Chapter III: Part 3

They | offered | crown
========|==========================
| \ \ times \the
\ -------
\ \three
\
\ Caesar
-----------

+Oral Analysis.+--_Caesar_ and _times_ are nouns used adverbially, being equivalent to adverb phrases modifying the predicate _offered_.

2. We pay the President of the United States $50,000 a year. 3. He sent his daughter home that way. 4. I gave him a dollar a bushel for his wheat, and ten cents a pound for his sugar. 5. Shakespeare was fifty-two years old the very day of his death. 6. Serpents cast their skin once a year. 7. The famous Charter Oak of Hartford, Conn., fell Aug. 21, 1856. 8. Good land should yield its owner seventy-five bushels of corn an acre. 9. On the fatal field of Zutphen, Sept. 22, 1586, his attendants brought the wounded Sir Philip Sidney a cup of cold water. 10. He magnanimously gave a dying soldier the water. 11. The frog lives several weeks as a fish, and breathes by means of gills. 12. Queen Esther asked King Ahasuerus a favor. 13. Aristotle taught Alexander the Great philosophy. 14. The pure attar of roses is worth twenty or thirty dollars an ounce. 15. Puff-balls have grown six inches in diameter in a single night.

* * * * *

LESSON 36.

REVIEW.

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, Lesson 16.

+Direction.+--_Review from Lesson 28 to Lesson 35, inclusive_.

Give the substance of the "Introductory Hints" (for example, show clearly what two things are essential to a complete predicate; explain what is meant by a complement; distinguish clearly the three kinds of complements; show what parts of speech may be employed for each, and tell what general idea--action, quality, class, or identity--is expressed by each attribute complement or objective complement in your illustrations, etc.). Repeat and illustrate definitions and rules; explain and illustrate fully the distinction between an adjective complement and an adverb modifier; illustrate what is taught of the forms _I, we,_ etc., _me, us,_ etc.; explain and illustrate the use of the possessive sign.

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.

(SEE PAGES 156-159.)

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30, 150.

* * * * *

LESSON 37.

VERBS AS ADJECTIVES AND AS NOUNS--PARTICIPLES.

+Introductory Hints.+--_Corn grows; Corn growing._ Here _growing_ differs from _grows_ in lacking the power to assert. _Growing_ is a form of the verb that cannot, like _grows_, make a complete predicate because it only assumes or implies that the corn does the act. _Corn_ may be called the assumed subject of _growing_.

_Birds, singing, delight us._ Here _singing_ does duty (1) as an adjective, describing birds by assuming or implying an act, and (2) as a verb by expressing the act of singing as going on at the time birds delight us.

_By singing their songs birds delight us._ Here _singing_ has the nature of a verb and that of a noun. As a verb it has an object complement, _songs_; and as a noun it names the act, and stands as the principal word in a prepositional phrase.

_Their singing so sweetly delights us_. Here, also, _singing_ has the nature of a verb and that of a noun. As a verb it has an adverb modifier, _sweetly_, and as a noun it names an act and takes a possessive modifier.

This form of the verb is called the +Participle+ (Lat. _pars_, a part, and _capere_, to take) because it partakes of two natures and performs two offices--those of a verb and an adjective, or those of a verb and a noun. (For definition see Lesson 131.)

_Singing birds delight us_. Here _singing_ has lost its verbal nature, and expresses a permanent quality of birds--telling what kind of birds,--and consequently is a mere adjective. _The singing of the birds delights us_. Here _singing_ is simply a noun, naming the act and taking adjective modifiers.

There are two kinds of participles; [Footnote: Grammarians are not agreed as to what these words that have the nature of the verb and that of the noun should be called. Some would call the simple forms _doing_, _writing_, and _injuring_, in sentences (1), (6), and (7), Lesson 38, _Infinitives_. They would also call by the same name such compound forms as _being accepted_, _having been shown_, and _having said_ in these expressions: "for the purpose of being accepted;" "is the having been shown over a place;" "I recollect his having said that." But does it not tax even credulity to believe that a simple Anglo-Saxon infinitive in _-an_, only one form of which followed a preposition, and that always _to_, could have developed into many compound forms, used in both voices, following almost any preposition, and modified by _the_ and by nouns and pronouns in the possessive? No wonder the grammarian Mason says, "An infinitive in _-ing_, set down by some as a modification of the simple infinitive in _-an_ or _-en_, is a perfectly unwarranted invention."

Others call these words modernized forms of the Anglo-Saxon _Verbal Nouns_ in _-ung_, _-ing_. But this derivation of them encounters the stubborn fact that those verbal nouns never were compound, and never were or could be followed by objects. These words, on the contrary, are compound, as we have seen, and have objects. That they are from nouns in _-ung_ is otherwise, and almost for the same reasons, as incredible as that they are from infinitives in _-an_.

Others call these words _Gerunds_. A gerund in Latin is a simple form of the verb in the active voice, never found in the nominative, and never in the accusative (objective) after a verb. A gerund in Anglo-Saxon is a simple form of the verb in the active voice--the dative case of the infinitive merely--used mainly to indicate purpose, and always preceded by the preposition _to_. To call these words in question gerunds is to stretch the term _gerund_ immensely beyond its meaning in Anglo-Saxon, and make it cover words which sometimes (1) are highly compounded; sometimes (2) are used in the passive voice; sometimes (3) follow other prepositions than _to_; sometimes (4) do not follow any preposition; sometimes (5) are objects of verbs; sometimes (6) are subjects of verbs; sometimes (7) are modified by _the_; sometimes (8) are modified by a noun or pronoun in the possessive; and generally (9) do not indicate purpose. We submit that the extension of a class term so as to include words having these relations that the Anglo-Saxon gerund never had, is not warranted by any precedent except that furnished above in the extension of the term _infinitive_ or of the term _verbal noun_!

Still others call some of these words _Infinitives_; some of them _Verbal Nouns_; and some of them _Gerunds_.

