Chapter XXII: Appendix: The Solar Eclipse of 1870

The total Solar Eclipse, which is to render famous the month of December in the present year--famous, that is, in astronomical annals--deserves, we think, some special notice in our pages. In 1860, the _Himalaya_ was fitted out by Government for the use of the _savants_ desirous of observing the Solar Eclipse visible that year in Spain, and the results of the expedition were so important as fully to warrant the liberality of the Government. The eclipse of the present year will also be visible in Spain, but the path of the sun's shadow will pass as far north as Cape Spartel, and, crossing Algeria, will go northwards, _via_ Sicily, and in the direction of Constantinople. The totality of the eclipse will not last so long as that of the Indian eclipse in 1868. The sun will be hidden from sight for no longer period than about two minutes twelve seconds, and whatever observations our astronomers are anxious to make must be made in that brief interval. It may not unreasonably be suggested that, in so short a time, no data can be ascertained worth the cost and trouble the proposed expedition will necessitate; but the reader requires to be informed that the most valuable acquisitions lately won in the region of solar physics have been the result of observations which may almost be described as momentary.

What, then, is the important point on which our astronomers hope to gain information from a close examination of the approaching eclipse?

This question has been ably answered by a well-informed writer in the _Daily News_. The great problem to be solved is that of the strange appearance of the solar corona; of that glory of light which rings round the great luminary when totally eclipsed, to it, as some astronomers assert, a purely optical phenomenon, or, as others more reasonably declare, "one of the most imposing of all the features of the solar system." It is true that the former opinion is held by such men as Faye, Lockyer, and Professor Airy; but if it be founded on fact, the phenomenon loses all its importance, and nearly all its interest. If the other opinion prove correct, and the corona is discovered to be in reality an appendage of the orb of day, then the mind must at once acknowledge its unsurpassed splendour, its magnificent proportions. As its glow and ethereal radiancy often extends several degrees from the eclipsed sun, its diameter cannot be less than 2,800,000 miles.

Assume, then, that it is shaped like a globe, that it is the globular envelope (so to speak) of the sun, and we may conclude that its outer boundary would at most enclose a volume twenty-seven times as large as the sun's, or, in other words, _twenty-seven million times_ larger than our terrestrial world.

It is in reference to this magnificent phenomenon that we hope to obtain some satisfactory information in December 1870. The results ascertained from the eclipse of 1868 proved to be almost directly contradictory to those obtained last year in the United States, and the problem now is, to discover _why_ these results were contradictory.

In the meantime,--observes the writer already quoted,--some astronomers say that the observations already made suffice to show the real nature of the solar corona. "It has frequently happened that, with the means of solving a problem ready at their hands, astronomers have been content rather to wait till new observations removed their doubts, than to undertake the work of carefully analysing the facts already discovered. It is urged that the atmospheric explanation (Faye's and Lockyer's) is opposed by simple optical considerations; that the blackness of the moon's disc, in the very heart of the corona, affords the most unmistakable evidence that the moon lies nearer to us than the corona." The solar glare which, according to Faye's theory, illuminates our atmosphere, ought, according to this view--and ordinary reasoners will think this argument irrefragable--to cover the lunar disc as well as the surrounding heavens.

It is also argued, very forcibly, that the active atmosphere above the horizon of the observer is partially obscured during total eclipse, while all that part lying in the direction in which the corona is seen is wholly shielded from the direct rays of the sun, and cannot, therefore, furnish the "atmospheric glare" on which M. Faye relies.

M. Faye's theory is powerfully combated in a paper read by Mr Proctor before the Royal Astronomical Society, and a summary of which appeared in "Nature."[93]

He remarked that if we in reality possess sufficient evidence to determine whether the corona is or is not a solar appendage, it would be unfortunate for, and in some sense a discredit to science, if the precious seconds available for observers in December next were wasted upon observations directed to such a point determinable beforehand.

He proceeded to express his belief that the corona was no terrestrial phenomenon, arguing that the very blackness of the moon as compared with the corona (to which we have already referred), shows that the coronal splendour is _behind_ the moon. In fact, the moon is projected on the corona as on a background; whereas, if the light be due to atmospheric glare, the corona ought to be a foreground.

This argument, however, may fail on the ground of its very simplicity. Mr Proctor, therefore, proceeded to inquire whether air which lies between the observer and the corona is really illuminated. He pointed out that all round the sun, for many degrees, perfect darkness should prevail if the illumination of the atmosphere by direct solar light were in question. As to the atmospheric glare caused by the coloured flames and prominences of the sun's disc, it must be comparatively small, bearing no higher proportion to the actual light of the atmosphere than ordinary atmospheric glare bears to actual sunlight,--a very small proportion indeed.

But a fatal objection to the theory that the corona is due either to the glare from the prominences or to light reflected from the surrounding air, consisted in the fact that the so-called glare ought to cover the moon's disc.

Mr Proctor next referred to a number of observations in support of the view that the coronal light is not terrestrial; such as the appearance of glare during partial eclipses, the glare always trenching on the lunar disc; the relatively greater darkness of the central part of the lunar disc in annular eclipses; the visibility of that part of the lunar disc which lies beyond the sun in partial eclipses, the limb being seen dark on the background of the sky; and the visibility of the corona in partial eclipses;--were its most distinctive peculiarities, having been recognised when the sun's face is not wholly covered.

What, then, _is_ the actual nature of the corona?

May it not consist of the denser parts of meteoric systems travelling round the sun?

Leverrier has shown, and Mr Buxendell has helped to show, that the motion of Mercury's perihelion indicates the presence of a ring of bodies in the vicinity of the sun; but we have good reason for believing that for each meteor system our earth encounters, there must be millions on millions whose perihelia lie within the earth's orbit. Since the earth meets with fifty-six such systems, it will be seen how enormous probably is the total number.

Is, then, the corona simply the projection of these systems, illuminated as they must be by an intensity of solar light exceeding many hundred-fold that which illumines our summer days, nay, in certain places, were raised by his heat to a state of incandescence?

