Chapter III: Part 3

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1. The toad spends the winter in a dormant state. 2. Pride in dress or in beauty betrays a weak mind. 3. The city of London is situated on the river Thames. 4. Napoleon Bonaparte was born in 1769, on an island in the Mediterranean. 5. Men's opinions vary with their interests. 6. Ammonia is found in the sap of trees, and in the juices of all vegetables. 7. Earth sends up her perpetual hymn of praise to the Creator. 8. Having once been deceived by him, I never trusted him again. 9. Aesop, the author of Aesop's Fables, was a slave. 10. Hope comes with smiles to cheer the hour of pain. 11. Clouds are collections of vapors in the air. 12. To relieve the wretched was his pride. 13. Greece, the most noted country of antiquity, scarcely exceeded in size the half of the state of New York.

LESSON 56.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES IN REVIEW--CONTINUED.

1. We are never too old to learn. 2. Civility is the result of good nature and good sense. 3. The right of the people to instruct their representatives is generally admitted. 4. The immense quantity of matter in the Universe presents a most striking display of Almighty power. 5. Virtue, diligence, and industry, joined with good temper and prudence, must ever be the surest means of prosperity. 6. The people called Quakers were a source of much trouble to the Puritans. 7. The Mayflower brought to America [Footnote: One hundred and one may be taken as one adjective.] one hundred and one men, women, and children. 8. Edward Wingfield, an avaricious and unprincipled man, was the first president of the Jamestown colony. 9. John Cabot and his son Sebastian, sailing under a commission from Henry VII. of England, discovered the continent of America. 10. True worth is modest and retiring. 11. Jonah, the prophet, preached to the inhabitants of Nineveh.

LESSON 57.

COMPLEX SENTENCES.

THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--A word-modifier may sometimes be expanded into a phrase or into an expression that asserts.

+T+.--_A wise man will be honored_. Expand _wise_ into a phrase, and give me the sentence. +P+.--A man _of wisdom_ will be honored. +T+.--Expand _wise_ into an expression that asserts, join this to _man_, as a modifier, and then give me the entire sentence. +P+.--A man _who is wise_ will be honored.

+T+.--You see that the same quality may be expressed in three ways--A _wise_ man, A man _of wisdom_, A man _who is wise_.

Let the pupils give similar examples.

+T+.--In the sentence, _A man who is wise will be honored_, the word _who_ stands for what? +P+.--For the noun _man_. +T+.--Then what part of speech is it? +P+.--A pronoun.

+T+.--Put the noun _man_ in the place of the pronoun _who_, and then give me the sentence. +P+.--_A man, man is wise, will be honored_.

+T+.--I will repeat your sentence, changing the order of the words--_A man will be honored. Man is wise_. Is the last sentence now joined to the first as a modifier, or are they two separate sentences? +P+.--They are two separate sentences.

+T+.--Then you see that the pronoun _who_ not only stands for the noun _man_, but it connects the modifying expression, _who is wise_, to _man_, the subject of the sentence, _A man will be honored_, and thus there is formed what we call a +Complex Sentence+. These two parts we call +Clauses+. _A man will be honored_ is the +Independent Clause;+ _who is wise_ is the +Dependent Clause+.

Clauses that modify nouns or pronouns are called +Adjective Clauses+.

+DEFINITION.--A _Clause_ is a part of a sentence containing a subject and its predicate+.

+DEFINITION.--A _Dependent Clause_ is one used as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun+.

+DEFINITION.--An _Independent Clause_ is one not dependent on another clause+.

+DEFINITION.--A _Simple Sentence_ is one that contains but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound+.

+DEFINITION.--A _Complex Sentence_ is one composed of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses+.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model+.--

man | will be honored
=========|==================
\A ` |
`
`
who ` | is \ wise
-------|------------
|

+Explanation of the Diagram+.--You will notice that the lines standing for the subject and predicate of the _independent clause_ are heavier than those of the _dependent clause_. This pictures to you the relative importance of the two clauses. You will see that the pronoun _who_ is written on the subject line of the dependent clause. But this word performs the office of a conjunction also, and this office is expressed in the diagram by a dotted line. As all modifiers are joined by _slanting_ lines, to the words they modify, you learn from this diagram that _who is wise_ is a modifier of _man_.

+Oral Analysis+.--This is a _complex sentence_, because it consists of an _independent clause_ and a _dependent clause_. _A man will be honored_ is _the independent clause_; _who is wise_ is the _dependent clause_. _Man_ is the subject of the independent clause; _will be honored_ is the predicate. The word _A_ and the clause, _who is wise_, are modifiers of the subject. _A_ points out _man_, and _who is wise_ tells the _kind_ of man. _A man who is wise_ is the modified subject; the predicate is unmodified. _Who_ is the subject of the dependent clause, _is_ is the predicate, and _wise_ is the attribute complement. _Who_ connects the two clauses.