The forms in question--_seeing, having seen, being seen, having been seen_, and _having been seeing_, for instance--are now made from the verb in precisely the same way when partaking the nature of the noun as when partaking the nature of the adjective. What can they possibly be but the forms that all grammarians call _participles_ extended to new uses? If the uses of the original participles have been extended, why may we not carry over the name? The name _participle_ is as true to its etymology when applied to the nounal use of the verb as when applied to the adjectival use. For convenience of classification we call these disputed forms _participles_, as good grammarians long ago called them and still call them, though some of them may be traced back to the Saxon verbal noun or to the infinitive, and though the Saxon participle was adjectival. The name _participle_ neither confounds terms nor misleads the student. The nounal and the adjectival uses of participial forms we distinguish very sharply.] one sharing the nature of the verb and that of the adjective; the other, the nature of the verb and that of the noun. Participles commonly end in _ing_, _ed_, or _en_.

The participle, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by an object complement or an attribute complement.

Analysis and Parsing.

The +participle+ may be used as an +adjective modifier+.

1. Hearing a step, I turned.

I | turned
===|=========
\ |
\ hea
\ ring | step
--------|------
\a

+Explanation+.--The line standing for the participle is broken; one part slants to represent the adjective nature of the participle, and the other is horizontal to represent its verbal nature.

+Oral Analysis+.--The phrase _hearing a step_ is a modifier of the subject; [Footnote: Logically, or in sense, _hearing a step_ modifies the predicate also. I _turned when_ or _because_ I heard a step. See Lesson 79.] the principal word is _hearing_, which is completed by the noun _step_; _step_ is modified by _a_.

+Parsing+.--_Hearing_ is a form of the verb called participle because the act expressed by it is merely assumed, and it shares the nature of an adjective and that of a verb.

2. The fat of the body is fuel laid away for use.

+Explanation+.--The complement is here modified by a participle phrase.

3. The spinal marrow, proceeding from the brain, extends down-ward through
the back-bone.
4. Van Twiller sat in a huge chair of solid oak, hewn in the celebrated
forest of the Hague.

+Explanation+.--The principal word of a prepositional phrase is here modified by a participle phrase.

5. Lentulus, returning with victorious legions, had amused the populace
with the sports of the amphitheater.

The +participle+ may be used as an +attribute complement+.

6. The natives came crowding around.

+Explanation+.--_Crowding_ here completes the predicate _came_, and belongs to the subject _natives_. The natives are represented as performing the act of coming and the accompanying act of crowding. The assertive force of the predicate _came_ seems to extend over both verbs. [Footnote: Some grammarians prefer to treat the participle in such constructions as adverbial. But is _crowding_ any more adverbial here than are _pale_ and _trembling_ in "The natives came _pale_ and _trembling_"?]

7. The city lies sleeping. 8. They stood terrified. 9. The philosopher sat buried in thought.

\and \and \
\....\....\
\ \ \star
\ \ \ ving
\ \sav \-------
\ \ ing
\gru \----------
\ bbing
\-------------
|
miser | kept \ / \
======|======================
|

10. The old miser kept grubbing and saving and starving.

The +participle+ may be used as an +objective complement+.

11. He kept me waiting.

+Explanation+.--_Waiting_ completes _kept_ and relates to the object complement _me_. _Kept-waiting_ expresses the complete act performed upon me. _He kept-waiting me_=_He detained me_. The relation of _waiting_ to _me_ may be seen by changing the form of the verb; as, I _was kept waiting_. See Lesson 31.

12. I found my book growing dull. [Footnote: It will be seen by this and following examples that we extend the application of the term _objective complement_ beyond its primary, or factitive, sense. In "I struck the man _dead_," the condition expressed by _dead_ is the result of the act expressed by _struck_. In "I found the man _dead_," the condition is not the result of the act, and so grammarians say that in this second example _dead_ should be treated simply as an "appositive" adjective modifying _man_. While _dead_ does not belong to _man_ as expressing the result of the act, it is made to belong to _man_ through the asserting force of the verb, and therefore is not a mere modifier of _man_. _Dead_ helps _found_ to express the act. Not _found_, but _found-dead_ tells what was done to the man.

If we put the sentence in the passive form, "The man was found _dead_," it will be seen that _dead_ is more than a mere modifier; it belongs to _man_ through the assertive force of _was found_. If _dead_ is here merely an "appositive" adjective, "I found the man dead" must equal "I found the man, who was dead" (or, "and he was dead"). The two sentences obviously are not equal. "I caught him asleep" does not mean, "I caught him, and he was asleep."

If, in the construction discussed above, _dead_ is an objective complement, _quiet_, _stirring_, and (to) _stir_ in the following sentences are objective complements:--

I saw the leaves quiet.
I saw the leaves stirring.
I saw the leaves stir.

The adjective, the participle, and the infinitive do not here seem to differ essentially in office. See Lesson 31 and page 78.]

\grow
\ wing \ dull
\---------------
|
I | found / / \ | book
=====|==============================
| \my

+Explanation+.--The diagram representing the phrase complement is drawn above the complement line, on which it is made to rest by means of a support. All that stands on the complement line is regarded as the complement. Notice that the little mark before the phrase points toward the object complement. The adjective _dull_ completes _growing_ and belongs to _book_, the assumed subject of _growing_.

13. He owned himself defeated. 14. No one ever saw fat men heading a riot or herding together in turbulent mobs. 15. I felt my heart beating faster. 16. You may imagine me sitting there. 17. Saul, seeking his father's asses, found himself suddenly turned into a king.

* * * * *

LESSON 38.

PARTICIPLES--CONTINUED.

Analysis and Parsing.

The +participle+ may be used as +principal word+ in a +prepositional phrase+.

1. We receive good by doing good.

We | receive | good
=====|====================
| \by
\-----,doing | good
--------------

+Explanation+.--The line representing the participle here is broken; the first part represents the participle as a noun, and the other as a verb.