* * * * *

Such are some of the questions which, it is hoped, the eclipse of December 1870 will help to solve; and we think our readers will admit that their importance justifies us in looking forward to the approaching phenomenon with anxious curiosity. The bounds of human knowledge are gradually enlarging; and as they enlarge, they do but more vividly illustrate the infinite wisdom and perfectness of the scheme of creation.

COLOURED STARS.

Before bringing these pages to a close, and appending to our description of Everyday Objects (everyday, but not commonplace) the word "Finis," we wish to direct the reader's attention to the subject of coloured stars; not because these beautiful spheres can be fairly classed under our general title, but because they serve to show the peculiar attractiveness and novelty of scientific inquiry, and the wonderful results that spring from the persevering study of God's universe.

To the eye of the ordinary observer, one star seems much like another; these "lamps of night" differ, indeed, in brilliancy, in their distance from the earth, in their relative magnitudes; but to all appearance they exhibit a complete identity in physical constitution, and their white light has furnished poetry with one of its commonest images.

But the astronomer, armed with his wonder-revealing glass, has discovered that innumerable stars are exquisitely coloured; that some are blue, and others green, and others red. If on a clear night you examine Perseus with your telescope, you will find that the star Eta is of a glowing red. In the system of Ophiuchus you will encounter a blue star; in that of Draco, a deep red star; Taurus has a large red and a small bluish star; and in Argo, a blue sun is attended by a dark-red satellite.

The stars occur in double, triple, or multiple groups or clusters; and the systems so constituted differ from what we presumptuously call _the_ Solar System in their colouring; and in this variety or diversity, yet another variety is visible. The binary coloured systems are not all composed of blue and red suns. In that of Gamma Andromedæ the great central orb is of an orange hue, the moon revolving round it green as emerald. What results from the marriage of these two colours--from this union of orange and emerald? Do we not see in it, says a French astronomer,[94] a combination, if the phrase is allowable, full of youth (_assortiment plein de jeunesse_)--a grand, a magnificent orange-coloured sun in the midst of the firmament--next to it, a resplendent emerald, which interweaves with the gold its greenish gleams?

The following lively picture is borrowed from the graphic pages of M. Flammarion.

There is more variety, he says, in the innumerable star-systems which crowd the fields of space, than in all the changes which the most skilful opticians can project on the screen of a magic lantern. Some of the planetary universes lighted up by two suns display the entire gamut of colours above blue, but are without the sparkling tints of gold and purple which contribute so greatly to the luminosity of our world.

In this category may be placed certain systems situated in the constellations of Andromedæ, the Serpent, Ophiuchus, and Coma Berenices.

Others are illuminated by red suns, as, for example, a double star in Leo.

Others, again, are wholly dominated by blue and yellow, or, at least, are kindled by a blue sun and a yellow sun, which afford but a limited series of the tints or shades comprised in the combinations of these primitive colours; such are the systems of Ceta, Eridanus (where one is straw-coloured, the other blue), Cameleopardalis, Orion, Rhinoceros, Gemini, Boötes (where the greater one is yellow, and the lesser a greenish blue), and Cygnus (where the smaller is "blue as a sapphire"). On the other hand, combinations of red and green may be found in Cassiopeia, Coma Berenices, and Hercules.

* * * * *

There are other stellar systems which, according to Flammarion, more nearly approximate to our own, in the sense that one of the suns illuminating them has, like ours, a white light,--the source of all colours,--while its neighbouring luminary casts a permanent reflection upon everything. Such, for instance, are the worlds revolving round the great sun of Alpha, in Aries; this great sun is white, but a smaller sun is constantly visible in the sky, whose azure reflections cover as with "a diaphanous veil" the various objects exposed to its rays. Number 26 in Ceta presents the same conditions, which are those, too, of a great number of the most brilliant stars. In the case of the worlds gravitating round the principal world of these binary systems, the originative white lustre would appear to create the infinite varieties noticeable upon the earth, with the distinction, of course, that an azure gleam constantly issues from the other sun; but for the planets gravitating round the latter, the predominant colouring will be blue, tempered by the action of the remoter white sun.

And just as white suns have blue suns for their companions, so have red suns yellow, or _vice versâ_. What a strange and curious radiance--like that of "a dome of many-coloured glass"--must be shed upon a planet by its red and green or yellow and blue suns! What striking contrasts, what fairylike changes, must be produced by a red day and a green day succeeding alternately to a white day, or a day of darkness! Why do not our poets take up such a theme as this? Can they find aught more remarkable or more eëry in the dreams of their imagination?

Supposing that these wonderful spheres are surrounded, like Jupiter or Saturn, by a ring of satellites, what can be their aspect when lit up by several suns, each sun a source of different-coloured light?

This one, we may imagine, will be divided into hemispheres, red and blue, that will suspend in the firmament a crescent of gold; another will seem to drop from the azure circle like a gorgeous cluster of emerald fruit. Ruby moons, opaline moons, moons of jasper and amethyst,--all shining with a mystic and indescribable radiance,--surely the heavens are decked with jewels like an Eastern queen!

Our poets may chant the praises of our modest, simple nights, of our calm, hushed heavens, bright only with the beauty of the silver moon, which pours its pale lustre with a winning charm on town and tree, on wood and lake. They may sing, as Barry Cornwall sings--

"Now to thy silent presence, night!
Is this my first song offer'd: oh! to thee
That lookest with thy thousand eyes of light--
To thee and thy starry nobility
That float with a delicious murmuring--
Though unheard here--about thy forehead blue;
And as they ride along in order due,
Circling the round globe in their wandering.
To thee their ancient queen and mother sing....
Not dull and cold and dark art thou:
Who that beholds thy clearer brow,
Endiademed with gentlest streaks
Of fleecy-silver'd cloud, adorning
Thee, fair as when the young sun wakes....
But must feel thy powers."

In some such ecstatic strains as this we may laud our moonlit nights, acknowledging in our heart of hearts the power of their silent, subtle loveliness; but how shall we compare them with nights made wonderful by a blending of golden and emerald fires? by the shifting coruscations of stars of many colours?