1. He that runs may read. 2. Man is the only animal that laughs and weeps. 3. Henry Hudson discovered the river which bears his name. 4. He necessarily remains weak who never tries exertion. 5. The meridians are those lines that extend from pole to pole. 6. He who will not be ruled by the rudder must be ruled by the rock. 7. Animals that have a backbone are called vertebrates. 8. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. 9. The thick mists which prevail in the neighborhood of Newfoundland are caused by the warm waters of the Gulf Stream. 10. The power which brings a pin to the ground holds the earth in its orbit. 11. Death is the black camel which kneels at every man's gate. 12. Our best friends are they who tell us of our faults, and help us to mend them.

The pupil will notice that, in some of these sentences, the dependent clause modifies the subject, and that, in others, it modifies the noun complement.

+COMMA--RULE.--The _adjective_ or the _adverb clause_, when it does not closely follow and restrict the word modified, is generally set off by the comma+.

LESSON 58.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.

Expand each of the following adjectives into

1. A phrase; 2. A clause;

and then use these three modifiers in three separate sentences of your own construction.

| _who has energy_,
+Model+.--_Energetic; of energy_; + or
| _who is energetic_.

An _energetic_ man will succeed. A man _of energy_ will succeed. A man who has _energy_ (or _who is energetic_) will succeed.

Honest, long-eared, beautiful, wealthy.

Expand each of the following _possessive nouns_ into

1. A phrase; 2. A clause;

and then use these three modifiers in three separate sentences.

+Model+.--_Saturn's rings_; the rings _of Saturn_; the rings _which surround Saturn_.

_Saturn's_ rings can be seen with a telescope. The _rings of Saturn_ can be seen with a telescope. The rings _which surround Saturn_ can be seen, with a telescope.

Absalom's hair; the hen's eggs; the elephant's tusks.

Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding the participial phrases into clauses.

The vessels carrying the blood from the heart are called arteries. The book prized above all other books is the Bible. Rivers rising west of the Rocky Mts. flow into the Pacific ocean. The guns fired at Concord were heard around the world.

+To the Teacher+.--For additional composition exercises with particular reference to adjective clauses, see Notes, p. 177.

LESSON 59.

COMPLEX SENTENCES.

THE ADVERB CLAUSE.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--You learned in Lesson 83 that an adverb can be expanded into an equivalent phrase; as, The book was _carefully_ read = The book was read _with care_.

We shall now learn that a phrase used as an adverb may be expanded into an +Adverb clause+. In the sentence, _We started at sunrise_, what phrase is used like an adverb? +P+.--_At sunrise_. +T+.--Expand this phrase into an equivalent clause, and give me the entire sentence. +P+.--We started _when the sun rose_.

+T+.--You see that the phrase, _at sunrise_, and the clause, _when the sun rose_, both modify _started_, telling the time of starting, and are therefore equivalent to adverbs. We will then call such clauses +Adverb Clauses+.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model.--+

We | started
=========|=============
\
` when
sun \ rose
=======|=========
\the

+Explanation of the Diagram+.--The line which connects the two predicate lines pictures three things. It is made up of three parts. The upper part shows that _when_ modifies _started_; the lower part, that it modifies _rose_; and the dotted part shows that it _connects_.

+Oral Analysis+.--This is a complex sentence, because ----; _We started_ is the independent clause, and _when the sun rose_ is the dependent clause. _We_ is the subject of the independent clause, and _started_ is the predicate. The clause, _when the sun rose_, is a modifier of the predicate, because it tells when we started. _Started when the sun rose_ is the modified predicate.

_Sun_ is the subject of the dependent clause, and _rose_ is the predicate, and the is a modifier of _sun_; _the sun_ is the modified subject. _When_ modifies _rose_ and _started_, and connects the clause-modifier to the predicate _started_.

+Parsing+ of _when_.--_When_ is an adverb modifying the two verbs _started_ and _rose_, thus connecting the two clauses. It modifies these verbs by showing that the two actions took place at the same time.

1. The dew glitters when the sun shines. 2. Printing was unknown when Homer wrote the Iliad. 3. Where the bee sucks honey, the spider sucks poison. 4. Ah! few shall part where many meet. 5. Where the devil cannot come, he will send. 6. While the bridegroom tarried, they all slumbered and slept. 7. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 8. When the tale of bricks is doubled, Moses comes. 9. When I look upon the tombs of the great, every emotion of envy dies within me. 10. The upright man speaks as he thinks. 11. He died as the fool dieth. 12. The scepter shall not depart from Judah until Shiloh come.

LESSON 60.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

ADVERB CLAUSES.

Expand each of the following phrases into an adverb clause, and fit this clause into a sentence of your own building.

+Model+.--_At sunset; when the sun set_. We returned _when the sun set_.

At the hour; on the playground; by moonlight; in youth; among icebergs; after school; at the forks of the road; during the day; before church; with my friend.

To each of the following independent clauses, join an adverb clause, and so make complex sentences.