+Oral Analysis+.--The phrase _by doing good_ is a modifier of the predicate; _by_ introduces the phrase; the principal word is _doing_, which is completed by the noun _good_.

+Passing+.--_Doing_ is a participle; like a noun, it follows the preposition _by_, and, like a verb, it takes an object complement.

2. Portions of the brain may be cut off without producing any pain. 3. The Coliseum was once capable of seating ninety thousand persons. 4. Success generally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously. 5. You cannot fully sympathize with suffering without having suffered. (_Suffering_ is here a noun.)

The +participle+ may be the +principal word+ in a phrase used as a +subject+ or as an +object complement+.

6. Your writing that letter so neatly secured the position.

---, writing | letter
'------------------------
\Your | \neatly \that
| \so
|
/ \ | secured | position
=========|========='===========
| \the

+Explanation+.--The diagram of the subject phrase is drawn above the subject line. All that rests on the subject line is regarded as the subject.

+Oral Analysis+.--The phrase _your writing that letter so neatly_ is the subject; the principal word of it is _writing_, which is completed by _letter; writing_, as a noun, is modified by _your_, and, as a verb, by the adverb phrase _so neatly_.

7. We should avoid injuring the feelings of others. 8. My going there will depend upon my father's giving his consent. 9. Good reading aloud is a rare accomplishment.

The +participial form+ may be used as a +mere noun+ or a +mere adjective+.

10. The cackling of geese saved Rome.

11. Such was the exciting campaign, celebrated in many a long-forgotten
song. [Footnote: "_Manig man_ in Anglo-Saxon was used like German
_mancher mann_, Latin _multus vir_, and the like, until the thirteenth
century; when the article was inserted to emphasize the distribution
before indicated by the singular number."--_Prof. F. A. March._]

+Explanation+.--_Many_ modifies _song_ after _song_ has been limited by _a_ and _long-forgotten_.

12. All silencing of discussion is an assumption of infallibility. 13. He was a squeezing, grasping, hardened old sinner.

The +participle+ may be used in +independent+ or +absolute phrases+.

14. The bridge at Ashtabula giving way, the train fell into the river.

+Explanation+.--The diagram of the absolute phrase, which consists of a noun used independently with a participle, stands by itself. See lesson 44.

15. Talking of exercise, you have heard, of course, of Dickens's
"constitutionals."

* * * * *

LESSON 39.

COMPOSITION--PARTICIPLES.

+COMMA--RULE.--The Participle used as an adjective modifier, with the words belonging to it, is set off+ [Footnote: An expression in the body of a sentence is set off by two commas; at the beginning or at the end, by one comma.] +by the comma unless restrictive+.

+Explanation+.--_A bird, lighting near my window, greeted me with a song. The bird sitting on the wall is a wren. Lighting_ describes without restricting; _sitting_ restricts--limits the application of _bird_ to a particular bird.

+Direction+.--_Justify the punctuation of the participle phrases in Lesson_ 37.

+Caution+.--In using a participle, be careful to leave no doubt as to what you intend it to modify.

+Direction+.--_Correct these errors in arrangement, and punctuate, giving your reasons:--_

1. A gentleman will let his house going abroad for the summer to a small
family containing all the improvements.
2. The town contains fifty houses and one hundred inhabitants built of
brick.
3. Suits ready made of material cut by an experienced tailor handsomely
trimmed and bought at a bargain are offered cheap.
4. Seated on the topmost branch of a tall tree busily engaged in gnawing an
acorn we espied a squirrel.
5. A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent
gentleman suffering from cold and hunger.

+Direction+.--_Recast these sentences, making the reference of the participle clear, and punctuating correctly_:--

+Model+.--_Climbing to the top of the hill the Atlantic ocean was seen._ Incorrect because it appears that the ocean did the climbing.

_Climbing to the top of the hill, we saw the Atlantic ocean_.

1. Entering the next room was seen a marble statue of Apollo. 2. By giving him a few hints he was prepared to do the work well. 3. Desiring an early start the horse was saddled by five o'clock.

+Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which each of these three participles shall be used as an adjective modifier, as the principal word in a prepositional phrase, as the principal word in a phrase used as a subject or as an object complement, as a mere adjective, as a mere noun, and in an absolute phrase_:--

Buzzing, leaping, waving.

* * * * *

LESSON 40.

VERBS AS NOUNS--INFINITIVES.

+Introductory Hints+.--_I came to see you_. Here the verb _see_, like the participle, lacks asserting power--_I to see_ asserts nothing. _See_, following the preposition _to_, [Footnote: For the discussion of _to_ with the infinitive, see Lesson 134.] names the act and is completed by _you_, and so does duty as a noun and as a verb. In office it is like the second kind of participles, described in Lesson 37, and from many grammarians has received the same name--some calling both _gerunds_, and others calling both _infinitives_. It differs from this participle in form, and in following only the preposition _to_. Came _to see_=came _for seeing_.

This form of the verb is frequently the principal word of a phrase used as a subject or as an object, complement; as, _To read good books_ is profitable; I like _to read good books_. Here also the form with _to_ is equivalent to the participle form _reading_. _Reading good books_ is profitable.

As this form of the verb names the action in an indefinite way, without limiting it to a subject, we call it the +Infinitive+ (Lat. _infinitus_, without limit). For definition, see Lesson 131. The infinitive, like the participle, may have what is called an _assumed subject_. The _assumed subject_ denotes that to which the action or being expressed by the participle or the infinitive belongs.

Frequently the infinitive phrase expresses purpose, as in the first example given above, and in such cases _to_ expresses relation, and performs its full function as a preposition; but, when the infinitive phrase is used as subject or as object complement, the _to_ expresses no relation. It serves only to introduce the phrase, and in no way affects the meaning of the verb.

The infinitive, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by the different complements.

Analysis and Parsing.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as an +adjective modifier+ or an +adverb modifier+.