But here we must conclude a dissertation which threatens to become a rhapsody. It is difficult, however, to treat of such a theme, and to follow up all its strange and startling suggestions, in sober prose.

THE ALPINE FLORA.

The Alpine Flora, of which in a preceding section we have given a very imperfect sketch, has been examined with loving minuteness by Messrs Elijah Walton and T. G. Bonney; and other united results of pen and pencil have been placed before the public in a handsome volume entitled "Flowers from the Upper Alps, with Glimpses of their Homes." A somewhat similar subject has been treated with much delicacy of feeling and fervour of description by the Rev. Hugh Macmillan, in his "Holidays in High Lands."

Among the Alpine plants sketched and described by Messrs Walton and Bonney are the beautiful _Lychnis_, a close relative of our corn-cockle and garden pink, and so called, says Gerard, the quaint old botanist, because it is a "light-giving flower." He also met with immense breadths of violet _pansies_,--"that's for thoughts," says Ophelia,--covering the sloping pasture-grounds of the Col d'Autune, and blending with rose and star gentians, soldanellas, primulas, and anemones. The pink blossoms and bare stem of the _house leek_ is found "among the blocks tumbled down from the ice-streams, and its sparkling clusters seem to glow with a richer hue on the stony ruin which has shattered the pine, and crushed the life even out of the rhododendron."

In the Glarus Alps the odorous crimson tufts of the _Kammblume_ are discovered in a profusion which rejoices and astonishes the traveller. The yellow-blossomed _ragwort_ spreads its stem over the rugged mountain-sides in every Alpine district. But next in fame and beauty to the gentians,--which is, _par excellence_, the mountain-flower,--must be placed the _edelwein_, celebrated by Kobele and other famous poets, and growing in almost every part of the Alps from Dauphiné to the Dolomites.

For further details respecting a most interesting branch of botany, we refer the reader to the two works already named, and he will find that the barrenest, stoniest slope of the Alpine rocks, the bleak recesses where the ice river has its origin, and the rugged ledge where the pitiless winds seem to expend their wildest fury, have their objects of grace and beauty,--their gentle and ever-welcome evidence of the Divine love, the Divine wisdom, and the Divine power, as exercised for the delight of man in the remotest wildernesses of the earth. The love of God is everywhere.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 93: "Nature," vol. i. p. 543.]

[Footnote 94: Flammarion, "Les Merveilles Celestes," pp. 160, 161.]

INDEX.

"Academy," the, quoted, 369-371.

Achtysia, the genus, characteristics of, 353.

_Aeshna grandis_, described, 178;
_forcipata_, 178, 179.

_Agaricus Cæsareus_, the, description of, 333, 334.

Agarics, varieties of, characterised, 335, 336.

Agarions, the, general characteristics of their form, 79.

_Agarion virgo_, the, described, 179.

Alps, the, an excursion among, 256-260.

Alpine snail, the, remarkable transparency of, 71.

_Amanita muscaria_, the, described, 328-330;
its poisonous properties, 331-333.

_Amanita solitarius_, the, description of, 331.

Amphibia, the, number of species of, 361, 362.

Anaximander, the author of the "Uranometria," his enumeration of
the stars, 25.

Ancients, the, their notion of the earth's shape, 104-107.

Anemones, the, blossoming time of, 157, 158;
their sensitiveness to atmospheric changes, 158;
varieties of, 159;
references to, by Drayton, 159-161.

Animal life, distribution of, 357, 366.

Antipodes, the, existence of, believed in by the ancients, 107;
proved by Columbus, 108, 109.

Arabs of the desert, the, their nomenclature for the stars, 22, 23.

Aratus, the author of "Phenomena," quoted, 22.

Arctic vole, the, discovery of, by M. Hugi, 50, 51;
described by its discoverer, 51;
examined and named by M. Martins, 51, 52.

Arcturus, the star, its colour, 23.

Argesilaus, the author of the "Uranometria," his enumeration of
the stars, 25.

Aristotle, the Greek philosopher, his theory of the globe's
sphericity, 106;
on the mole's want of sight, 267.

Articulata, the, number of the species of, 362, 363.

Arum, the, described, 161, 162;
its root, 163;
its alimentary properties, 163;
its various species, 164, 165.

Asterisms, origin of, 14.

Atmosphere, the, illumination of, 313.

Autumn, aspect of nature in, 366, 367.

Bailey, P. J., the poet, quoted, 3.

Balfour, Professor J. H., quoted, 208;
on the diffusion of plants, 321-324.

Bearded pink. _See_ SWEET WILLIAM.

Birds, number of the species of, 359, 360.

Black Hellebore, the, described, 168.

Boehm, M. Joseph, his theory of the rise of sap, 136, 137.

Boletus, the, of the Romans, 334.

Boraginaceæ, the, characteristics of, 239-241.

Bosc, the French naturalist, his reference to the alimentary
properties of the Arum, 163;
his career sketched, 163.

Boyle, Robert, on the contemplation of the universe, 101, 102.

Bradley, the astronomer, his discovery of the nutation of the
earth, 12.

Browning, Mrs E. B., her poetry characterised, 337;
her "Aurora Leigh" quoted, 337, 338.

Bug, the harvest, description of, 349-352.

Burton, of the "Anatomy of Melancholy," quoted, 240.

Buttercup, the, its bulbous roots, 166;
its stimulating properties, 167.

Byron, Lord, the poet, quoted, 101.

Cæsalpin, the botanist, on the _Solanum nigrum_, 86.

Callisto, the legend of, 9.

Calypso, the island of, referred to, 19.

Calyx, the, of flowers, parts of, 211.

Campbell, Thomas, the poet, quoted, 236, 237.

Candolle, De, his opinions on the nature of red snow, 41, 42.

Cardinal points of the compass, how to ascertain our position in
reference to the, 7, 8;
process of determination of the, 17-19.

Carew, Thomas, the poet, quoted, 100.

Carnations, characterised by Jeremy Taylor and Drayton, 371;
described, 372;
varieties of, 373.

Carnivora, the, distribution of, 358.