---- Peter began to sink. The man dies ----. Grass grows ----. Iron ---- can easily be shaped. The rattlesnake shakes his rattle ----. ---- a nation mourns. Pittsburg stands ----. He dared to lead ----.

+To the Teacher+.--For additional composition exercises with particular reference to adverb clauses, see Notes, p. 177.

See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement--Selection from the Brothers Grimm.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

In what two ways may nouns be used as modifiers? Illustrate. Nouns and pronouns denoting possession may sometimes be changed into what? Illustrate. Give the rule for the punctuation of explanatory modifiers. Into what may an adjective be expanded? Into what may a participial phrase be expanded? Give illustrations. Give an example of a complex sentence. Of a clause. Of an independent clause. Of a dependent clause. Into what may a phrase used as an adverb be expanded? Illustrate.

LESSON 61.

THE NOUN CLAUSE.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_That stars are suns is taught by astronomers_. What is taught by astronomers? +P+.--That stars are suns. +T+.--What then is the subject of _is taught_? +P+.--The clause, _That stars are suns_. +T+.--This clause then performs the office of what part of speech? +P+.--Of a noun.

+T+.--_Astronomers teach that stars are suns_. What do astronomers teach? +P+.--That stars are suns. +T+.--What is the object complement of _teach_? +P+.--The clause, _that stars are suns_. +T+.--What office then does this clause perform? +P+.--That of a noun.

+T+.--_The teaching of astronomers is, that stars are suns_. What does _is_ assert of teaching? +P+.--That stars are suns. +T+.--What then is the attribute complement? +P+.--_That stars are suns_. +T+.--Does this complement express the quality of the subject, or does it name the same thing that the subject names? +P+.--It names the same thing that the subject names. +T+.--It is equivalent then to what part of speech? +P+.--To a noun.

+T+.--You see then that a clause, like a noun, may be used as the subject or the complement of a sentence.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model+.--

That
------
'
stars | are '\suns
=======|============
| |
|
/ \ | is taught
================|============
| \by
\ astronomers
--------------

You will understand this diagram from the explanation of the second diagram in Lesson 49.

+Oral Analysis+.--This is a complex sentence, in which the whole sentence takes the place of the independent clause. _That stars are suns_ is the dependent clause. _That stars are suns_ is the subject of the whole sentence, etc. ----. _That_ simply introduces the dependent clause.

In _parsing_, call _that_ a conjunction.

1. That the Scotch are an intelligent people is generally acknowledged. 2. That the moon is made of green cheese is believed by some boys and girls. 3. That Julius Caesar invaded Britain is a historic fact. 4. That children should obey their parents is a divine precept. 5. I know that my Redeemer liveth. 6. Plato taught that the soul is immortal. 7. Peter denied that he knew his Lord. 8. Mahomet found that the mountain would not move. 9. The principle maintained by the colonies was, that taxation without representation is unjust. 10. Our intention is, that this work shall be well done. 11. Our hearts' desire and prayer is, that you may be saved. 12. The belief of the Sadducees was, that there is no resurrection of the dead.

* * * * *

LESSON 62.

COMPOUND SENTENCES.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

+DEFINITION.--A _Compound Sentence_ is one composed of two or more independent clauses+.

+Model+.--_War has ceased, and peace has come_.

War | has ceased
=======|=============
| '
' and
'.....
'
peace | has ' come
=========|===============
|

+Explanation of the Diagram+.--These two clause diagrams are shaded alike to show that the two clauses are of the same rank. The connecting line is not slanting, for one clause is not a modifier of the other. As one entire clause is connected with the other, the connecting line is drawn between the predicates simply for convenience.

+Oral Analysis+.--This is a _compound sentence_, because it is made up of two independent clauses. The first clause, etc. ----.

1. Morning dawns, and the clouds disperse. 2. Prayer leads the heart to God, and he always listens. 3. A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous words stir up anger. 4. Power works easily, but fretting is a perpetual confession of weakness. 5. Many meet the gods, but few salute them. 6. We eat to live, but we do not live to eat. 7. The satellites revolve in orbits around the planets, and the planets move in orbits around the sun. 8. A wise son maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother. 9. Every man desires to live long, but no man would be old. 10. [Footnote: A verb is to be supplied in each of the last three sentences.] Pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit before a fall. 11. Towers are measured by their shadows, and great men, by their calumniators. 12. Worth makes the man, and want of it, the fellow.

LESSON 63.

SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO THEIR MEANING.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--You have already become acquainted with three kinds of sentences. Can you name them?

+P+.--The Simple sentence, the Complex, and the Compound.

+T+.--These classes have been made with regard to the _form_ of the sentence. We will now arrange sentences in classes with regard to their _meaning_.

_Mary sings. Does Mary sing? Sing, Mary. How Mary sings!_ Here are four simple sentences. Do they all _mean_ the same thing?

+P+.--They do not.