1. The hot-house is a trap to catch sunbeams.

hot-house | is \ trap
============|================
\The | \a \to
\ catch | sunbeams
\-------'----------

+Oral Analysis+.--_To_ introduces the phrase; _catch_ is the principal word, and _sunbeams_ completes it.

+Parsing+.--_To_ is a preposition, introducing the phrase and showing the relation, in sense, of the principal word to _trap; catch_ is a form of the verb called _infinitive_; like a noun, it follows the preposition _to_ and names the action, and, like a verb, it is completed by _sunbeams_.

2. Richelieu's title to command rested on sublime force of will and decision of character. 3. Many of the attempts to assassinate William the Silent were defeated. 4. We will strive to please you.

+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the predicate.

5. Ingenious Art steps forth to fashion and refine the race. 6. These harmless delusions tend to make us happy.

+Explanation+.--_Happy_ completes _make_ and relates to _us_.

7. Wounds made by words are hard to heal.

+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the adjective _hard_. _To heal = to be healed_.

8. The representative Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to seek new
lands, to clear new cornfields, to build another shingle palace, and
again to sell off and wander.
9. These apples are not ripe enough to eat.

+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the adverb _enough_. _To eat = to be eaten_.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as +subject+ or +complement.+

10. To be good is to be great.

\To \to
\ be \good \ be \ great
\-----------------------
| |
/ \ | is \ / \
========|==================
|

Explanation.--_To_, in each of these phrases, shows no relation--it serves merely to introduce. The complements _good_ and _great_ are adjectives used abstractly, having no noun to relate to.

11. To bear our fate is to conquer it. 12. To be entirely just in our estimate of others is impossible. 13. The noblest vengeance is to forgive. 14. He seemed to be innocent.

+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase here performs the office of an adjective. _To be innocent = innocent_.

15. The blind men's dogs appeared to know him. 16. We should learn to govern ourselves.

+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used as an object complement.

17. Each hill attempts to ape her voice.

* * * * *

LESSON 41.

INFINITIVES--CONTINUED.

Analysis.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used +after a preposition+ as the +principal term+ of another phrase.

1. My friend is about to leave me.

\to
\ leave | me
\-------'----
\ about |
\ / \
\-----------------
|
friend | is \ / \
========|=====================
\My |

+Explanation+.--The preposition _about_ introduces the phrase used as attribute complement; the principal part is the infinitive phrase _to leave me_.

2. Paul was now about to open his mouth. 3. No way remains but to go on.

+Explanation+.--_But_ is here a preposition.

The +infinitive+ and its +assumed subject+ may form the +principal term+ in a phrase introduced by the preposition +for+.

4. For us to know our faults is profitable.

us
-------
| \to
\ | \ know | faults
\For | \------'--------
\ / \ \our
\-------
|
/ \ | is \ profitable
=============|======================
|

+Explanation+.--_For_ introduces the subject phrase; the principal part of the entire phrase is _us to know our faults;_ the principal word is _us_, which is modified by the phrase _to know our faults_.

5. God never made his work for man to mend.

+Explanation+.---The principal term of the phrase _for man to mend_ is not _man_, but _man to mend_.

6. For a man to be proud of his learning is the greatest ignorance.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as an +explanatory modifier.+

7. It is easy to find fault.

\to \ find | fault \-----'------ | It (/ \) | is \ easy =========|=========== |

+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase _to find fault_ explains the subject _it_. Read the sentence without _it_, and you will see the real nature of the phrase. This use of _it_ as a substitute for the real subject is a very common idiom of our language. It allows the real subject to follow the verb, and thus gives the sentence balance of parts.

8. It is not the way to argue down a vice to tell lies about it. 9. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope. 10. It is not all of life to live. 11. This task, to teach the young, may become delightful.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as +objective complement.+

12. He made me wait.

+Explanation+.--The infinitive _wait_ (here used without _to_) completes _made_ and relates to _me_. _He made-wait me = He detained me_.

See "Introductory Hints," Lesson 31, and participles used as objective complements, Lesson 37. Compare _I saw him do it_ with _I saw him doing it_. Compare also _He made the stick bend_--equaling _He made-bend _(= bent) _the stick_--with _He made the stick straight_--equaling _He made-straight _(= straightened) _the stick_.

The relation of these objective complements to _me, him_, and _stick_ may be more clearly seen by changing the form of the verb, thus: I was made _to wait_; He was seen _to do it_, He was seen _doing it_; The stick was made _to bend_; The stick was made _straight_.

13.We found the report to be true. [Footnote: Some prefer to treat _the
report to be true_ as an object clause because it is equivalent to the
clause _that the report is true_. But many expressions logically
equivalent are entirely different in grammatical construction; as, I
desire _his promotion_; I desire _him to be promoted_; I desire _that he
should be promoted_. Besides, to teach that _him_ is the subject, and
_to be promoted_ the predicate, of a
clause would certainly be confusing.]

\to
\ be \ true
\--------------
|
We | found / / \ | report
===|==========================
|

14. He commanded the bridge to be lowered. [Footnote: Notice the difference
in construction between this sentence and the sentence _He commanded
him to lower the bridge_. _Him_ represents the one to whom the command
is given, and _to lower the bridge_ is the object complement. This last
sentence = He commanded _him that he should lower the bridge_. Compare
_He told me to go_ with _He told (to) me a story_; also _He taught me
to read_ with _He taught (to) me reading._ In such sentences as (13)
and (14) it may not always be expedient to demand that the pupil shall
trace the exact relations of the infinitive phrase to the preceding
noun and to the predicate verb. If preferred, in such cases, the
infinitive and its assumed subject may be treated as a kind of phrase
object, equivalent to a clause. This construction is similar to the
Latin "accusative with the infinitive."]

15. I saw the leaves stir. [Footnote: See pages 68 and 69, foot-note.]

+Explanation+.--_Stir_ is an infinitive without the _to_.

16. Being persuaded by Poppaesa, Hero caused his mother, Agrippina, to be
assassinated.

* * * * *

LESSON 42.

