Chapter VII: Part I (2)

The feature, however, that shows most conclusively the affinity between the two stories is the one that is repeated _ad nauseam_ in the Mahometan Ascension. At each stage of heaven Mahomet is dazzled by the lights, and each time he is fearful of being blinded. Repeatedly he raises his hands to his eyes to shield them from the intense radiance, and in the end he becomes dazed. Gabriel then intercedes with God and Mahomet is granted a new, preternatural vision, that enables him to look freely upon the lights that before had dimmed his sight.

This scene is reproduced, often with the same words, in more than ten episodes of Dante’s Paradiso. In the sphere of the Moon it is the splendour of Beatrice[48]; in Mars, the image of Our Lord surrounded by the Martyrs[49]; in the sphere of the Fixed Stars, the light of the Apostle James, when the poet exclaims[50]: “As who doth gaze and strain to see the sun eclipsed a space, who by looking grows bereft of sight, so did I to this last flame.”[51] In the eighth sphere the refulgence of Christ in the image of a sun blurs the poet’s vision[52]; at the instance of Beatrice, however, he again tries his eyesight and finally discerns amid the shadows a brilliant star, the symbol of the Archangel Gabriel; the movements of this star his eyes have not the strength to follow.[53] In the ninth sphere the brilliance of the Divine Essence is such that he has to close his eyes.[54] In the tenth sphere the Triumph of the Blessed calls forth from the poet[55]: “As a sudden flash of lightning which so shattereth the visual spirits as to rob the eye of power to realize e’en strongest objects; so there shone around me a living light, leaving me swathed in such a web of its glow that naught appeared to me.” But his fears are assuaged by Beatrice, and he adds[56]: “So soon as these brief words came into me I felt me to surmount my proper power; and kindled me with such new-given sight that there is no such brightness unalloyed that mine eyes might not hold their own with it.” In the Ninth Canto, when he beholds the apotheosis of the Divine Essence, he introduces a still more far-fetched hyperbole. St. Bernard, guiding Dante in the place of Beatrice, pleads with the Virgin to grant Dante the favour of being raised to the Divine Light. His eyes, strengthened, slowly take in the immense, trinal light, but he says[57]: “I hold that by the keenness of the living ray which I endured I had been lost had mine eyes turned aside from it. And so I was the bolder, as I mind me, so long to sustain it as to unite my glance with the Worth infinite. Oh grace abounding, wherein I presumed to fix my look on the eternal light so long that I consumed my sight thereon.”

17. The principal part played by Gabriel in the ascension is to guide Mahomet and act as his adviser and comforter; and this very role is assigned by Dante to Beatrice. Gabriel, however, at times plays a further part, as, for instance, when he prays to God to help Mahomet and calls upon the Prophet to thank the Lord for allowing him to visit heaven. A parallel scene appears in the Tenth Canto of the Paradiso. In the sphere of the sun, Beatrice exclaims[58]: “Give thanks, give thanks to the sun of the angels, who of his grace hath to this sun of sense exalted thee.” And in the ensuing verses Dante pours forth heartfelt thanksgivings and effusions of divine love. The prayers offered up for Dante are too well known to call for special mention.[59] The most striking analogy, however, is seen in the following. In the Paradiso Beatrice leads Dante only as far as the Empyrean, where St. Bernard takes her place[60]. In the Moslem legend, Gabriel leaves Mahomet to accomplish the last stage alone; and he is conveyed to the Divine Throne by a luminous and spiritual wreath. And herein lies another noteworthy similarity. The wreath which descends from on high and bears Mahomet up to the Divinity has its parallel in the “facella, formata in cerchio a guisa di corona” that Dante sees in the eighth heaven descending from the Empyrean, whither it returns escorting the Virgin Mary.[61]

The solutions furnished by Beatrice, or as on occasion the blessed, to Dante’s problems of theology and philosophy, have each an equivalent in the Mahometan ascension. Here, although occasionally it is an angel, such as the Angel of Death and the angel guarding hell, that gives the interpretation, it devolves chiefly upon Gabriel to explain the riddles of the Moslem hereafter. Especially remarkable is the likeness between the final episode of the Moslem ascension, when Gabriel in the highest heaven explains to Mahomet who the angels inhabiting the celestial spheres are, and Beatrice’s long dissertation in the ninth heaven on the nature and being of the various angelic hosts. Further, Beatrice and Gabriel are agreed upon assigning to the cherubim a place in the circles nearest to God and the other circles to angels of lesser rank.[62] True, the Christian angelology, although derived from the same Hebrew theology and Alexandrine metaphysics, differs from the Islamic on several points; but, considered from a literary point of view, this does not affect the analogy in episode.

18. Let the reader now turn to some of Dante’s angelic visions and, first, to that of the gigantic eagle formed of thousands of angels that the poet sees in the Heaven of Jupiter.[63] All Dante students have admired its beauty and originality; and yet it is surely admissible to proffer the suggestion that the picture was inspired by Mahomet’s vision of the gigantic cock, at the outset of his ascension. If the unpoetical nature of this domestic fowl, when comparing it with the eagle, the king of the air and, in classical mythology, the attribute of Jove, be disregarded, it will be seen that there is a strong resemblance between the two conceptions. To begin with, Dante’s eagle is a being of innumerable spirits with wings and faces. These, the spirits of the blessed, emit an irridescent light and chant in harmony hymns calling upon mankind to lead a righteous life. As it chants, the eagle flaps its wings and then comes to rest.[64]

The cock of the Moslem legend is also a gigantic bird that beats its wings as it chants religious songs, calling mankind to prayer, and then sits at rest. Version C certainly makes no allusion to the spiritual nature of the bird, but other versions and various authentic _hadiths_ expressly state that it is an angel. In addition, in the Moslem legend, visions of gigantic angels, each comprising a monstrous agglomeration of wings and faces, repeatedly recur; and these angels too, resplendent with light, chant with their innumerable tongues hymns of praise. So consummate an artist as Dante might very well have combined these two images to produce the hybrid and yet most beautiful picture of the eagle.