+T+.--Well, you see they differ. Let me tell you wherein. The first one tells a fact, the second asks a question, the third expresses a command, and the fourth expresses sudden thought or strong feeling. We call the first a +Declarative sentence+, the second an +Interrogative sentence+, the third an +Imperative sentence+, and the fourth an +Exclamatory sentence+.

+DEFINITION.--A _Declarative Sentence_ is one that is used to affirm or to deny+.

+DEFINITION.--An _Interrogative Sentence_ is one that expresses a question+.

+DEFINITION.--An _Imperative Sentence_ is one that expresses a command or an entreaty+.

+DEFINITION.--An _Exclamatory Sentence_ is one that expresses sudden thought or strong feeling+.

+INTERROGATION POINT--RULE.--Every direct interrogative sentence should be followed by an interrogation point+. [Footnote: To The Teacher.--See Notes, pp. 178, 179.]

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Change each of the following declarative sentences into three interrogative sentences, and tell how the change was made.

+Model+.--_Girls can skate. Can girls skate? How can girls skate? What girls can skate?_ You are happy. Parrots can talk. Low houses were built.

Change each of the following into an imperative sentence. Notice that independent words are set off by the comma.

+Model+.--_Carlo eats his dinner. Eat your dinner, Carlo_. George plays the flute. Birdie stands on one leg.

Change each of the following into exclamatory sentences.

+Model+.--_You are happy. How happy you are! What a happy child you are! You are so happy!_

Time flies swiftly. I am glad to see you. A refreshing shower fell. Lapland is a cold country. It is hot between the tropics.

Write a declarative, an interrogative, an imperative, and an exclamatory sentence on each of the following topics.

Weather, lightning, a stage coach.

LESSON 64.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.

In the analysis, classify these sentences first with reference to their _form_, and then with reference to their _meaning_.

1. Wickedness is often made a substitute for wit. 2. Alfred was a brave, pious, and patriotic prince. 3. The throne of Philip trembles while Demosthenes speaks. 4. That the whole is equal to the sum of its parts is an axiom. 5. The lion belongs to the cat tribe, but he cannot climb a tree. 6. Pride is a flower that grows in the devil's garden. 7. Of all forms of habitation, the simplest is the burrow. 8. When the righteous are in authority, the people rejoice. 9. When the wicked beareth rule, the people mourn. 10. Cassius, be not deceived. [Footnote: _Cassius_ is independent, and may be diagramed like an interjection. The subject of _be deceived_ is _thou_, or _you_, understood.] 11. How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, how wonderful is man! 12. Which is the largest city in the world?

LESSON 65.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW--CONTINUED,

1. Politeness is the oil which lubricates the wheels of society. 2. 0 liberty! liberty! how many crimes are committed in thy name! 3. The mind is a goodly field, and to sow it with trifles is the worst husbandry in the world. 4. Every day in thy life is a leaf in thy history. 5. Make hay while the sun shines. 6. Columbus did not know that he had discovered a new continent. 7. The subject of inquiry was, Who invented printing? 8. The cat's tongue is covered with thousands of little sharp cones, pointing towards the throat. 9. The fly sat upon the axle of a chariot-wheel and said, "What a dust do I raise!" 10. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, attempting to recross the Atlantic in his little vessel, the Squirrel, went down in mid-ocean. 11. Charity begins at home, but it should not stay there. 12. The morn, in russet mantle clad, walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill.

LESSON 66.

MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS IN REVIEW.

I haven't near so much. I only want one. Draw the string tightly. He writes good. I will prosecute him who sticks bills upon this church or any other nuisance. Noah for his godliness and his family were saved from the flood. We were at Europe this summer. You may rely in that. She lives to home. I can't do no work. He will never be no better. They seemed to be nearly dressed alike. I won't never do so no more. A ivory ball. An hundred head of cattle. george washington, gen dix of n y. o sarah i Saw A pretty Bonnet. are You going home? A young man wrote these verses who has long lain in his grave for his own amusement. This house will be kept by the widow of Mr. B. who died recently on an improved plan. _In correcting the position of the adjective clauses in the two examples above, observe the caution for the phrase modifiers, Lesson_ 41. He was an independent small farmer. The mind knows feels and thinks. The urchin was ragged barefooted dirty homeless and friendless. I am some tired. This here road is rough. That there man is homely. pshaw i am so Disgusted. Whoa can't you stand still. James the gardener gave me a white lily. Irving the genial writer lived on the hudson.

LESSON 67.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Build one sentence out of each group of the sentences which follow.

+Model+.--An _able_ man was chosen.
A _prudent_ man was chosen.
An _honorable_ man was chosen.
An _able, prudent_, and _honorable_ man was chosen.

Pure water is destitute of color.
Pure water is destitute of taste.
Pure water is destitute of smell.

Cicero was the greatest orator of his age.
Demosthenes was the greatest orator of his age.

Daisies peeped up here.
Daisies peeped up there.
Daisies peeped up everywhere.

Expand each of the following sentences into three.

The English language is spoken in England, Canada, and the United States.
The Missouri, Ohio, and Arkansas rivers are branches of the Mississippi.