INFINITIVES--CONTINUED.

Analysis.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used +independently+. [Footnote: These infinitive phrases can be expanded into dependent clauses. See Lesson 79.

For the infinitive after _as, than_, etc., see Lesson 63. Participles and infinitives unite with other verbs to make compound forms; as, have _walked_, shall _walk_.]

+Explanation+.--In the diagram the independent element must stand by itself.

1. England's debt, to put it in round numbers, is $4,000,000,000. 2. Every object has several faces, so to speak. 3. To make a long story short, Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette were executed.

Infinitives and Participles.

MISCELLANEOUS.

4. It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord. 5. We require clothing in the summer to protect the body from the heat of the sun. 6. Rip Van Winkle could not account for everything's having changed so. 7. This sentence is not too difficult for me to analyze. 8. The fog came pouring in at every chink and keyhole, 9. Conscience, her first law broken, wounded lies. 10. To be, or not to be,--that is the question. 11. I supposed him to be a gentleman. 12. Food, keeping the body in health by making it warm and repairing its waste, is a necessity. 13. I will teach you the trick to prevent your being cheated another time. 14. She threatened to go beyond the sea, to throw herself out of the window, to drown herself. 15. Busied with public affairs, the council would sit for hours smoking and watching the smoke curl from their pipes to the ceiling.

* * * * *

LESSON 43.

COMPOSITION--THE INFINITIVE.

+Direction+.--_Change the infinitives in these sentences into participles, and the participles into infinitives_:--

Notice that _to_, the only preposition used with the infinitive, is changed to _toward, for, of, at, in,_ or _on_, when the infinitive is changed to a participle.

1. I am inclined to believe it. 2. I am ashamed to be seen there. 3. She will be grieved to hear it. 4. They trembled to hear such words. 5. It will serve for amusing the children. 6. There is a time to laugh. 7. I rejoice to hear it. 8. You are prompt to obey. 9. They delight to do it. 10. I am surprised at seeing you. 11. Stones are used in ballasting vessels.

+Direction+.--_Improve these sentences by changing the participles into infinitives, and the infinitives into participles_:--

1. We began ascending the mountain. 2. He did not recollect to have paid it. 3. I commenced to write a letter. 4. It is inconvenient being poor. 5. It is not wise complaining.

+Direction+.--_Vary these sentences as in the model_:--

+Model+.--_Rising early_ is healthful; _To rise_ early is healthful; _It_ is healthful _to rise_ early; _For one to rise_ early is healthful.

(Notice that the explanatory phrase after _it_ is not set off by the comma.)

1. Reading good books is profitable. 2. Equivocating is disgraceful. 3. Slandering is base. 4. Indorsing another's paper is dangerous. 5. Swearing is sinful.

+Direction.+--_Write nine sentences, in three of which the infinitive phrase shall be used as an adjective, in three as an adverb, and in three as a noun_.

+Direction.+--_Write eight sentences in which these verbs shall be followed by an infinitive without the to_:--

+Model.+--We _saw_ the sun _sink_ behind the mountain.

Bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, and see.

* * * * *

LESSON 44.

WORDS AND PHRASES USED INDEPENDENTLY.

+Introductory Hints.+--In this Lesson we wish to notice words and phrases that in certain uses have no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence.

_The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars. Dear Brutus_ serves only to arrest attention, and is independent by address.

_Poor man! he never came back again. Poor man_ is independent by exclamation.

_Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me_. _Rod_ and _staff_ simply call attention to the objects before anything is said of them, and are independent by pleonasm--a construction used sometimes for rhetorical effect, but out of place in ordinary speech.

_His master being absent, the business was neglected. His master being absent_ logically modifies the verb _was neglected_ by assigning the cause, but the phrase has no connective expressed or understood, and is therefore grammatically independent. This is called the _absolute phrase_. An _absolute phrase_ consists of a noun or a pronoun used independently with a modifying participle.

_His conduct, generally speaking, was honorable. Speaking_ is a participle without connection, and with the adverb _generally_ forms an independent phrase.

_To confess the truth, I was wrong._ The infinitive phrase is independent.

The adverbs _well, now, why, there_ are sometimes independent; as, _Well_, life is an enigma; _Now_, that is strange; _Why_, it is already noon; _There_ are pitch-pine Yankees and white-pine Yankees.

Interjections are without grammatical connection, as you have learned, and hence are independent.

Whatever is enclosed within marks of parenthesis is also independent of the rest of the sentence; as, I stake my fame (_and I had fame_), my heart, my hope, my soul, upon this cast.

+Analysis+.

1. The loveliest things in life, Tom, are but shadows.

+Explanation.+--_Tom_ is independent by address. _But_ is an adjective modifying _shadows_.

2. There are one-story intellects, two-story intellects, and three-story
intellects with skylights.

+Explanation+.--Often, as in this sentence, _there_ is used idiomatically, merely to throw the subject after the verb, the idea of place having faded out of the word. To express place, another _there_ may follow the predicate; as, _There_ is gold _there_.

3. Ah! then and there was hurrying to and fro. 4. Hope lost, all is lost. 5. The smith, a mighty man is he. 6. Why, this is not revenge. 7. Well, this is the forest of Arden. 8. Now, there is at Jerusalem, by the sheep-market, a pool. 9. To speak plainly, your habits are your worst enemies. 10. No accident occurring, we shall arrive to-morrow. 11. The teacher being sick, there was no school Friday. 12. Mr. President, I shall enter on no encomium upon Massachusetts. 13. Properly speaking, there can be no chance in our affairs. 14. But the enemies of tyranny--their path leads to the scaffold. 15. She (oh, the artfulness of the woman!) managed the matter extremely well.

retreat | began
=========|=======
\later
\---\
\ day
\-------
\A

16. A day later (Oct. 19, 1812) began the fatal retreat of the Grand Army,
from Moscow.

See Lesson 35.