The angels with wings of gold that fly over the mystic rose, by which the abode of bliss in the Paradiso is symbolised,[65] also appear to be copied from Mahomet’s vision in the first heaven, where an angel of snow and fire appears. For these angels also: “had their faces all of living flame ... and the rest so white that never snow reacheth such limit.”

19. But the similarities extend even to the general outlines of entire passages. In the sphere of the Fixed Stars, Beatrice calls upon Dante to cast his eyes downwards and endeavour to see how many worlds lie beneath his feet, in order to prove whether his vision has been strengthened. Dante exclaims: “With my sight I turned back through all and every of the seven spheres, and saw this globe such that I smiled at its sorry semblance.” “And all the seven were displayed to me, how great they are and swift, and how distant each from other in repair.” “The thrashing-floor which maketh us wax so fierce, as I rolled with the eternal twins, was all revealed to me from ridge to river-mouth.”[66]

It is surely obvious that the general scheme of this passage is at once a faithful copy and skilful combination of two episodes of Version C: when Mahomet beholds the Divine Throne, whose magnificence makes all former visions pale into insignificance, and compares its infinite grandeur with the now dwarfed appearance of the universe; and when, his spirit having experienced the ecstasy of the Beatific Vision, he is asked by Gabriel to cast his eyes downwards and test his supernatural power of sight. With one wondering glance—the legend runs—he embraces the whole universe, his eyes penetrating the celestial and astronomical spheres beneath his feet right down to the surface of the earth.

20. A final and irrefutable argument, however, may be based on the last episode crowning the Paradiso, when Dante beholds the Beatific Vision of the Divine Essence in all its splendour. An examination of this vision will prove of interest. The Divine Essence is the luminous centre of nine concentric circles of angelic spirits who, revolving unceasingly around it, sing Hosannahs to the Lord. Each circle comprises countless angels.[67] The two first circles are those of the seraphim and cherubim. Dante is unable to fix his gaze on the light but soon his sight is strengthened and he can behold it steadily. He admits that he is powerless to describe the vision, for the ecstasy of the moment effaced all memory of it but, even were he able to recall the vision, ’twere not possible for mortal to describe it. Dante’s attempts to picture the Trinity and the Incarnation need not be taken into consideration. His description of the vision is reduced to a vague recollection of the subjective phenomena: steady and progressive mental contemplation, a trance in which he is wrapt in admiration, and a feeling of intense delight and spiritual sweetness that pervades his soul.[68]

Dante students have long and in vain sought the origin of this sublime apotheosis, for none of the religious legends, so critically studied by the great scholars, Labitte, D’Ancona, Ozanam and Graf, furnishes the least resemblance in geometrical conception to these concentric circles of angels who ever revolve around the Divine Light. Nevertheless, the striking likeness between Dante’s poem and the Moslem legend conclusively proves the strength of our argument. In the latter, too, rows of angels, each row representing a different rank, with the Cherubim nearest, surround the Divine Throne. These angels also chant anthems in honour of the Lord and radiate streams of light; and the number of rows again is nine. Thus do they also in nine concentric circles revolve unceasingly around the Throne of God—a God who in both stories is depicted as a focus of ineffable light. Again, both protagonists describe the Beatific Vision twice—Mahomet, when, before undertaking the last stage of his Ascension and still accompanied by Gabriel, he first discerns the Divine Throne, and again when Gabriel has left him; and Dante, when, with Beatrice, he beholds the Divine Apotheosis from the ninth heaven and a second time in the final Canto. The psychological effects on both are also similar. Mahomet, too, is dazzled and fears lest he be blinded; then God bestows upon him steadiness of vision, so that he can fix his eyes upon the Divine Light; he also is incapable of describing the Throne and can only recall that he experienced a rapture of the soul, preceded by a sensation of intense delight.

The stories have many other minor points in common, but the chief features of resemblance as given above will perhaps suffice to establish proof of the affinity between the two.

IV

THIRD CYCLE—FUSION OF THE VERSIONS OF THE “ISRA” AND THE “MIRAJ”

1. The legends of this cycle really form a synthesis of those of the first two cycles, and their episodes are for the greater part repetitions of previous ones. Nevertheless, although from our point of view they are of minor importance, they represent a distinct stage in the evolution of the legend. In the former cycles the _Isra_, or Nocturnal Journey, and the _Miraj_, or Ascension, were related separately; but here the two are fused into one continuous story. One version will suffice to illustrate the earliest type of non-Christian mediæval legend that related, as in Dante’s poem, in one uninterrupted story the visit to hell and purgatory and the ascension to paradise. This version may be called the earliest, for it has been handed down to us in the voluminous _Tafsir_, or commentary on the Koran, by the celebrated historian Tabari, who lived in the 9th century. Briefly summarised, the legend runs as follows:—

_Sole Version of Cycle III_

2. The introduction is identical with that in Version A of
Cycle 2. Mahomet, either in his house or the Mosque at Mecca,
is suddenly awakened by Gabriel, alone or accompanied by other
angels. He is purified and led on a Nocturnal Journey to
Jerusalem and thence to heaven. The episodes are as follows: At
the outset Mahomet meets an old woman who, decked in finery,
from the roadside endeavours to entice him to tarry with her;
but Mahomet turns a deaf ear and passes on unheeding. Gabriel
explains that this woman is an allegory of the world. Her
tinsel represents the allurements of the world, which like her
is effete, for so short is life on earth that it resembles the
brief years of old age. Immediately after this vision—or before
it in some versions—Mahomet is called upon to halt by two
voices, one from either side of his path. These are the voices
of the Jewish and Christian faiths, that would fain convert
him to their creeds. Proceeding, he encounters the Devil, who
in turn tries to lure him from his path; but, at Gabriel’s
warning, he hastens on. At last, freed from all temptations, he
arrives at a stage where he is welcomed by Abraham, Moses and
Jesus.

