the Sandwich Islands--Peculiar Features of the Hawaiian Flora--Antiquity of the Hawaiian Fauna and Flora--Concluding Observations on the Fauna and Flora of the Sandwich Islands--General Remarks on Oceanic Islands

_Pages_ 310-330

CHAPTER XVI

CONTINENTAL ISLANDS OF RECENT ORIGIN: GREAT BRITAIN

Characteristic Features of Recent Continental Islands--Recent Physical Changes of the British Isles--Proofs of Former Elevation--Submerged Forests--Buried River Channels--Time of Last Union with the Continent--Why Britain is Poor in Species--Peculiar British Birds---Fresh-water Fishes--Cause of Great Speciality in Fishes--Peculiar British Insects--Lepidoptera Confined to the British Isles--Peculiarities of the Isle of Man Lepidoptera--Coleoptera Confined to the British Isles--Trichoptera Peculiar to the British Isles--Land and Fresh-water Shells--Peculiarities of the British Flora--Peculiarities of the Irish Flora--Peculiar British Mosses and Hepaticae--Concluding Remarks on the Peculiarities of the British Fauna and Flora

_Pages_ 331-372

CHAPTER XVII

BORNEO AND JAVA

Position and Physical Features of Borneo--Zoological Features of Borneo: Mammalia--Birds--The Affinities of the Borneo Fauna--Java, its Position and Physical Features--General Character of the Fauna of Java--Differences Between the Fauna of Java and that of the other Malay Islands--Special Relations of the Javan Fauna to that of the Asiatic Continent--Past Geographical Changes of Java and Borneo--The Philippine Islands--Concluding Remarks on the Malay Islands

_Pages_ 373-390

CHAPTER XVIII

JAPAN AND FORMOSA

Japan, its Position and Physical Features--Zoological Features of Japan--Mammalia--Birds--Birds Common to Great Britain and Japan--Birds Peculiar to Japan--Japan Birds Recurring in Distant Areas--Formosa--Physical Features of Formosa--Animal Life of Formosa--Mammalia--Land Birds Peculiar to Formosa--Formosan Birds Recurring in India or Malaya--Comparison of Faunas of Hainan, Formosa, and Japan--General Remarks on Recent Continental Islands

_Pages_ 391-410

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