Cassini, Jacques, his theory of the earth's form, 111, 112.

Castle pink, the, described, 375, 376.

Castelnau, the Count of, quoted, 363, 364.

Cereals, the, range of, 323, 324.

Cetacea, the, distribution of, 358;
described, 208-215;
curious forms of, 220-223.

Chaldeans, the, their conception of the earth's shape, 105.

Chamois, the, described, 56, 57.

Chaucer, the poet, his description of the daisy quoted, 138, 140.

Cheese mite, the, where found, 354;
its ugly form, 355, 356.

Chomel, the botanist, on the medical properties of the daisy,
146, 147.

Chlorophyll, experiments in, 368, 369.

_Chrysomela salicinia_, the, described, 72.

Clare, John, the Northamptonshire poet, on the dragon-fly, 175.

Clematis, the, described, 168;
celebrated by Keats, 168.

Columbus, Christopher, his demonstration of the existence of the
Antipodes, 108, 109.

Compass, the, points of, 7.

Constellations, table of the number of stars in the northern, southern,
and zodiacal, 27, 28.

_Convallaria majalis._ _See_ LILY OF THE VALLEY.

Convolvulus, the, described, 383, 384.

Copernicus, the astronomer, his theory of the earth's rotundity, 110;
antiquity of his so-called theory, 118, 119.

Cornwall, Barry, the poet, quoted, 229.

Corolla, the, of flowers, 214, 215, 223;
varieties of, 225-229.

Crabbe, George, the poet, quotation from, 288.

_Cynodon dactylon_, the, described, 91-93.

Daisy, the, described by Chaucer, 138, 140;
by Cowper, 139;
by James Montgomery and William Browne, 140;
its vegetation, 140, 141;
described, 142-145;
referred to by the ancients, 145;
and by the botanists of the Middle Ages, 146;
characterised by Wepfer, Tournefort, and Garidel, 147;
its medical properties, 146, 147;
George Withers' tribute to, 148;
celebrated by Wordsworth, 149, 150;
by Shakespeare and Milton, 151, 152.

Darwin, Erasmus, the poet, on the pimpernel, 261.

David's Chariot, position of, 8, 9.

Day and night, varying length of, 198, 199.

Delphos, the "navel of the world," 107.

Democritus, the philosopher, on the Milky Way, 25.

Dent de Jaman, the, described, 257.

Desor, M., the Swiss naturalist, his discovery of the snow-flea,
72, 73.

_Desoria saltans_, the, described, 73;
_glacialis_, description of, 74.

Dial, floral, referred to and exemplified, 217, 218.

Diodorus, the historian, quoted, 93, 94.

Dioscorides, the author of "Materia Medica," his reference to
Mercury's plant, 81;
on the _Agrostis_, 95.

Diurnal movement of the stars, origin of its discovery, 16.

Dobell, Sydney, the poet, quoted, 129, 131.

Dogma, folly of, 292.

Dog Mercury, the, its power of propagation, 77, 78;
described by Mr Sowerby, 78;
how distinguished from weeds, 79;
its diœcious character, 80;
mentioned by Pliny the naturalist, 80, 81;
and by Dioscorides, 81;
its disappearance before the power of snow, 81.

Dog-star, the. _See_ SIRIUS.

Dog's-tooth grass, the, characteristics of, features of, described,
91-93;
its emollient properties, 96.

Draco, the constellation of, known to the ancients, 22.

Dragon-fly, the, described by the poets, 174, 175;
its destructive properties, 175;
the female, 182, 183;
its metamorphosis, 183-187.

Drayton, Michael, the poet, his description of a spring-time posy,
159-161;
on carnations, 371.

Drummond, William, the poet, quoted, 399, 400.

Dutrochet, the philosopher, his theory of the rise of sap, 136.

Eagle, the, its affection for the mountains, 57;
its flight described, 58-62;
its nest, 62;
the various species of, 62, 63.

Earth, the, shape of, as conceived by Homer and Hesiod, 103, 104;
by Seneca, 104;
by the Chaldeans, Anaximander, Anaximenes, and Zenophanes, 105;
by Plato, 105, 106;
by Eudoxes and Aristotle, 106;
by the Greeks and Hebrews, 107;
a problem, 398, 399.

Earwig, the, form of, described, 278-280.

Edelwein, the, in the Alps, description of, 418.

Flammarion, M., on coloured stars, 414, 415.

_Flos Adonis_, the, legend connected with, 169.

Forficulæ, the, group of, characteristics of, 286.

Forget-me-not, the, celebrated by Campbell the poet, 236, 237;
described by Miss Pratt, 238;
analysis of its form, 238, 239;
legends connected with, 239, 240.

Friendship, the test of, 141.

Frigid zones, the, position of, 45, 46;
the lizards of, described, 70, 71.

Galileo, his discoveries in gravitation, 110, 111.

Ganges, the banks of, described, 248.

Garidel, the botanist, on the medical properties of the daisy, 147.

Garden-lily, the, described, 248.

Garden-nightshade, the, its extreme fertility, 82;
description of, 83;
by Tournefort, 84, 85, 89;
its various forms, 85;
its medical properties, 85-87.

Genesis, the book of, quoted, 191.

_Gentiana lutea_, the, its medical properties, 254.

_Gentiana campestris_, described, 256, 257.

Gentianaceæ, the family of, its characteristics described, 252-255;
a Lilliputian specimen of, 255.

Gentians, the, of the Alps, description of, 10.

Gerard, the botanist, quoted, 418.

Gesner, Conrad, the botanist, on the tulip, 154.

Goethe, J. Wolfgang, the poet, quoted, 191.

Gold-crowned wren, the, description of, 64;
its partiality to the society of other birds, 64, 65;
its gymnastic accomplishments, 65;
its cosmopolitan character, 65, 66;
its smallness of size, 66.

Graetz's balls, origin of, stated, 55, 56.

Gramineæ, the, general characteristics of, 88-90;
how described by the naturalists of the Middle Ages, 95, 96.

Gramen, the, Pliny the historian on, 94, 95.

Grasshopper, the, described by Leigh Hunt, 274.