The visions that follow either represent allegories or depict
the tortures of hell, some of the latter resembling and others
differing from the punishments of the previous versions.
Firstly, Mahomet beholds men cutting corn sown but the day
before, and, in amazement, he sees the stubble grow as fast
as the corn is cut. These, Gabriel informs him, are symbolic
of the Moslems who devote their all to the spreading of the
faith and whom God rewards seven-hundredfold. Then follows
the torture of the crushed head, as in Version B of Cycle 1,
and thereafter, the punishment of those who failed to make
the offerings required by rite. Clothed in rags, these graze
like beasts, chewing fetid herbs. Further on, the adulterers
sit at a table bearing both wholesome meat and raw and putrid
flesh. The latter they devour in due punishment for their
lewdness, which led them to reject their wives and seek the
embraces of loose women. At this juncture the travellers’
path is barred by the trunk of a tree, and in surmounting it
their clothes get torn. This obstacle is a symbol of the bad
Moslems who lead their brothers off the path of virtue. An aged
wood-cutter, who toils to heap still higher the pile of wood he
has collected, although his strength forbids his carrying his
loads away, next comes into view, symbolising the rich miser
who hoards the wealth he cannot use. Proceeding, they witness
the torture of the hypocritical preachers, who, like the liars
in Versions A and B of Cycle 1, have their tongues and lips
torn. A huge bull, which, rushing out of a narrow shelter, is
now vainly trying to re-enter it, is figurative of the torment
undergone by the conscience of those who speak hasty words they
afterwards regret. The travellers now pass through a valley,
where Mahomet, breathing in the soft perfumed air, listens in
rapture to a song whose words he cannot catch. The valley,
Gabriel explains, represents heaven, and the voice he hears
sings to the Lord, beseeching Him to fulfil His promise to the
faithful. God hearkens to the prayer and renews His covenant to
save all Moslems. A parallel scene in antithetic setting is now
introduced. Mahomet traverses another valley, which, reeking
abominably, represents hell. Another voice is heard invoking
the Lord to punish all sinners, and from on high God answers
that He will wreak His vengeance.

Leaving the valley of hell behind, the travellers reach the
Mosque of Jerusalem, the goal of their Nocturnal Journey. The
scenes laid here are of little interest. Mahomet, surrounded
by angels, prays, and in turn he is greeted by the spirits of
Abraham, Moses, David, Solomon and Jesus. Offered glasses of
milk, water and wine, he drinks of the milk and water, and, as
in Version A of Cycle 2, Gabriel applauds his choice. The story
of the ascension is told in terms that are almost identical
with those of that version. When he reaches the seventh heaven,
however, the passage of Version B of the first cycle, depicting
Abraham, is inserted with slight variations. Abraham is seen as
a venerable old man, seated at the entrance to paradise between
two hosts of men, the one with white, the other with spotted
faces. The latter bathe in three rivers, emerging from the
third with faces as white as those of the other host which they
now join. The one host, Gabriel explains, are the believers
of unspotted soul and the other, penitent sinners. The three
rivers are symbolic of the mercy, loving-kindness and glory of
God. The final stage, as in Version A of Cycle 2, is the visit
to the Lotus-tree of the Boundary. The legend ends with the
familiar intimate colloquy between God and the Prophet.

3. As already suggested, this version is interesting, not from a comparative point of view, but because it constitutes a fusion of the versions of Cycles 1 and 2. As the date of the version is not later than that of the fragmentary tales, it would seem as if the Moslem traditionists had decided upon such fusion at an early period. This decision, no doubt, was based on considerations of art rather than theology, the object being more to satisfy, with one complete story, the curiosity of the faithful than to justify the existence of so many fragmentary and often contradictory versions of one and the same event. That this latter object, implying the necessity of accepting as authentic all those different versions, influenced the theologians of a later epoch, will be seen further on. In this version there is no trace of it. Tabari, by whom the version has been handed down to us, although himself an eminent theologian, merely records it as the work of story-tellers and omits all mention of the authenticity or otherwise of the different fragments and versions.

4. Of the two main parts of the legend, the second (the ascension) contains little that is new either in descriptive feature or episode. The first part, on the other hand, could easily be regarded as a reading of the _Isra_ of a different cycle from those hitherto considered. Its many new episodes are precisely the visions that do not deal with realities, but are symbols of abstract ideas, of vices and virtues. A new element, moral allegory—so marked a feature of Dante’s poem—is thus introduced. Vossler[69] has pointed out how successfully Dante combines the two imperfect forms of mediæval visionary style—the religious or apocalyptic, and the profane or allegorical; and he lauds Dante’s originality, for, as he truly remarks, his allegories are not derived from Capella, Prudentius, or Alan of Lille.[70] The free use of allegory in this version of the Nocturnal Journey is, therefore, of interest. No doubt few of the visions can be regarded as models of the scenes in the Divine Comedy; but their mere occurrence in such number in a Moslem legend that in other respects has been shown to have had so great an influence on Dante, is significant. It may reasonably be supposed that the origin of other allegories of the great poem which, in Vossler’s opinion, cannot have been derived from its Christian or classical precursors, can be traced back to Moslem literature.