Out of the four following sentences, build one sentence having three explanatory modifiers.

+Model+.--Elizabeth was _the daughter of Henry VIII_.
Elizabeth was _sister of Queen Mary_.
Elizabeth was _the patron of literature_.
Elizabeth defeated the Armada.
Elizabeth, _the daughter of Henry VIII., sister of Queen Mary, and the
patron of literature_, defeated the Armada.

Boston is the capital of Massachusetts.
Boston is the Athens of America.
Boston is the "Hub of the Universe."
Boston has crooked streets.

Expand the following sentence into four sentences.

Daniel Webster, the great jurist, the expounder of the Constitution, and
the chief of the "American Triumvirate," died with the words, "I still
live," on his lips.

LESSON 68.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

+To the Teacher+.--For additional exercises in composition, see Notes, pp. 176-180.

Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding the phrases into adjective clauses.

+Model+.--People _living in glass houses_ shouldn't throw stones.
People _who live in glass houses_ shouldn't throw stones.

Those living in the Arctic regions need much oily food.
A house built upon the rock will stand.
The boy of studious habits will always have his lesson.
Wellington was a man of iron will.

Change the following complex sentences into simple sentences by contracting the adjective clauses into phrases.

Much of the cotton which is raised in the Gulf States is exported.
The house which was built upon the sand fell.
A thing which is beautiful is a joy forever.
Aaron Burr was a man who had fascinating manners.

Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding the phrases into adverb clauses.

+Model+.--Birds return _in the spring_.
_When spring comes_, the birds return.

The dog came at call. In old age our senses fail.

Change the following complex sentences into simple sentences by contracting the adverb clauses into phrases.

The ship started when the tide was at flood.
When he reached the middle of his speech, he stopped.

By supplying noun clauses, make complete sentences out of the following expressions.

---- is a well-known fact.
The fact was ----.
Ben. Franklin said ----.

LESSON 69.

GENERAL REVIEW.

What is a letter? Give the name and the sound of each of the letters in the three following words: _letters, name, sound_. Into what classes are letters divided? Define each class. Name the vowels. What is a word? What is artificial language? What is English Grammar? What is a sentence? What is the difference between the two expressions, _ripe apples_ and _apples are ripe_? What two parts must every sentence have? Define each. What is the analysis of a sentence? What is a diagram? What are parts of speech? How many parts of speech are there? Give an example of each. What is a noun? What is a verb? What must every predicate contain? What is a pronoun? What is a modifier? What is an adjective? What adjectives are sometimes called articles? When is _a_ used? When is _an_ used? Illustrate. Give an example of one modifier joined to another. What is an adverb? What is a phrase? What is a preposition? What is a conjunction? What is an interjection? Give four rules for the use of capital letters (Lessons 8, 15, 19, 87). Give two rules for the use of the period, one for the exclamation point, and one for the interrogation point (Lessons 8, 37, 63).

LESSON 70.

GENERAL REVIEW.

What is an object complement? What is an attribute complement? How does a participle differ from a predicate verb? Illustrate. What offices does an infinitive phrase perform? Illustrate. How are sentences classified with respect to form? Give an example of each class. What is a simple sentence? What is a clause? What is a dependent clause? What is an independent clause? What is a complex sentence? What is a compound sentence? How are sentences classified with respect to meaning? Give an example of each class. What is a declarative sentence? What is an interrogative sentence? What is an imperative sentence? What is an exclamatory sentence? What different offices may a noun perform? Ans.--_A noun may be used as a subject, as an object complement, as an attribute complement, as a possessive modifier, as an explanatory modifier, as the principal word in a prepositional phrase, and it may be used independently_. Illustrate each use. What are sometimes substituted for nouns? _Ans.--Pronouns, phrases, and clauses_. Illustrate. What is the principal office of a verb? What offices may be performed by a phrase? What, by a clause? What, different offices may an adjective perform? What parts of speech may connect clauses? _Ans.--Conjunctions, adverbs, and pronouns_. (See Lessons 62, 59, and 57.) Give rules for the use of the comma (Lessons 37, 54, 57). Give and illustrate the directions for using adjectives and adverbs, for placing phrases, for using prepositions, and for using negatives (Lessons 40, 41).

+To the Teacher+.--For additional review, see "Scheme," p. 185.

If the early presentation of an outline of technical grammar is not compelled by a prescribed course of study, we should here introduce a series of lessons in the construction of sentences, paragraphs, letters, and general compositions. The pages following Lesson 100 will furnish matter.

See especially COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement--Selection from Beecher.

PARTS OF SPEECH SUBDIVIDED.

LESSON 71.

CLASSES OF NOUNS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--Hereafter, in the "Hints," we shall drop the dialogue form, but we expect the teacher to continue it. A poor teacher does all the talking, a good teacher makes the pupils talk.