Great Bear, the, origin of the story of, 9, 10;
Homer's reference to, 10.

Grew, the botanist, his theory of the rise of sap, 124;
on the calyx of flowers, 211.

Hay, aromatic, an instance of, 258.

Heat, the action of, described, 313-317.

Heavens, the, movement in, 115, 116.

Hebrews, the, their conception of the earth's supports in space, 107.

Hedgerows, the, wild climbing plants of, 382, 383.

Hepatica, the, described, 168, 169.

Herbs, the food of the primitive Egyptians, 93, 94.

Hipparchus, the astronomer, his discovery of the precession of
the equinoxes, 116;
his astronomical researches, 291, 292.

Homer, the poet, his reference to the Great Bear, 10, 19;
and to Orion, 15;
his scientific knowledge, 19;
his conception of the earth's shape, 103, 104;
quoted, 210.

Honeycomb, the, of the bee, described, 85.

Honeysuckle, the, celebrated by Scott, Burns, and Drayton, 380.

Hood, Thomas, the poet, quoted, 190.

Horace, the poet, quoted, 103.

House leek, the, in the Alps, described, 418.

Houston, Professor, his table of the distribution of wheat and
barley, 324, 325.

Howitt, Mary, the poetess, on the dragon-fly, 175.

Hugi, M., the Swiss naturalist, his discovery of the Arctic vole,
49-51.

Humanity, the future of, 393.

Human power, limitation of, 394.

Hunt, Leigh, his poem on the grasshopper, quoted, 274.

Huygens, the savant, his researches into the laws of gravitation,
111.

Immortality, an emblem of, in the metamorphosis of the caterpillar,
402, 403.

Infusoria, the, number of, 365.

Inglis, Henry, the traveller, quoted, 142.

Insects, the various orders of, enumerated, 280;
the number of species of, 363, 364.

Jonson, Ben, the dramatist, quoted, 207, 248, 400.

Kane, Dr Elisha, the American explorer, his Arctic experiences, 39.

Keats, the poet, quoted, 29, 168, 190, 244, 298.

Kepler, the astronomer, his adoption of the theory of the earth's
rotundity, 110.

Lactantius, on the non-existence of the Antipodes, 108.

La Hire, the French botanist, his theory of the rise of sap, 134.

Landscape, a wintry, described, 5.

Leaf-wasp, the, its mode of depositing its larvæ, 71, 72.

Le Monnier, the French astronomer, on the theory of the nutation of
the earth, 123.

Lesser celandine, the, celebrated by Wordsworth, 166;
described, 166.

_Libellula cancellata_, described, 177.

_Libellula grandis_, described, 178.

Libellulæ, the family of, its characteristics, 174-183.
_See_ DRAGON-FLY.

Libellulites, the family of, its general characteristics, 179, 180.

Liberty, a plea for intellectual, 407.

Life, origin of, speculated upon, 390, 391.

Light, the nature of, 192, 193;
physiological facts concerning, 194-196;
the theory of, 197, 198;
chemical action of, 312, 313.

Liliaceæ, the family of, its characteristics, 249, 250.

Lily of the field, the, of the Gospels, described, 242, 243.

Lily of the valley, the, described by Shakespeare, 242;
its native countries, 242.

Little Bear, the, position of, 11, 12;
distinct from the Great Bear, 12;
first recognised by the Phœnicians, 20.

Little Vulcan, the, butterfly, described by Agassiz, 71.

Longfellow, the poet, his description of Orion, 13;
quoted, 128, 129.

Lychnis, the, described, 418.

Macgillivray, the naturalist, quoted, 59, 60.

Macmillan, Rev. Hugh, quoted, 42-44.

Malpighi, the botanist, his theory of the rise of sap, 135.

Mammalia, the, summarised, 360.

Manilius, the poet, his references to the Great Bear, quoted, 20, 21.

Mant, Bishop, quoted, 63, 64.

Mariotte, the botanist, his theory of the rise of sap, 135.

Marmot, the, described, 53;
its habits, 53, 54;
the various species of, 55.

Mars, the planet, referred to, 301, 302.

Marsupialia, the, distribution of, 358.

Martins, M., the naturalist, his examination and description of
the Arctic vole, 51, 52.

Marvell, Andrew, the poet, quoted, 217.

Matter, forms of living, 388, 389.

_Mercurialis annua._ _See_ DOG MERCURY.

Metamorphosis, the function of, in nature, 401, 402.

Milton, his allusion to the daisy, quoted, 151, 152.

Mole, the, peculiar movements of, 265, 266;
described, 267;
Aristotle and Pliny on its want of sight, 267;
its hands and fingers, 268;
its favourite haunts, 269;
marvellous properties ascribed to, 270, 271.

Mole-cricket, the, its form and habits described, 273-278.

Mollusca, the, number of species of, 362.

Moon, influence of, on the weather, 30, 31.

Moore, Thomas, the poet, his characterisation of the dragon-fly, 174;
his allusion to the water-lily of the East, 246.

Mountain pink, the, described, 374, 375.

Mushroom, the, how to be distinguished, 327, 328;
some varieties of, described, 329-337.

Mutability, the lesson of, 316.

_Myosotis palustris._ _See_ FORGET-ME-NOT.

Nature, beauty and suggestiveness of, 339;
our imperfect knowledge of, 341, 342;
the infinite diversity of, 365.

_Nebria escheri_ described, 72;
_chevrierii_, 72.

Newman, Mr, author of "History of British Insects," quoted, 285.

Newton, Sir Isaac, his theories as to the form of the earth, 111, 112.

_Nuphar lutea_, the, described, 245.

Nutation of the earth, the, explained, 120, 121, 123;
its discovery, 121, 122.

Observer, the, of nature, 4, 5.

_Œnothera biennis_, described, 216, 218, 219.

Orion, the occultation of, its position in the heavens, 14;
its place in the old mythology, 15.

Pachydermata, the, distribution of, 359.

Parry, Captain, on the nature of red snow, 41.

Perianth, the, of flowers, 208.

Perrault, the botanist, his theory of the rise of sap, 135.