5. A systematic investigation in this direction will be made later on. Let it here suffice to cite one typical instance of the adaptation to the Divine Comedy of Moslem symbols. The resemblance between the vision of the old woman appearing at the outset of Mahomet’s journey as a symbol of the temptation of the world, and the vision seen by Dante when he reaches the fifth circle of purgatory, is obvious. The old woman, whom Mahomet sees, concealing under splendid adornments the ravages that time has made upon her charms, endeavours to draw him from the path by flattery and alluring gestures. Not until later does Gabriel interpret the vision. The old seductress is a symbol of the world, decked in finery to entice the Prophet. Had she succeeded, the Moslem people had likewise preferred worldly well-being to eternal bliss.

Dante, having traversed the fourth circle of purgatory,[71] dreams of a woman who stammers and squints, is lame, one-armed, and jaundiced. Yet so skilfully does she hide her defects that it is with difficulty that Dante resists her fascination. Virgil exposes the hideousness beneath her clothes, but not until later does he interpret the vision. The woman is the eternal sorceress, as old as mankind, who ruins men with her allurements, although it is given to all to free themselves, even as Dante had done.

The general outlines of the two episodes are clearly identical; although in the detail Dante introduces classical allusions,[72] which are lacking in the Moslem picture. And indeed all commentators of the Divine Comedy agree that this vision is symbolic of the false felicity of the world,[73] just as Gabriel interpreted it to Mahomet as being an allegory of the fleeting pleasures of earth.[74] The coincidence is significant.

6. Lastly, the resemblance of one of the descriptive features of the garden of Abraham in this version to Dante’s purgatory is remarkable. Before entering the celestial mansions, Dante has to be purified thrice in three different streams: firstly, when he leaves hell and Virgil, on the advice of Cato, washes away the spots that disfigure his face after his visit to the infernal regions, restoring the natural colour to his tear-stained cheeks[75]; and a second and a third time before he leaves purgatory, when Matilda and Statius in turn immerse Dante in the Lethe and Eunoe, the waters of which efface from the mind the memory of sin and renew the supernatural power of the soul for good, thus preparing it for the bliss of heaven.[76]

The idea of this threefold purification would seem to be taken direct from the scene where the souls of penitent sinners are washed in the three rivers of the garden of Abraham. The effects, here also, are both physical and moral: the natural colour is restored to their faces, and their souls, cleansed from sin by repentance, are by the grace of God made fit to enter into the glory of heaven.

V

THEOLOGICAL COMMENTARIES ON THE LEGEND

1. To trace step by step the evolution of this legend would be a task beyond the scope of this work, even if it were possible with our restricted knowledge of the bibliography of this branch of Moslem literature. In any case, the resultant gain, so far as our argument is concerned, would be but slight. Religious literature is essentially conservative, and the literature of Islam, pre-eminently so. In the comparatively brief period of two centuries the legend of the ascension had assumed a multiplicity of forms, and each version was authenticated, even by relations of the Prophet himself. Such testimony went unquestioned by the masses; and thus it came about that the legend ultimately became crystallised in one definite form, into which the main versions regarded as authentic were fused. This fusion was the work of theologians and interpreters of the Scriptures in an endeavour, chiefly, to harmonise a number of apparently contradictory tales. The earliest version of the legend in its new form was the one of Cycle 3, and this version remained final. All that appeared later were either _commentaries_ upon it or _allegorico-mystical adaptations_ and _literary imitations_ of it. Certainly, an abundant literature, such as was induced in Europe a few centuries later by Dante’s poem, grew around the legend. A brief review of the three aforementioned categories will reveal how, following upon its definite crystallisation, theologians and men of letters elaborated the story of the ascension.

Commentaries by theologians preponderated over all the other forms. The many exegetical works on the Koran all deal with the completion and interpretation of the first verse of the seventeenth chapter, in which the ascension is alluded to. The various traditional versions of the legend are discussed on the evidence of the most authoritative theologians. The collections of authentic _hadiths_ also devote pages to the legend in its different forms. To the same category belongs a profusion of historical works on Islam and biographies of Mahomet and the prophets. Each book has its chapter on the ascension, which, it must be remembered, is regarded by all true Moslems as an historical fact and not unnaturally forms an integral part of the story of the life of Mahomet.[77]

But the most interesting of these commentaries are the treatises written by theologians who collated their data from the above-mentioned works. One such treatise appeared as early as the tenth century. This, the work of Abu Laith of Samarcand, dealt in particular with the Prophet’s colloquy with God.[78] Not until the twelfth century, however, did this form of literature reach its culminating point; at all events, no works of an earlier date have come down to us in such profusion.[79]

The authors of almost all these treatises are mainly concerned with the co-ordination of the various versions of the _Isra_ and the _Miraj_; and they solve the problem either by uniting all the forms into one or by assuming that several ascensions were made. Other questions, such as the date of the ascension, the spot whence Mahomet set out, and so forth, also, however, occupy their attention. Indeed they went farther and introduced among a host of other points, the mystical meaning of the purification of the Prophet’s heart; the composition and sequence of the mansions above the astronomical heavens; and the visibility of God. However, so far as our comparison is concerned, this literature reveals one curious coincidence alone: the Divine Comedy of Islam—like that of Dante at a later date—had a host of enthusiastic admirers, who studied it in all its phases. The meaning of every word was investigated and an explanation for the most insignificant details sought with a scrupulousness arising more from religious than literary motives.