The teacher may here refer to his talk about the classification of birds, and show that, after birds have been arranged in great classes, such as robins, sparrows, etc., these classes will need to be subdivided, if the pupil is to be made thoroughly acquainted with this department of the animal kingdom. So, after grouping _words_ into the eight great classes, called Parts of Speech, these classes may be divided into other classes. For instance, take the two nouns _city_ and _Brooklyn_. The word _city_ is the _common_ name of all places of a certain class, but the word _Brooklyn_ is the _proper_ or particular name of an _individual_ of this class. We have here, then, two kinds of nouns which we call +Common+ and +Proper+.

Let the teacher write a number of nouns on the board, and require the pupil to classify them and give the reasons for the classification.

To prepare the pupil thoroughly for this work, the teacher will find it necessary to explain why such words as _music, mathematics, knowledge_, etc., are common nouns. _Music, e. g._, is not a proper noun, for it is not a name given to an individual thing to distinguish it from other things of the same class. There are no other things of the same class--it forms a class by itself. So we call the noun _music_ a _common_ noun.

CLASSES OF PRONOUNS.

The speaker seldom refers to himself by name, but uses the pronoun _I_ instead. In speaking _to_ a person, we often use the pronoun _you_ instead of his name. In speaking _of_ a person or thing that has been mentioned before, we say _he_ or _she_ or _it_. These words that by their _form_ indicate the speaker, the hearer, or the person or thing spoken of, are called +Personal Pronouns+. See Lesson 19, "Hints."

Give sentences containing nouns repeated, and require the pupils to improve these sentences by substituting pronouns.

When we wish to refer to an object that has been mentioned in _another_ clause, and at the same time to _connect the clauses_, we use a class of pronouns called +Relative Pronouns+. Let the teacher illustrate by using the pronouns _who, which_, and _that_. See Lesson 57, "Hints for Oral Instruction."

When we wish to ask about anything whose _name is unknown_, we use a class of pronouns called +Interrogative Pronouns+. The interrogative pronoun stands for the unknown name, and asks for it; as, _Who_ comes here? _What_ is this?

_Both men were wrong_. Let us omit _men_ and say, _Both were wrong_. You see the meaning is not changed--_both_ is here equivalent to _both men_, that is, it performs the office of an adjective and that of a noun. It is therefore an +Adjective Pronoun+. Let the teacher further illustrate the office of the adjective pronoun by using the words _each, all, many, some, such_, etc.

DEFINITIONS.

CLASSES OF NOUNS.

+A _Common Noun_ is a name which belongs to all things of a class+.

+A _Proper Noun_ is the particular name of an individual+.

CLASSES OF PRONOUNS.

+A _Personal Pronoun_ is a pronoun that by its form denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of+.

+A _Relative Pronoun_ is one that relates to some preceding word or words, and connects clauses+.

+An _Interrogative Pronoun_ is one with which a question is asked+.

+An _Adjective Pronoun_ is one that performs the offices of both an adjective and a noun+.

LESSON 72.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Build each of the following groups of nouns into a sentence. See Rule, Lesson 15.

webster cares office washington repose home marshfleld.

george washington commander army revolution president united states
westmoreland state virginia month february.

san francisco city port pacific trade united states lines steamships
sandwich islands japan china australia.

Write five simple sentences, each containing one of the five personal pronouns: _I, thou_ or _you, he, she_, and _it_.

Write four complex sentences, each containing one of the four relative pronouns: _who, which, that_, and _what_.

_What_ is used as a relative pronoun when the antecedent is omitted. The word for which a pronoun stands is called its antecedent. When we express the antecedent, we use _which_ or _that_. I shall do _what_ is required; I shall do the _thing which_ is required, or _that_ is required.

Build three interrogative sentences, each containing one of the three interrogative pronouns: _who, which_, and _what_.

Build eight sentences, each containing one of the following adjective pronouns: _few, many, much, some, this, these, that, those_.

LESSON 73.

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--When I say _large, round, sweet, yellow oranges_, the words _large, round, sweet_, and _yellow_ modify the word _oranges_ by telling the _kind_, and limit the application of the word to oranges of that kind.

When I say _this orange, yonder orange, one orange_, the words _this, yonder_, and _one_ do not tell the kind, but simply point out or number the orange, and limit the application of the word to the orange pointed out or numbered.

Adjectives of the first class describe by giving a quality, and so are called +Descriptive adjectives+.

Adjectives of the second class define by pointing out or numbering, and so are called +Definitive adjectives+.

Let the teacher write nouns on the board, and require the pupils to modify them by appropriate descriptive and definitive adjectives.

DEFINITIONS.

+A _Descriptive Adjective_ is one that modifies by expressing quality+.

+A _Definitive Adjective_ is one that modifies by pointing out, numbering, or denoting quantity+.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Place the following adjectives in two columns, one headed _descriptive_, and the other _definitive_, then build simple sentences in which they shall be employed as _modifiers_. Find out the meaning of each word before you use it.