Petals, the, of flowers, described, 109, 224-227.

Phœnicians, the, their knowledge of the Great and Little Bears,
20, 21.

_Physalis alkekengi_, described, 222.

Pilgran, the meteorologist, his researches into the nature of
climate, 31.

Pimpernel, the, all about, 260-264.

Pinks, the various kinds of, described, 374.

Planets, the, whether inhabited, 395.

Plants, discovery of the sex of, 207;
appropriate to certain soils, 320, 321;
diffusion of, 321-325;
classification of, 343-345.

Plato, the philosopher, his notion of the form of the globe, 105, 106.

Pliny, the naturalist, on numbering the stars, 25;
his reference to red snow, 39;
and to the mercurialis, 80, 81;
on the gramen, 94, 95;
his reference to the daisy, 146;
on the mole, 270, 271.

Plutarch, the historian, on the probability of the existence of the
antipodes, 108.

_Podura plumbea_, the, described, 74, 75.

Polar Star, the, its position in the heavens, 18.

Poles, day at the, 200, 201.

_Polygala vulgaris_, the, described, 213.

Pointers, constellation of the, referred to, 22.

Pratt, Miss, on the forget-me-not, 238.

Proctor, R. A., on solar phenomena, 410, 411.

_Protococcus nivalis_, the plant described, 42-44.

Prunella, the, or "self-heal," described, 230-233.

Ptolemæus, his enumeration of the constellations, 24;
his acquaintance with the so-called Copernican theory, 119;
astronomical theories of, 297, 298.

Pythagoras, the philosopher, his familiarity with the so-called
Copernican theory, 119.

Quadrumana, the, distribution of, 357, 358.

Ramond, the naturalist, his researches in the natural history of
red snow, 40, 41.

Ranunculaceæ, the, general characteristics of, 166-169.

Ray, the botanist, on the daisy, 146.

Red-billed crow, the, its appearance described, 68, 69;
its habits, 69;
the history of one which had been tamed, 69, 70.

Red snow, known to Pliny, the naturalist, 39;
first described scientifically by De Saussure, 39, 40;
discovered by Ramond in the Pyrenees, 40;
by Captain Ross in Baffin's Bay, 41;
described by Sir John Ross, 41;
a fungus (?) 41.

Reptiles, the, distribution of, 361.

Rhizomes, or trailing roots, referred to, 88, 89.

Rhodius, Apollonius, the poet, quoted, 20.

Rodentia, the, distribution of, 358.

Rogers, the poet, quoted, 403.

Ruminantia, the, how distributed, 358.

Salamanca, the council of, referred to, 108.

Sap, the circulation of, 132;
its ascent and descent, 133;
theories concerning the rise of, 134-137.

Saussure, Benedict de, the naturalist, his observations on red snow,
39, 40.

Science, unselfishness of, 76;
the peculiar characteristics of, 133.

Scutellariæ, the, characteristics of, indicated, 235, 236.

Seasons, the, changes of, 204, 205.

Seneca, the philosopher, his conception of the earth's support in
space, 104.

Shakespeare, his allusions to the daisy, quoted, 150, 151;
the lily described by, 242.

Shelley, the poet, quoted, 152.

Sirius, the star, its colour, 26;
deleterious influence ascribed to, by the Greeks, 23, 24.

Snow, the, preservation of the germ of life in seeds and roots, 32;
its composition, 32, 33;
the reason of its preservative qualities, 34;
in the form of crystals, 34; a reflector of light, 37;
its utility to the agriculturist, 37;
in the polar regions, 38, 39;
red snow, _which see_.

Snow-bunting, the, description of, 66, 67;
its favourite localities, 67, 68.

Snow, perpetual, the line of, where situated, 47;
its variations, 48.

Snow-flea, the, its discovery narrated, 72, 73;
its generic characters, 74.

Soapwort, the, described, 378;
its juice, 378, 379.

Soil, effect of temperature upon, 317;
cultivation of, 318-320;
plants appropriate to different kinds of, 320, 321.

_Solanum nigrum_, the, described, 82-85.

Solar corona, the, nature of, 409-412.

Solar eclipse of 1870, the, considered, 407-412.

Solstices, the summer and winter, 45.

Somerville, Mrs, quoted, 289.

Sowerby, Mr, on the _Mercurialis annua_, 78.

Species, number of vegetable, 339, 340, 347, 348;
number of animal, 356.

Spencer, Edmund, the poet, quoted, 2.

Spring, the awakening of, described, 127-131.

_Staphylium olens_, described, 271-273.

Stars, the, their infinite number, 4;
their diurnal movement, 15-17;
coloured, 412-417.

Stellaria, the, characteristics of, enumerated, 378.

Strickland, Miss, on the legend of the forget-me-not, 240.

Struve, Otto, his computation of the number of the stars, 25, 26.

Sun, the, movements of, in the heavens, 292-296;
length of its radius, 296, 297.

Sweetbriar, the, celebrated by Spenser, Milton, Scott, and Drayton,
380;
by Shakespeare, 381.

Taylor, Jeremy, on carnations, 371.

Telescopes, importance of their invention to science, 26.

Temperate zones, the, reference to, 45.

Temperature, effect of, on soil, 317.

Tennyson, Alfred, the poet, quoted, 6, 7, 57, 183, 247, 319.

Theophrastus, an ancient writer, on the _Agrostis_, 95.

Thomson, James, the poet, quoted, 32, 100.

Thought, freedom of, asserted, 311;
indestructibility of, 392.

Toaldo, the Italian meteorologist, his researches into the phenomena
of climate, 31.

Tournefort, the naturalist, his description of the _Solanum nigrum_,
84, 85, 87;
quoted, 96, 234;
on the medical properties of the daisy, 147.

Tragus, the botanist, his account of the _Solanum nigrum_, 86.

_Triticum repens_, the, described, 93.

Tschudi, M., the naturalist, his description of a red-billed crow,
quoted, 69, 70.

Tulip, the, described, 152, 153;
its introduction into Europe, 153;
its cultivation, 154, 155.