2. This coincidence is only natural, however, and in itself does not constitute a proof. What is of more moment is that these exegetical treatises supplement the traditional text of the legend. For in the fused version there appear many new scenes and episodes, which, as regards their authenticity and age, can only be attributed to those versions of the three cycles already examined or to others contemporaneous with them.[80] Of these new episodes only those that distinctly resemble scenes in Dante need be considered here.[81]

3. At the outset of his Nocturnal Journey—before his visit to the infernal regions—an afrite, armed with a fire-brand, bars Mahomet’s way. Attacked and pursued by the demon, the Prophet is comforted by Gabriel, who teaches him a prayer, by repeating which he is enabled to extinguish the demon’s torch.[82]

As Dante and Virgil reach the fifth pit of the eighth circle of hell, a similar scene unfolds itself.[83] The two poets are pursued by a horde of demons armed with javelins and led by a fierce and swarthy devil. Virgil calms Dante’s fears and utters a brief command, whereupon the devil’s fury subsides and his weapon falls at his feet.

4. But few new episodes are introduced into the ascension proper. The first and main one is the scene of the ladder stretching from the Temple of Jerusalem to heaven. Its rungs are of gold, silver, and emerald. By it the souls of the blessed rise, and on either side angels stand in line. By means of this ladder Mahomet, with Gabriel, reaches heaven in less time than it takes to tell.[84]

The similar scene in the Twenty-first and Twenty-second Cantos of the Paradiso is familiar to all. In the heaven of Saturn the poet sees a golden ladder that leads to the last of the celestial spheres. The spirits of the blessed descend by its rungs. Beatrice calling upon him to ascend, he finds himself at the top in less time than it would take to withdraw the hand from fire.[85]

5. The prophets inhabiting the heavens visited by Mahomet seldom appear alone, as in the previous versions; but each is surrounded by a group of the blessed, their disciples on earth. Thus, in the fifth heaven, Aaron tells Biblical stories to a group of Jewish unbelievers; others, like Enoch, Moses, and Abraham, discuss theology with Mahomet.[86] The Prophet also meets other Biblical and Moslem characters. In the fourth heaven he sees Mary, the mother of Moses, with the Virgin Mary[87]; and in the seventh heaven, two hosts of Moslems, the one clad in white and the other in grey.[88] With the light of the Divine Throne shining upon him, a man unknown to him is seen by Mahomet. This man, Gabriel explains, is a symbol of the glory that awaits the contemplative souls.[89] Between heaven and earth he beholds the prophet Ezekiel begirt by a circle of light and prostrate in prayer.[90] Bilal, too, he sees, the first Moslem to hold the sacred office of Muezzin and call the faithful to prayer.[91] Again, one of his dearest companions, Abu Bakr, appears to him in fantastic form to act as his guide, when Gabriel leaves him in the final stages of the ascension.[92] Lastly, a heavenly maiden, the destined bride of his disciple Zayd, the son of Haritha, reveals her identity and that of her intended spouse.[93]

Thus, by their wealth of incident and profusion of secondary characters, these versions offer a plan of the Moslem legend that, unlike the plans of previous versions, is not so far removed from that of the Divine Comedy. Dante also imagined the celestial spheres to be peopled by the blessed, who were allotted to the various heavens according to their virtues or the profession they followed. The persons in each group discourse among themselves or with Dante on religion or philosophy. For the greater part they are Christians, but Hebrews and even Pagans are also introduced. Further, both sexes are represented. Some are famous characters of olden times, but the majority are either friends or relations of the poet, who, with the memory of them on earth still fresh in his mind, depicts their moral traits in masterly, yet measured, terms.

It is, of course, not claimed that the Moslem legend, at this, the final stage of its evolution, can compare in its poetical technique with the Divine Comedy. But in the general scheme of action, as well as in the roles of the protagonist and other characters, the resemblance between the two can hardly be said to be either remote or accidental.[94]

VI

ADAPTATIONS FROM THE LEGEND, MAINLY MYSTICAL ALLEGORIES

1. The religious authorities of Islam having at last determined upon a version that was to be regarded as authentic and as the accepted revelation, the legend may be said to have crystallised into a definite form. The imagination of the faithful could now no longer indulge in further inventions or additions. Nevertheless, the loss of new episode thus incurred was amply compensated for by another and more fertile mode of elaboration; in its final form the legend underwent considerable literary alteration.

The glosses originally added in explanation of obscure words and ellipses become merged in the text. The simplicity of the primitive versions is lost in figurative language and other literary adornments. The ascension is the theme of legends in versified prose and even poems, works in which the rich fancy of the East is given full play. The lesser characters, as well as the two protagonists, and even God Himself, engage in lengthy discourses, interspersed with rhyme and replete with metaphors and abstruse conceits. At times inanimate objects, such as the Divine Throne, are represented as living beings; heavenly animals, like the serpent that encircles the Throne and the beast that carries Mahomet, are personified and made to hold long speeches. Again, the abodes of the beyond are described with a wealth of detail taken from the Koran and the _hadiths_ of the Prophet dealing with heaven and hell.[95]

2. This first attempt at elaboration merely expanded the text of the legend. Followed a host of adaptations, allegorical or mystical, in which the ascension—supposed to be an historical fact—is applied to other physical and spiritual beings, that are either real or symbolical and earthly or heavenly. These ascend to the regions of bliss in practically the same stages as Mahomet did in his _Miraj_. Brief mention can be made of only a few of these tales.