* * * * *

LESSON 45.

COMPOSITION--INDEPENDENT WORDS AND PHRASES.

+COMMA--RULE.--Words and phrases independent or nearly so are set off by the comma.+

+Remark+.--Interjections, as you have seen, are usually followed by the exclamation point; and _there_, used merely to introduce, is never set off by the comma. When the break after pleonastic expressions is slight, as in (5), Lesson 44, the comma is used; but, if it is more abrupt, as in (14), the dash is required. If the independent expression can be omitted without affecting the sense, it may be enclosed within marks of parenthesis, as in (15) and (16). (For the uses of the dash and the marks of parenthesis, see Lesson 148.)

Words and phrases nearly independent are those which, like _however, of course, indeed, in short, by the bye, for instance_, and _accordingly_, do not modify a word or a phrase alone, but rather the sentence as a whole; as, Lee did not, _however_, follow Washington's orders.

+Direction.+--_Write sentences illustrating the several kinds of independent expressions, and punctuate according to the Rule as explained_.

+Direction.+--_Write short sentences in which these words and phrases, used in a manner nearly independent, shall occur, and punctuate them properly_:--

In short, indeed, now and then, for instance, accordingly, moreover, however, at least, in general, no doubt, by the bye, by the way, then, too, of course, in fine, namely, above all, therefore.

+Direction.+--_Write short sentences in which these words shall modify same particular word or phrase so closely as not to be set off by the comma_:--

Indeed, surely, too, then, now, further, why, again, still.

+Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.+

(SEE PAGES 160-162.)

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30,150.

* * * * *

LESSON 46.

SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO MEANING.

+Introductory Hints+.--In the previous Lessons we have considered the sentence with respect to the words and phrases composing it. Let us now look at it as a whole.

_The mountains lift up their heads_. This sentence is used simply to affirm, or to declare a fact, and is called a +Declarative Sentence.+

_Do the mountains lift up their heads?_ This sentence expresses a question, and is called an +Interrogative Sentence.+

_Lift up your heads_. This sentence expresses a command, and is called an +Imperative Sentence+. Such expressions as _You must go_, _You shall go_ are equivalent to imperative sentences, though they have not the imperative form.

_How the mountains lift up their heads!_ In this sentence the thought is expressed with strong emotion. It is called an +Exclamatory Sentence+. _How_ and _what_ usually introduce such sentences; but a declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence may become exclamatory when the speaker uses it mainly to give vent to his feelings; as, _It is impossible! How can I endure it! Talk of hypocrisy after this!_

+DEFINITION.--A _Declarative Sentence_ is one that is used to affirm or to deny.+

+DEFINITION.--An _Interrogative Sentence_ is one that expresses a question.+

+DEFINITION.--An _Imperative Sentence_ is one that expresses a command or an entreaty.+

+DEFINITION.--An _Exclamatory Sentence_ is one that expresses sudden thought or strong feeling.+ [Footnote: For punctuation, see page 42.]

+INTERROGATION POINT--RULE.--Every direct interrogative sentence should be followed by an interrogation point.+

+Remark.+--When an interrogative sentence is made a part of another sentence, it may be direct; as, He asked, "_What is the trouble?_" or indirect; as, He asked _what the trouble was_. (See Lesson 74.)

Analysis.

+Direction.+--_Before analyzing these sentences, classify them, and justify the terminal marks of punctuation:_--

1. There are no accidents in the providence of God. 2. Why does the very murderer, his victim sleeping before him, and his glaring eye taking the measure of the blow, strike wide of the mortal part? 3. Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss.

(The subject is _you_ understood.)

4. How wonderful is the advent of spring! 5. Oh! a dainty plant is the ivy green! 6. Six days shalt thou labor and do all thy work. 7. Alexander the Great died at Babylon in the thirty-third year of his age. 8. How sickness enlarges the dimensions of a man's self to himself! 9. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain. 10. Lend me your ears. 11. What brilliant rings the planet Saturn has! 12. What power shall blanch the sullied snow of character? 13. The laws of nature are the thoughts of God. 14. How beautiful was the snow, falling all day long, all night long, on the roofs of the living, on the graves of the dead! 15. Who, in the darkest days of our Revolution, carried your flag into the very chops of the British Channel, bearded the lion in his den, and woke the echoes of old Albion's hills by the thunders of his cannon and the shouts of his triumph?

* * * * *

LESSON 47.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW

Analysis.

1. Poetry is only the eloquence and enthusiasm of religion.--_Wordsworth_.
2. Refusing to bare his head to any earthly potentate, Richelieu would
permit no eminent author to stand bareheaded in his presence.
--_Stephen_.
3. The Queen of England is simply a piece of historic heraldry; a flag,
floating grandly over a Liberal ministry yesterday, over a Tory ministry
to-day.--_Conway_.
4. The vulgar intellectual palate hankers after the titillation of foaming
phrase.--_Lowell_.
5. Two mighty vortices, Pericles and Alexander the Great, drew into strong
eddies about themselves all the glory and the pomp of Greek literature,
Greek eloquence, Greek wisdom, Greek art.--_De Quincey_.
6. Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, lie in three words--
health, peace, and competence.--_Pope_.
7. Extreme admiration puts out the critic's eye.--_Tyler_. [Footnote:
Weighty thoughts tersely expressed, like (7), (8), and (10) in this
Lesson, are called Epigrams. What quality do you think they impart to
one's style?]
8. The setting of a great hope is like the setting of the sun.--
_Longfellow_.
9. Things mean, the Thistle, the Leek, the Broom of the Plantagenets,
become noble by association.--_F. W. Robertson_.
10. Prayer is the key of the morning and the bolt of the night.--
_Beecher_.
11. In that calm Syrian afternoon, memory, a pensive Ruth, went gleaning
the silent fields of childhood, and found the scattered grain still
golden, and the morning sunlight fresh and fair.--_Curtis_. [Footnote:
In _Ruth_ of this sentence, we have a type of the metaphor called
+Personification+--a figure in which things are raised above their
proper plane, taken up toward or to that of persons. Things take on
dignity and importance as they rise in the scale of being.