Twilight, phenomena of, 205.

Vertebrata, the, orders of, 362.

Vole, the Arctic. _See_ ARCTIC VOLE.

Voltaire, François Arouet, his popularisation of the Newtonian
philosophy, 113.

Walton, Isaak, his eulogium on the strawberry, 244.

Water, the crystallisation of, instanced and described, 36, 37.

Water-lily, the, described by Keats and Mrs Hemans, 244;
by Wordsworth, 245;
analysis of its form, 245;
of the East, described, 246.

Water-ranunculus, the, description of, 167.

Winters, instances of some severe, 29, 30.

Winter-time, appropriate for the observation of celestial phenomena, 3;
the passing away of, and merging into spring, 96, 97.

Withering, the botanist, on the _Solanum nigrum_, 86.

Wither, George, the poet, his tribute to the daisy, quoted, 148.

Wood-louse, the, its characteristics enumerated, 169-172;
another species of, 173.

Wordsworth, William, the poet, his celebration of the daisy, quoted,
149, 150;
his poem on the lesser celandine, 166;
his reference to the lily of the valley, 245;
quoted, 375.

Wren, the, described by Bishop Mant, 63, 64;
its habits stated, 64.

Yellow water-lily, the, description of, 245.

Zodiac, the, constellations of, 114, 115.

_Zootoca pyrrhogastra_, the, described, 70.

THE END.

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=9. Champions of the Reformation: The Stories of their Lives. By
JANET GORDON.=

=10. The History of Two Wanderers; or, Cast Adrift.=

=11. Beattie's Poetical Works.=

=12. The Vicar of Wakefield. By Oliver Goldsmith.=

=13. Edgar Allan Poe's Poetical Works.=

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Author of 'The Minister's Daughter,' etc. etc.

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him a hand. By CHARLES BRUCE=, Author of 'Lame Felix,' etc.

=16. Conrad and Columbine. A Fairy Tale. By James MASON.=

=17. Aunt Ann's Stories. Edited by Louisa Loughborough.=

=18. The Snow-Sweepers' Party, and the Tale of Old Tubbins. By R.
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=19. The Story of Elise Marcel.= A Tale for Girls.

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=3. The Young Men of the Bible. A Series of Papers, Biographical
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Women. By Dr. GREGORY.=

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=9. Labours of Love: A Tale for the Young. By Winifred Taylor.=

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=3. Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress.=

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=11. The Beauties of Shakespeare. With a General Index by the
Rev. WILLIAM DODD, LL.D.=

=12. Gems from 'The Spectator.'= A Selection from the most
admired Writings of Addison and Steele.

=13. Burns' Poetical Works. With a Complete Glossary.=

=14. The Sketch Book.= By Washington IRVING.

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Motherless.

=9. Gladdening Streams; or, The Waters of the Sanctuary. A Book=
for Fragments of Time on each Lord's Day of the Year.

=10. Spirit of the Old Divines.=

=11. Choice Gleanings from Sacred Writers.=

=12. Direction in Prayer; or, The Lord's Prayer Illustrated in a=
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=1. Four Little People and their Friends.=

=2. Elizabeth;= or, The Exiles of Siberia. A Tale from the French
of Madame COTTIN.

=3. Paul and Virginia.= From the French of BERNARDIN SAINT-PIERRE.

=4. Little Threads: Tangle Thread, Golden=
Thread, and Silver Thread.

=5. Benjamin Franklin, the Printer Boy.=

=6. Barton Todd, and The Young Lawyer.=

=7. The Perils of Greatness: The Story of Alexander Menzikoff.=

=8. Little Crowns, and How to Win them. By= Rev. JOSEPH A.
COLLIER.

=9. Great Riches: Nelly Rivers' Story. By Aunt FANNY.=

=10. The Right Way, and The Contrast.=

=11. The Daisy's First Winter.= And other Stories. By HARRIET
BEECHER STOWE.

=12. The Man of the Mountain.= And other Stories.

=13. Better than Rubies. Stories for the Young,= Illustrative of
Familiar Proverbs. With 62 Illustrations.

=14. Experience Teaches. And other Stories for the Young,=
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=15. The Happy Recovery. And other Stories for the Young.=
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=16. Gratitude and Probity. And other Stories for the Young.=
With 21 Illustrations.

=17. The Two Brothers. And other Stories for the Young.=
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=18. The Young Orator. And other Stories for the Young.=
With 9 Illustrations.

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With Illustrations.

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With 12 Illustrations.

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=23. The Young Officer. And other Stories for the Young.=
With Illustrations.

=24. The False Heir. And other Stories for the Young.=
With Illustrations.

=25. The Old Farmhouse; or, Alice Morton's Home.=
And other Stories. By M. M. POLLARD.

=26. Twyford Hall; or, Rosa's Christmas Dinner,=
and what she did with it. By CHARLES BRUCE.

=27. The Discontented Weathercock. And other Stories=
for Children. By M. JONES.

=28. Out at Sea, and other Stories. By Two Authors.=

=29. The Story of Waterloo; or, The Fall of NAPOLEON.=

=30. Sister Jane's Little Stories. Edited by Louisa=
LOUGHBOROUGH.

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This Series of Books will be found unequalled for genuine interest and value, and it is believed they will be eagerly welcomed by thoughtful children of both sexes. Parents may rest assured that each Volume teaches some noble lesson, or enforces some valuable truth.

1. In the Brave Days of Old; or, The Story of the Spanish Armada.
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4. My First and Last Voyage. By Benjamin Clarke.