3. The most popular is that of the ascension of the soul at death. On leaving the body, it is led by its guardian angel up through the astronomical heavens to be judged before the Throne of God. The following is a short summary of the ascension:—

At the entrance to each heaven the scene depicted in the
_Miraj_ is repeated. The guardian angel is refused entry
until the identity of the travellers is disclosed. The soul
is then either welcomed or abused according to its conduct
during life. In each sphere it undergoes an examination on
one of the precepts of Islam, in the following order: Faith,
prayer, almsgiving, fasting, pilgrimage, honour of parents,
love of fellow-men, religious zeal and purity of heart. From
the Lotus-tree of the Boundary the soul ascends through seas of
light, darkness, fire and water and finally of snow and ice—all
as in Version C of Cycle 2. When the veils that shroud the
Divine Throne are drawn aside the catechism of the soul by God
Himself begins.[96]

4. In other similar legends,[97] the guardian angels are portrayed as presenting to God each day the good deeds of the believers entrusted to their care.

In each of the seven heavens the angel at the gate denies
admission to the good deed whenever its author is found guilty
of any sin. Only those good deeds that have been inspired by
Divine love may rise through the seven spheres to the presence
of God, Who declares them accepted in His sight.

5. In these early adaptations, the ascension is accredited solely to personified metaphysical conceptions or to the souls of the departed. In each case, moreover, Mahomet himself is made to tell the story, in order to lend greater authority to it. The deep religious respect felt for the Prophet forbade any encroachment. Nevertheless, the Sufis or mystics were not long in arrogating to themselves the role of protagonist that had hitherto been reserved for Mahomet.[98] The pretext for their audacity was provided by the interpretation of the _Miraj_, that Mahomet had been raised by God to heaven in order that he might experience the supreme delight of the Beatific Vision and his heart be freed from all earthly ties.[99] It was natural, therefore, for the Sufis to generalise this interpretation and apply it to the real or symbolical ascension of the soul, which breaks its worldly bonds and flies towards God, as the essence of spiritual perfection. Indeed, one of the most famous masters of early Moslem mysticism, Abu Yazid al-Bistami, who lived in the ninth century, is credited with an actual ascension to the Divine Throne through the same stages as were traversed by Mahomet in his _Miraj_.[100]

Thus the legend gradually reaches the climax of its evolution. The Sufi, as a type of humanity capable of perfection by gradual purification from passion, rises to such heights of contemplation that he enjoys a foretaste of eternal bliss in the Beatific Vision.[101]

6. The more interesting of these later adaptations are the work of the Murcian Muhyi ad-Din ibn Arabi, the prince of Hispano-Moslem mystics, who died twenty-five years before the Florentine poet was born.[102] One of these works is based upon the _Miraj_, in which he seeks to discover a hidden moral. He treats it as an esoteric teaching of the revelations manifested to the soul of the mystic in the course of its ascension to God. This work, which unfortunately has not yet been edited, is entitled “The Book of the Nocturnal Journey towards the Majesty of the Most Magnanimous.”[103] The poetical fragment, of which a rendering is given hereunder, will suffice to indicate its general outline.

The Sufis or mystics are the heirs of the Prophet whose life
and doctrine they follow. By devoting all their days to
meditation and the practice of the mysteries of the Koran
and maintaining the memories of their Beloved, they are at
last led into the presence of God. Boraq, the beast of heaven
that conveys them swiftly on their journey, is the symbol of
divine love. The holy city of Jerusalem, the emblem of light
and truth, forms the first stage of the journey. Here, as did
the Prophet, they tarry close to the wall, representing purity
of heart, that bars access to the profane. Having partaken of
milk, the symbol of the true direction of revealed doctrine,
they knock at the gate of heaven, allegorical of bodily
mortification. Beyond the gate they see paradise and hell. With
the right eye they witness the happiness of the blessed; with
the left, they weep over the terrors of the infernal fires.
They reach the Lotus-tree, the symbol of faith and virtue, and
eat their fill of the fruit, whereby the most sublime powers of
man become perfected. Thus prepared, they arrive at the final
stage of their journey. The veils enshrouding the spirit are
drawn aside and the hidden secret of the mystery of mysteries
is made manifest to them.[104]

The significance of this subtle poem in its interpretation of Dante’s allegories is apparent. Upon the author’s own showing,[105] three esoteric meanings are conveyed by both the Divine Comedy and the “Convivio”—the first a personal, and the second a moral, allegory; whilst the third is anagogical. Seen in this light, the Divine Comedy is a complex allegory of Dante’s own life and the redemption of mankind. Dante, representing mankind, has been led from the straight path; but, guided by reason, faith and grace, he shakes off the fetters of evil; and the expiation of, and purification from, his sins are symbolised by his journey to hell and purgatory. Having attained moral perfection, he ascends by the path of contemplation to the eternal bliss of the Divine Essence. Thus Dante, like the Moslem Sufis in general and the Murcian Ibn Arabi in particular, availed himself of the alleged historical fact of the ascension of a man to the heavens, in order to represent in symbol the mystical drama of the regeneration of souls by faith and theological virtues.[106]

This further surprising coincidence of the allegorical intentions of the two legends must, therefore, be added to the many other analogies existing between them. As the symbolical character of the Divine Comedy is, in the eyes of all critics, the most forcible proof of its original inspiration, a closer enquiry into these wonderful coincidences will not be amiss. The affinity between another mystical allegory of the Murcian Ibn Arabi and Dante’s poem is obvious.

7. The Ascension in question appears in a voluminous work entitled _Al-Futuhat al-makkiya_, or the _Revelations of Mecca_. It is the main theme of an entire chapter, the heading of which, “The Alchemy of Felicity,” in itself implies an esoteric allegory.[107] The narrative is prefaced with a synopsis, of which the following is an abstract.