Round, frolicsome, first, industrious, jolly, idle, skillful, each, the,
faithful, an, kind, one, tall, ancient, modern, dancing, mischievous,
stationary, nimble, several, slanting, parallel, oval, every.

Build simple sentences in which the following _descriptive_ adjectives shall be employed as _attribute complements_. Let some of these attributes be _compound_.

Restless, impulsive, dense, rare, gritty, sluggish, dingy, selfish,
clear, cold, sparkling, slender, graceful, hungry, friendless.

Build simple sentences in which the following _descriptive_ adjectives shall be employed.

Some of these adjectives have the _form_ of _participles_, and some are _derived_ from _proper nouns_.

+CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--An Adjective derived from a proper noun must begin with a capital letter+.

Shining, moving, swaying, bubbling, American, German, French, Swiss,
Irish, Chinese.

LESSON 74.

CLASSES OF VERBS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_The man caught_ makes no complete assertion, and is not a sentence. If I add the object complement _fish_, I complete the assertion and form a sentence--_The man caught fish_. The action expressed by _caught_ passes over from the man to the fish. _Transitive_ means _passing over_, and so all those verbs that express an action that passes over from a doer to something which receives, are called +Transitive verbs+.

_Fish swim_. The verb _swim_ does not require an object to complete the sentence. No action passes from a doer to a receiver. These verbs which express action that does not pass over to a receiver, and all those which do not express action at all, but simply _being_ or _state of being_, are called +Intransitive verbs+.

Let the teacher write transitive and intransitive verbs on the board, and require the pupils to distinguish them.

When I say, I _crush_ the worm, I express an action that is going on now, or in present time. I _crushed_ the worm, expresses an action that took place in past time. As _tense_ means _time_, we call the form _crush_ the _present tense_ of the verb, and _crushed_ the _past tense_. In the sentence, The worm _crushed_ under my foot died, _crushed_, expressing the action as assumed, is, as you have already learned, a participle; and, as the action is completed, we call it a _past participle_. Now notice that _ed_ was added to _crush_, the verb in the present tense, to form the verb in the past tense, and to form the past participle. Most verbs form their past tense and their past participle by adding _ed_, and so we call such +Regular verbs+.

I _see_ the man; I _saw_ the man; The man _seen_ by me ran away. I _catch_ fish in the brook; I _caught_ fish in the brook; The fish _caught_ in the brook tasted good. Here the verbs _see_ and _catch_ do not form their past tense and past participle by adding _ed_ to the present, and so we call them _Irregular verbs_.

Let the teacher write on the board verbs of both classes, and require the pupils to distinguish them.

DEFINITIONS.

CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO MEANING.

+A _Transitive Verb_ is one that requires an object+. [Footnote: The _object_ of a transitive verb, that is, the name of the receiver of the action, may be the _object complement_, or it may be the subject; as, Brutus stabbed _Caesar_, _Caesar_ was stabbed by Brutus.]

+An _Intransitive Verb_ is one that does not require an object+.

CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO FORM.

+A _Regular Verb_ is one that forms its past tense and past participle by adding _ed_ to the present+. [Footnote: If the present ends in _e_, the _e_ is dropped when _ed_ is added; as, lov_e_, lov_ed_; believ_e_, believ_ed_.]

+An _Irregular Verb_ is one that does not form its past tense and past participle by adding _ed_ to the present+.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Place the following verbs in two columns, one headed _transitive_ and the other, _intransitive_. Place the same verbs in two other columns, one headed _regular_ and the other, _irregular_. Build these verbs into sentences by supplying a subject to each intransitive verb, and a subject and an object to each transitive verb.

Vanish, gallop, bite, promote, contain, produce, provide, veto, secure,
scramble, rattle, draw.

Arrange the following verbs as before, and then build them into sentences by supplying a subject and a noun attribute to each intransitive verb, and a subject and an object to each transitive verb.

Degrade, gather, know, was, became, is.

A verb may be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another. Use the following verbs both ways.

+Model+.--The wren _sings_ sweetly.

The wren _sings_ a pretty little song.

Bend, ring, break, dash, move.

LESSON 75.

CLASSES OF ADVERBS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--When I say, He will come _soon_, or _presently_, or _often_, or _early_, I am using, to modify _will come_, words which express the _time_ of coming. These and all such adverbs we call +Adverbs of Time+.

He will come _up_, or _hither_, or _here_, or _back_. Here I use, to modify _will come_, words which express _place_. These and all such adverbs we call +Adverbs of Place+.

When I say, The weather is _so_ cold, or _very_ cold, or _intensely_ cold, the words _so, very_, and _intensely_ modify the adjective _cold_ by expressing the _degree_ of coldness. These and all such adverbs we call +Adverbs of Degree+.

When I say, He spoke _freely, wisely_, and _well_, the words _freely, wisely_, and _well_ tell how or _in what manner_ he spoke. All such adverbs we call +Adverbs of Manner+.

Let the teacher place adverbs on the board, and require the pupil to classify them.

DEFINITIONS.