5. Little Katie: A Fairy Story. By Charles Bruce.

6. Being Afraid. And other Stories for the Young. By CHARLES
STUART.

7. The Toll-Keepers. And other Stories for the Young. By BENJAMIN
CLARKE.

8. Dick Barford: A Boy who would go down Hill. By CHARLES BRUCE.

9. Joan of Arc; or, The Story of a Noble Life. Written for Girls.

10. Helen Siddal: A Story for Children. By Ellen Palmer.

11. Mat and Sofie: A Story for Boys and Girls.

12. Peace and War. By the Author of 'The Basket of Flowers,' etc.

13. Perilous Adventures of a French Soldier in Algeria.

14. The Magic Glass; or, The Secret of Happiness.

15. Hawks' Dene: A Tale for Children. By Katharine E. MAY.

16. Little Maggie. And other Stories. By the Author of 'The Joy
of Well-Doing,' etc. etc.

17. The Brother's Legacy; or, Better than Gold. By M. M. POLLARD.

18. The Little Sisters; or, Jealousy. And other Stories for the
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19. Kate's New Home. By Cecil Scott, Author of 'Chryssie Lyle,'
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_NEW WORKS._

NEW EDITION OF THE EDINA BURNS.

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=Poems and Songs by Robert Burns. With Illustrations= by R.
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J. M'WHIRTER, and other eminent Scottish Artists.

_Fourth Edition. Eleventh Thousand._

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=Things a Lady would Like to Know, concerning= Domestic
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_Tenth Thousand._

In crown 8vo, beautifully bound in cloth extra, full of Engravings and Coloured Pictures, price 3s. 6d., or gilt edges price 4s.,

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=Shakespeare's Complete Works. With a Biographical= Sketch
by MARY COWDEN CLARKE, a Copious Glossary, and numerous
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In large demy 8vo, with Steel Portrait and Vignette, handsomely bound, price 5s.,

=The Whole Works of Flavius Josephus, the Jewish= Historian. With
Life, Portrait, Notes, Index, etc.

THE WAVERLEY NOVELS.

ENTIRELY NEW EDITION.

_Crown 8vo, with Frontispiece and Vignette, in elegant wrapper
printed in colours, price 1s. each. Also, in Twenty-six volumes,
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per volume._

Edited by the Rev. P. HATELY WADDELL, LL.D. With Notes, Biographical and Critical, and a Glossary of Scotch Words and Foreign Phrases for each Novel.

1. =Waverley; or, ''Tis Sixty Years Since.'=
2. =Guy Mannering; or, The Astrologer.=
3. =The Antiquary.=
4. =Rob Roy.=
5. =Old Mortality.=
6. =The Black Dwarf, and A Legend of Montrose.=
7. =The Bride of Lammermoor.=
8. =The Heart of Mid-Lothian.=
9. =Ivanhoe: A Romance.=
10. =The Monastery.=
11. =The Abbot: A Sequel.=
12. =Kenilworth.=
13. =The Pirate.=
14. =The Fortunes of Nigel.=
15. =Peveril of the Peak.=
16. =Quentin Durward.=
17. =St. Ronan's Well.=
18. =Redgauntlet.=
19. =The Betrothed.=
20. =The Talisman: A Tale of the Crusaders.=
21. =Woodstock; or, The Cavalier.=
22. =The Fair Maid of Perth; or, St. Valentine's Day.=
23. =Anne of Geierstein; or, The Maiden of the Mist.=
24. =Count Robert of Paris.=
25. =The Surgeon's Daughter, and Castle Dangerous.=
26. =The Highland Widow, and my Aunt Margaret's Mirror.=

With an interesting summarised account of the Scott
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The above may also be had in substantial half-calf bindings.

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_Seventh Thousand._

=The English Circumnavigators: The most remarkable= Voyages
round the World by English Sailors. (Drake, Dampier, Anson, and
Cook's Voyages.) With a Preliminary Sketch of their Lives and
Discoveries. Edited, with Notes, Maps, etc., by DAVID LAING
PURVES and R. COCHRANE.

=The Book of Adventure and Peril. A Record of= Heroism and
Endurance on Sea and Land. Compiled and Edited by CHARLES
BRUCE, Editor of 'Sea Songs and Ballads,' 'The Birthday Book of
Proverbs,' etc.

=The Great Triumphs of Great Men. Edited by= JAMES MASON.
Illustrated.

=Great Historical Mutinies, comprising the Story= of the Mutiny
of the 'Bounty,' the Mutiny at Spithead and the Nore, the
Mutinies of the Highland Regiments, and the Indian Mutiny, etc.
Edited by DAVID HERBERT, M.A.

=Famous Historical Scenes from Three Centuries.= Pictures of
celebrated events from the Reformation to the end of the French
Revolution. Selected from the works of Standard Authors by A. R.
HOPE MONCRIEFF.

=The English Explorers; comprising details of the= more famous
Travels by Mandeville, Bruce, Park, and Livingstone. With Map of
Africa and Chapter on Arctic Exploration.

=The Book for Every Day; containing an Inexhaustible= Store of
Amusing and Instructive Articles. Edited by JAMES MASON.

=The Book of Noble Englishwomen: Lives made= Illustrious by
Heroism, Goodness, and Great Attainments. Edited by CHARLES BRUCE.

=A Hundred Wonders of the World in Nature and= Art, described
according to the latest Authorities, and profusely Illustrated.
Edited by JOHN SMALL, M.A.

_Other Popular and Standard Volumes in preparation._

* * * * *

+----------------------------------------------------------+
| Transcriber notes: |
| |
| The equals sign is used to surround =bold text=; |
| underscores to surround _italic text_. |
| |
| Corrected various punctuation. |
| P.24. 'Ptolemoeus' changed to 'Ptolemæus'. |
| P.187. T (large down tack) mathematical symbol. |
| P.187. Heiroglyphics "The Ankh" symbol. |
| P.252. 'Fig. 57.' changed to 'fig. 56.'. |
| P.254. 'Fig. 35.' changed to 'fig. 58.'. |
| P.389. 'ramificacations' changed to 'ramifications'. |
| P.390. 'disorderd' changed to 'disordered'. |
| P.427. 'Withers' changed to 'Wither'. |
| Index: Voltaire, '713' is p.113, changed. |
| There are difference customs between titles |
| Mr (British) and Mr. (American) and the corresponding |
| Mrs (British) and Mrs. (American) found in this books, |
| so the only title with a period is found in the adds |
| for consistency, as in the book. |
| |
+----------------------------------------------------------+

End of Project Gutenberg's Everyday Objects, by W. H. Davenport Adams