The aim of the soul, from the day on which the Creator unites
it with the body, is to acquire the knowledge of the essence
of its principle, God. In their search for the path leading to
this end, the souls meet with a messenger sent by God to lead
them towards that knowledge of the Creator wherein lies their
happiness. Some gratefully accept the heavenly messenger’s
guidance[108]; others disdain it on the plea that his powers of
cognition can in no way be superior to theirs. The former then
follow the direction of the doctrine as revealed by God to His
messenger; whilst the latter are merely guided by the light of
their own reason.

Here the mystical allegory begins, the protagonists being two
travellers, one of each category. Thus, a theologian and a
rationalist philosopher set out simultaneously on the path
that is to lead them towards God. The first stages of the
journey represent the perfection and happiness enjoyed by the
soul through restraint of the passions. In these stages the
teachings of philosophy and theology practically coincide,
so that both travellers succeed in shaking off the fetters
that bind them to earth and free themselves from the baneful
influence of passion.

At this point begins the actual Ascension to heaven, the plan
of which is modelled upon the _Miraj_. The first seven stages
correspond to the astronomical heavens—the Moon, Mercury,
Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Each is visited
in succession by the two travellers, who ascend at the same
speed, the philosopher mounted on Boraq, the celestial beast
that carried the Prophet and the allegorical figure of reason,
and the theologian, by means of the Rafraf or shining wreath,
representing the light of Divine Grace, which also conveyed
Mahomet to the Divine Throne. But, although both reach the
gates of the heavens at the same time, their receptions
are different. The theologian is welcomed by the prophets
inhabiting each sphere, but the philosopher is obliged to stand
apart until he is received by the “Intelligences,” who in the
neo-Platonic cosmology move the celestial spheres and to whom
in this allegory the humble role of servants to the prophets
is assigned. The theologian is filled with rejoicing, but his
different treatment causes sadness and pain to the philosopher,
who from afar witnesses the warm welcome given to his companion
and only gleans vague information about the sublime mysteries
revealed to the other by the prophets. Not that the philosopher
is altogether neglected. The “Intelligence” of each sphere
instructs him on problems of physics or cosmology, the
solutions of which are dependent upon the natural influence
exercised by the planet in question on the phenomena of this
lower world. He finds, however, that the prophets explain the
significance of these problems to the theologian from a loftier
point of view and much more clearly than is done by natural
science alone.

By this means the author Ibn Arabi ingeniously introduces many
points from his own theological system, and the work becomes a
veritable encyclopædia of philosophy, theology, and the occult
sciences, set forth in the form of debates or speeches made by
the prophets.

Thus in the heaven of the Moon, Adam instructs the theologian
on the creative influence of Divine names. These are the
prototypes of all creatures and are equivalent to the prime
causes of philosophy. The phenomena of the sublunar world; the
changes in the material elements; the growth of all living
things; the generation of the human body—all are shown to the
philosopher by the “Intelligence” to be effects of the direct
action of this first astronomical sphere. But the theologian
learns their primary and transcendental cause, which lies
hidden in the mystic influence of the Divine names.

In the second heaven, whilst the philosopher is received by the
Intelligence of Mercury, the theologian meets the two prophets
Jesus and John, who discuss with him the subject of miracles,
more particularly those performed by the cabbalistic virtue
of certain words, the creative mystery of the word “Fiat,”
and of the Divine breath that brings beings into existence.
Then Jesus, the Spirit of God, reveals to his disciple the
esoteric working of the miracles he performed in Israel. All
these phenomena of healing, restoration of life, and so forth
are derived from this sphere. When effected _praeter ordinem
naturae_, they are miracles due to the supernatural alchemic
powers of Jesus; when produced naturally, they are the effect
of the virtue possessed by the Intelligence of Mercury. The
latter is all that the philosopher learns.

A similar difference between the results obtained by the two
travellers holds throughout; and it will suffice to summarise
the knowledge acquired in each sphere.

In Venus, the prophet Joseph interprets the mystery of the
order, beauty, and harmony of the Cosmos, and expounds the art
of poetry and the interpretation of dreams.

In the sphere of the Sun, the prophet Enoch explains the
astronomical cause of day and night and its many mystical
applications.

The prophet Aaron, in Mars, talks at length on the government
of nations, and commends to the theologian’s attention the
Revealed Code as a supreme criterion of the Divine policy,
based rather on mercy than on wrath.

In the heaven of Jupiter, Moses expounds the pantheism of Ibn
Arabi. Starting with the interpretation of the miracle when he
transformed the rod into a serpent, he ends with the thesis
that all form in the universe is mutable; but the substance is
ever the same, namely God in different relations, which are
dependent upon the subjective impression produced in the mind
of the contemplator.

Lastly, in Saturn, Abraham, reclining upon the wall of the
House of Habitation, explains to the theologian the problem of
the life hereafter. Meanwhile, the dejected philosopher awaits
him in the dark dwelling of the Intelligence. When, repentant
of his conduct, he would be converted to Islam and share in the
supernatural illumination of the faith, Abraham, the father of
the faithful, rejects him and leads the theologian by the hand
into the House of Habitation.

Here begins the second part of the ascension. The theologian
leaves the temple and ascends again on high; while his
companion waits below.

The stages of this second part of the ascension are, with the
exception of two astronomical spheres, all scenes of mysticism
and theology. The theologian first ascends to the Lotus-tree
of the Boundary, the fruit of which are emblems of the good
deeds done by the faithful. At its foot run four mystic rivers,
representing the Pentateuch, the Book of Psalms, the Gospel and
the Koran. The last is the greatest and is the source of the
others.