+_Adverbs of Time_ are those that generally answer the question+, _When?_

_+Adverbs of Place are those that generally answer the question+, Where?

+Adverbs of Degree are those that generally answer the question+, To what extent?

+Adverbs of Manner are those that generally answer the question+, In what way?_

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Place the following adverbs in the four classes we have made--if the classification be perfect, there will be five words in each column--then build each adverb into a simple sentence.

Partly, only, too, wisely, now, here, when, very, well, where, nobly,
already, seldom, more, ably, away, always, not, there, out.

Some adverbs, as you have already learned, modify two verbs, and thus connect the two clauses in which these verbs occur. Such adverbs are called _+Conjunctive Adverbs+_.

The following _dependent_ clauses are introduced by _conjunctive adverbs_. Build them into complex sentences by supplying _independent clauses_.

------ _when_ the ice is smooth; ------ _while_ we sleep; ------ _before_ winter comes; ------ _where_ the reindeer lives; ------ _wherever_ you go.

LESSON 76.

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. [Footnote: For classified lists, see pp. 190,191.]

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_Frogs, antelopes, and kangaroos can jump_. Here the three nouns are of the same rank in the sentence. All are subjects of _can jump. War has ceased, and peace has come_. In this compound sentence, there are two clauses of the same rank. The word _and_ connects the subjects of _can jump_, in the first sentence: and the two clauses, in the second. All words that connect words, phrases, or clauses of the _same rank_ are called +Co-ordinate Conjunctions+.

_If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. I will go, because you need me_. Here _if_ joins the clause, _you have tears_, as a modifier, expressing condition, to the independent clause, _prepare to shed them now;_ and _because_ connects _you need me_, as a modifier, expressing reason or cause, to the independent clause, _I will go_. These and all such conjunctions as connect dependent clauses to clauses of a _higher rank_ are called +Subordinate Conjunctions+.

Let the teacher illustrate the meaning and use of the words _subordinate_ and _co-ordinate_.

DEFINITIONS.

+_Co-ordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect words, phrases, or clauses of the same rank+.

+_Subordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect clauses of different rank+.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Build four short sentences for each of the three _co-ordinate conjunctions_ that follow. In the first, let the conjunction be used to connect principal parts of a sentence; in the second, to connect word modifiers; in the third, to connect phrase modifiers; and in the fourth, to connect independent clauses.

And, or, but.

Write four short complex sentences containing the four _subordinate conjunctions_ that follow. Let the first be used to introduce a noun clause, and the other three to connect adverb clauses to independent clauses.

That, for, if, because.

LESSON 77.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

What new subject begins with page 95? Name and define the different classes of nouns. Illustrate by examples the difference between common nouns and proper nouns. Name and define the different classes of pronouns. Can the pronoun _I_ be used to stand for the one spoken to?--the one spoken of? Does the relative pronoun distinguish by its _form_ the speaker, the one spoken to, and the one spoken of? Illustrate. Can any other class of pronouns be used to connect clauses?

For what do interrogative pronouns stand? Illustrate. Where may the antecedent of an interrogative pronoun generally be found? _Ans.--The antecedent of an interrogative pronoun may generally lie found in the answer to the question_.

Name and define the different classes of adjectives. Give an example of each class. Name and define the different classes of verbs, made with respect to their meaning. Give an example of each class. Name and define the different classes of verbs, made with respect to their form. Give an example of each class.

Name and define the different classes of adverbs. Give examples of each kind. Name and define the different classes of conjunctions. Illustrate by examples.

Are prepositions and interjections subdivided? (See "Schemes" for the conjunction, the preposition, and the interjection, p. 188.)

+To the Teacher+.--See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement-- Selection from Dr. John Brown.

We suggest that other selections from literature be made and these exercises continued.

MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

LESSON 78.

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

You have learned that two words may express a thought, and that the thought may be varied by adding modifying words. You are now to learn that the meaning or use of a word may sometimes be changed by simply changing its _form_. The English language has lost many of its inflections, or forms, so that frequently changes in the meaning and use of words are not marked by changes in form. These _changes_ in the _form, meaning_, and _use_ of the parts of speech, we call their +Modifications+.

_The boy shouts. The boys shout_. I have changed the form of the subject _boy_ by adding an _s_ to it. The meaning has changed. _Boy_ denotes _one_ lad; _boys_, _two or more_ lads. This change in the form and meaning of nouns is called +Number+. The word _boy_, denoting one thing, is in the +Singular Number;+ and _boys_, denoting more than one thing, is in the +Plural Number+.

Let the teacher write other nouns on the board, and require the pupils to form the plural of them.

DEFINITIONS.

+_Modifications of the Parts of Speech_ are changes in their form, meaning, and use+.

NUMBER.

+_Number_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes one thing or more than one+.

+The _Singular Number_ denotes one thing+.

+The _Plural Number_ denotes more than one thing+.

+RULE.--The _plural_ of nouns is regularly formed by adding _s_ to the singular+.