Note, moreover, that in this instance of the figure we have an
+Allusion+. All the interest that the Ruth of the Bible awakens in us
this allusion gathers about so common a thing as memory.]

* * * * *

LESSON 48.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.

Analysis.

1. By means of steam man realizes the fable of Aeolus's bag, and carries
the two-and-thirty winds in the boiler of his boat.--_Emerson_.
2. The Angel of Life winds our brains up once for all, then closes the
case, and gives the key into the hands of the Angel of
Resurrection.--_Holmes_.
3. I called the New World into existence to redress the balance of the
Old.--_Canning_.
4. The prominent nose of the New Englander is evidence of the constant
linguistic exercise of that organ.--_Warner_.
5. Every Latin word has its function as noun or verb or adverb ticketed
upon it.--_Earle_.
6. The Alps, piled in cold and still sublimity, are an image of
despotism.--_Phillips_.
7. I want my husband to be submissive without looking so.--_Gail Hamilton_.
8. I love to lose myself in other men's minds.--_Lamb_.
9. Cheerfulness banishes all anxious care and discontent, soothes and
composes the passions, and keeps the soul in a perpetual
calm.--_Addison_.
10. To discover the true nature of comets has hitherto proved beyond the
power of science.

+Explanation+.--_Beyond the power of science = impossible_, and is therefore an attribute complement. The preposition _beyond_ shows the relation, in sense, of _power_ to the subject phrase.

11. Authors must not, like Chinese soldiers, expect to win victories by
turning somersets in the air.--_Longfellow_.

* * * * *

LESSON 49.

REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION.

+Direction+.--_Give the reasons, so far as you have been taught, for the marks of punctuation used in Lessons_ 44, 46, 47, _and_ 48.

* * * * *

LESSON 50.

REVIEW.

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, Lesson 16.

+Direction+.--_Review from Lesson_ 37 _to Lesson_ 46, _inclusive_.

Give, in some such way as we have outlined in preceding Review Lessons, the substance of the "Introductory Hints;" repeat and illustrate definitions and rules; illustrate the different uses of the participle and the infinitive, and illustrate the Caution regarding the use of the participle; illustrate the different ways in which words and phrases may be grammatically independent, and the punctuation of these independent elements.

* * * * *

LESSON 51.

ARRANGEMENT--USUAL ORDER.

TO THE TEACHER.--If, from lack of time or from the necessity of conforming to a prescribed course of study, it is found desirable to abridge these Lessons on Arrangement and Contraction, the exercises to be written may be omitted, and the pupil may be required to illustrate the positions of the different parts, in both the Usual and the Transposed order, and then to read the examples given, making the required changes orally.

The eight following Lessons may thus be reduced to two or three.

Let us recall the +Usual Order+ of words and phrases in a simple declarative sentence.

The verb follows the subject, and the object complement follows the verb.

+Example+.--_Drake circumnavigated the globe_.

+Direction+.--_Observing this order, write three sentences each with an object complement._

An adjective or a possessive modifier precedes its noun, and an explanatory modifier follows it.

+Examples+.--_Man's life is a brief span. Moses, the lawgiver_, came down from the Mount.

+Direction+.--_Observing this order, write four sentences, two with possessive modifiers and two with explanatory, each sentence containing an adjective._

The attribute complement, whether noun or adjective, follows the verb, the objective complement follows the object complement, and the indirect object precedes the direct.

+Examples+.--Egypt _is the valley_ of the Nile. Eastern life _is dreamy_. They made _Bonaparte consul_. They offered _Caesar a crown_.

+Direction+.--_Observing this order, write four sentences illustrating the positions of the noun and of the adjective when they perform these offices_.

If adjectives are of unequal rank, the one most closely modifying the noun stands nearest to it; if of the same rank, they stand in the order of their length--the shortest first.

+Examples+.--_Two honest young_ men enlisted. Cassino has a _lean_ and _hungry_ look. A rock, _huge_ and _precipitous_, stood in our path.

+Direction+.--_Observing this order, write three sentences illustrating the relative position of adjectives before and after the noun_.

An adverb precedes the adjective, the adverb, or the phrase which it modifies; precedes or follows (more frequently follows) the simple verb or the verb with its complement; and follows one or more words of the verb if the verb is compound.

+Examples+.--The light _far in the distance_ is _so very bright_. I _soon found him_. I _hurt him badly_. He _had often been there_.

+Direction+.--_Observing this order, write sentences illustrating these several positions of the adverb_.

Phrases follow the words they modify; if a word has two or more phrases, those most closely modifying it stand nearest to it.

+Examples+.--_Facts once established_ are facts forever. He _sailed for Liverpool on Monday_.

+Direction+.--_Observing this order, write sentences illustrating the positions of participle and prepositional phrases_.

* * * * *

LESSON 52.

ARRANGEMENT--TRANSPOSED ORDER.

+Introductory Hints+.--The usual order of words, spoken of in the preceding Lesson, is not the only order admissible in an English sentence; on the contrary, great freedom in the placing of words and phrases is sometimes allowable. Let the relation of the words be kept obvious and, consequently, the thought clear, and in poetry, in impassioned oratory, in excited speech of any kind, one may deviate widely from this order.

A writer's meaning is never distributed evenly among his words; more of it lies in some words than in others. Under the influence of strong feeling, one may move words out of their accustomed place, and, by thus attracting attention to them, give them additional importance to the reader or hearer.

When any word or phrase in the predicate stands out of its usual place, appearing either at the front of the sentence or at the end, we have what we may call the +Transposed Order+. _I dare not venture to go down into the cabin--Venture to go down into the cabin I dare not. You shall die--Die you shall. Their names will forever live on the lips of the people--Their names will, on the lips of the people, forever live_.