Thence the traveller rises to the sphere of the Fixed Stars,
where corruption is unknown and myriads of angelic spirits
dwell in a thousand mansions. Each one he visits and tastes the
supreme delights of God’s elect.

In the last sphere—the Zodiac—are revealed to him all the
marvels of the celestial paradise, which are derived from the
virtue of this sphere. Immediately thereafter he arrives at the
stool on which rest the feet of the Almighty—the symbols of His
mercy and justice—by whose favour he is instructed in the dread
problem of the eternity of reward and punishment in the life
hereafter.

The ineffable light radiating from the Throne and the sweet
harmony of the spheres thrill him to the innermost recesses
of his heart. In an ecstasy, he suddenly realises that he has
been raised to the Divine Throne, the symbol of God’s infinite
mercy. The Throne appears to him held on high by five angels
and the three prophets, Adam, Abraham, and Mahomet; and from
them he learns of the mystery of the Cosmos, which is inscribed
within the sphericity of the body of the universe, which is the
Throne of God.

The remaining stages all belong to the spiritual world, or
world of Platonic ideas. The traveller is finally wafted into
the vapour which is the primitive epiphany or manifestation
of God _ad extra_ and the type of the _prime matter_ common
to Creator and creature in the pseudo-Empedoclean theosophy
of Ibn Arabi.[109] Enraptured, the traveller beholds the
ineffable mysteries of the divine essence and its attributes,
both the absolute and those relative to the creatures. The
sublime vision ending with this apotheosis, the theologian
rejoins the philosopher, who becomes converted to the Moslem
faith so that he too may participate in the glories of mystical
contemplation.[110]

8. The points of contact between this allegorico-mystical journey and Dante’s ascension stand forth plainly. A perusal of the passages in Dante’s _Monarchia_ and _Epistola a Can Grande della Scala_, in which he outlines the esoteric meaning of his Divine Comedy, will clearly show how his interpretation agrees with that of Ibn Arabi’s allegory. Both thinkers imagine the journey as a symbol of the life of the soul in this world, into which it has been placed by the Creator to prepare for the attainment of its final aim, which is to enjoy the bliss of the Beatific Vision. Both writers hold this to be unattainable without supernatural intervention or theology; for, although philosophic reasoning, alone, can guide man in the first stages of his mystical journey, that is to say, in the practice of the virtues, only the light of grace can raise him to paradise, the symbol of the highest virtues. The main difference between the two allegories lies in the fact that, whereas in Ibn Arabi’s work there are two protagonists, in Dante’s story there is one, who is led successively by two guides, Virgil and Beatrice, representing philosophy and theology. A further difference is that Virgil does not accompany Dante to the astronomical heavens, to which the philosopher of the Moslem allegory ascends. This is due to the fact that in Ibn Arabi’s cosmological system the spheres of the stars, as belonging to the material world, come within the scope of philosophical speculation. On this point Ibn Arabi certainly was more logical than the Florentine poet, who is less interested in Beatrice as a symbol than in her glorification as a real person. The effect of this difference, however, is practically annulled by the fact that when he sets out on his ascension with Beatrice, Dante may be said to be acting in a dual capacity; firstly, as a philosopher, by the experience gained from Virgil’s teaching; and secondly, as a theologian, now taught by Beatrice. Thus in some of the spheres, Dante is seen reasoning as a philosopher independent of the aid of Beatrice or the blessed, who, on the other hand, enlighten him on supernatural or mystical problems. And this is precisely what happens in Ibn Arabi’s story. The philosopher learns in each sphere of the natural phenomena produced in the sublunar world by its physical virtues; whilst the theologian from the prophets receives the same instruction as the philosopher on matters pertaining to nature, supplemented by illumination of mystical and theological subjects.

A few features of resemblance in episode may help to complete the parallel.

9. In Dante’s hell the souls of the damned are seen in the dwellings in which they are destined to remain for all eternity. In paradise, however, the blessed descend from their abode, the Empyrean, and appear to Dante in the various astronomical spheres, welcoming him or making him sensible to the various degrees of bliss. They are, however, supposed to return to the Empyrean, for, in the heaven of the Fixed Stars Dante again sees them assembled in one large body.[111]

This same artifice was used by Ibn Arabi in his allegorical adaptation of the _Miraj_. The prophets in the various spheres descend to bid him welcome, but in the heaven of the Fixed Stars he beholds all the spirits of the blessed together, and at the Divine Throne he sees Adam and Abraham, whom he had previously seen, the one in the first, and the other in the seventh heaven.

The criterion, in accordance with which the souls as first seen by Dante are distributed, is twofold—astrological and moral. The blessed either appear in the heaven of the star that influenced their lives or in a higher or lower sphere according to the merit of their life.[112] The same principle is discernible in the allegory of Ibn Arabi. The prophets do not appear in chronological order; for, whilst Adam is in the first heaven, Abraham is in the seventh, Moses and Aaron are in different heavens; and Jesus is in the sphere next to Adam. The guiding principle is thus either greater dignity or moral excellence. Moreover, the celestial spheres unlike the preceding versions where they are numbered, bear the name of their star. Thus a relationship, similar to that between each heaven and the souls in the Paradiso, is here established between the spheres and the prophets appearing in them. It is true that the meaning underlying this relationship is nowhere actually expressed. But it is significant that Joseph, celebrated for beauty and chastity, should be assigned to the sphere of Venus; Moses, as law-giver to Israel and victor over Pharaoh, to the sphere of Jupiter, the vanquisher of the Titans; and Jesus, the Living Word of God, to Mercury, the messenger of the gods and himself the god of eloquence.[113]