When the word or phrase moved to the front carries the verb, or the principal word of it, before the subject, we have the extreme example of the transposed order; as, _A yeoman had he. Strange is the magic of a turban._ The whole of a verb is not placed at the beginning of a declarative sentence except in poetry; as, _Flashed all their sabers bare_.

TO THE TEACHER.----Where, in our directions in these Lessons on Arrangement and Contraction, we say _change, transpose_, or _restore_, the pupils need not write the sentences. They should study them and be able to read them. Require them to show what the sentence has lost or gained in the change.

+Direction+.--_Change these sentences from the usual to the transposed order by moving words or phrases to the front, and explain the effect_:--

1. He could not avoid it. 2. They were pretty lads. 3. The great Queen died in the year 1603. 4. He would not escape. 5. I must go. 6. She seemed young and sad. 7. He cried, "My son, my son!" 8. He ended his tale here. 9. The moon shone bright. 10. A frozen continent lies beyond the sea. 11. He was a contentious man. 12. It was quoted so. 13. Monmouth had never been accused of cowardice.

+Direction+.--_Change these sentences from the transposed order to the usual, and explain the effect_:--

1. Him, the Almighty Power hurled headlong. 2. Volatile he was. 3. Victories, indeed, they were. 4. Of noble race the lady came. 5. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 6. Once again we'll sleep secure. 7. This double office the participle performs. 8. That gale I well remember. 9. Churlish he often seemed. 10. One strong thing I find here below. 11. Overhead I heard a murmur. 12. To their will we must succumb. 13. Him they hanged. 14. Freely ye have received.

+Direction+.--_Write five sentences, each with one of the following nouns or adjectives as a complement; and five, each with one of the adverbs or phrases as predicate modifier; then transpose the ten with these same words moved to the front, and explain the effect_:--

Giant, character, happy, him, serene, often, in the market, long and deeply, then, under foot.

+Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by placing the italicized words last, and note the effect_:--

1. The clouds lowering upon our house are _buried_ in the deep bosom of the ocean. 2. Aeneas did _bear_ from the flames of Troy upon his shoulder the old Anchises. 3. Such a heart _beats_ in the breast of my people. 4. The great fire _roared_ up the deep and wide chimney.

+Direction+.--_Change these to the usual order_:--

1. No woman was ever in this wild humor wooed and won. 2. Let a shroud, stripped from some privileged corpse, be, for its proper price, displayed. 3. An old clock, early one summer's morning, before the stirring of the family, suddenly stopped. 4. Treasures of gold and of silver are, in the deep bosom of the earth, concealed. 5. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in school, the most difficult and valuable.

+Direction+.--_Write three sentences, each with the following noun or adjective or phrase in its usual place in the predicate, and then transpose, placing these words wherever they can properly go_:--

Mountains, glad, by and by.

* * * * *

LESSON 53.

ARRANGEMENT--TRANSPOSED ORDER.

+Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving the object complement and the verb to their customary places, and tell what is lost by the change_:--

1. Thorns and thistles shall the earth bring forth. 2. "Exactly so," replied the pendulum. 3. Me restored he to mine office. 4. A changed France have we. 5. These evils hath sin wrought.

+Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the object complement and the verb, and tell what is gained by the change_:--

1. The dial-plate exclaimed, "Lazy wire!" 2. The maiden has such charms. 3. The English character has faults and plenty of them. 4. I will make one effort more to save you. 5. The king does possess great power. 6. You have learned much in this short journey.

+Direction+.--_Write six transposed sentences with these nouns as object complements, and then restore them to their usual order_:--

Pause, cry, peace, horse, words, gift.

+Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving the attribute complement and the verb to their usual places, and tell what is lost by the change_:--

1. A dainty plant is the ivy green. 2. Feet was I to the lame. 3. A mighty man is he. 4. As a mark of respect was the present given. 5. A giant towered he among men.

+Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the attribute complement and the verb, and tell what is gained by the change_:--

1. We are merry brides. 2. Washington is styled the "Father of his Country." 3. He was a stark mosstrooping Scot. 4. The man seemed an incarnate demon. 5. Henry VIII. had become a despot.

+Direction+.--_Using these nouns as attribute complements, write three sentences in the usual order, and then transpose them_:--

Rock, desert, fortress.

+Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving the adjective complement and the verb to their customary places_:--

1. Happy are we to-night, boys. 2. Good and upright is the Lord. 3. Hotter grew the air. 4. Pale looks your Grace. 5. Dark rolled the waves. 6. Louder waxed the applause. 7. Blood-red became the sun. 8. Doubtful seemed the battle. 9. Wise are all his ways. 10. Wide open stood the doors. 11. Weary had he grown. 12. Faithful proved he to the last.

+Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the adjective complement and the verb_:--

1. My regrets were bitter and unavailing. 2. The anger of the righteous is weighty. 3. The air seemed deep and dark. 4. She had grown tall and queenly. 5. The peacemakers are blessed. 6. I came into the world helpless. 7. The untrodden snow lay bloodless. 8. The fall of that house was great. 9. The uproar became intolerable. 10. The secretary stood alone.

+Direction+.--_Write five transposed sentences, each with one of these adjectives as attribute complement, and then restore the sentences to the usual order_:--

Tempestuous, huge, glorious, lively, fierce.

* * * * *

LESSON 54.

ARRANGEMENT--TRANSPOSED ORDER.

+Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to the usual order by moving the adverb and the verb to their customary places, and note the loss_:--

1. Then burst his mighty heart. 2. Here stands the man. 3. Crack! went the ropes. 4. Down came the masts. 5. So died the great Columbus of the skies. 6. Tictac! tictac! go the wheels of thought. 7. Away went Gilpin. 8. Off went his bonnet. 9. Well have ye judged. 10. On swept the lines. 11. There dozed the donkeys. 12. Boom! boom! went the guns. 13. Thus waned the afternoon. 14. There thunders the cataract age after age.

+Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the adverb and the verb_:--