Chapter IV: Cultivation and Preparation (1)

The principal points which determine the value of a location for the successful and profitable cultivation of Coffee are:--(1) Soil and climate; (2) Situation and aspect; (3) Temperature and rainfall; (4) Proximity to a river, and (5) Shelter from wind and wash. Most of which are necessarily subject to variation, according to country and locality, shelter from wind being perhaps of the most paramount importance, and which should not be sacrificed for a richer soil, as the latter can be artificially supplied much quicker than the former.

SOIL AND CLIMATE.

Soil and climate are subjects of primitive importance in the cultivation of Coffee. The soil of Coffee lands varies as widely almost as the different countries in which it is grown. In Africa, where the plant is indigenous, it is chiefly composed of a reddish clay on the West Coast, with a hard sandy subsoil, while on the East Coast it is found to be composed chiefly of a dark loamy earth. The Arabian soil, where the plant is exotic and where the finest Coffee is produced, is purely an artificial one, while in India it is successfully grown in five different kinds of soil, ranging from a dark chocolate clay to a deep jungle mould. The soil of Ceylon consisting of a rich, dark earth, friable and mixed with blocks and small stones. On the island of Java, to the contrary, where some of the finest varieties are produced, the soil is principally composed of a black leaf-mould, intermixed with fine sand and small stones, whereas in the principal Coffee-growing countries of the American continent the best crops produced, as a general rule, are raised on rich, dark loamy lands, the subsoil of which are too rocky to be worked with a plow. The only exception to the rule being Brazil, where the soil varies to a great extent, a clay of _terra rocha_ forming the chief upper and lower subsoil. The most suitable soil for Coffee cultivation, however, is that which grows soft timber, to be found on high quartzy ridges, where the land is of a dark chocolate color, mixed with small stones, and overspread here and there with boulders of granite, as where the soil is dark, loose and full of roots, it is sure to be rich in organic matter, and therefore good for Coffee, which is a hardy plant and not on the whole difficult to please in this matter; such a soil generally contains about 5 per cent. of its weight of organic matter in combination with other fertilizing substances. Looking at Coffee soil from an analyst’s standpoint, it consists of an _organic_ part, which when placed in the fire will burn away, and an _inorganic_ or mineral part which will not burn. The constitution of the first is well known to planters, being formed of the remains of animals, insects, or minute visible and invisible organisms of various kinds, from the dung of animals, birds, caterpillars and worms, to that of roots, stems and leaves of decayed vegetable matter. The inorganic part, consisting of sand, clay, lime, magnesia and the oxides of soda, potash and manganese, including carbonic, sulphuric and phosphoric acids. The preponderance of one or more of these natural divisions, making the soil productive or unproductive as the case may be, while certain plants make certain calls upon one or more of these substances, and, consequently, such must be present and available in a soil that is to suit them. A rich soil for Coffee generally contains about five per cent., or one-twentieth of its weight, of organic matter in combination with other fertilizing substances. But as to the _best_ soil for Coffee in particular the leading authorities differ, so that as a broad principle it may be laid down that the best soil is the _richest_, no matter what its color, whether it be the valley silt of Arabia, the volcanic mould of Java, the jungle soil of India and Ceylon, or the rich red earth of Brazil. But the deeper, freer and richer the soil, whatever it may be, the better as long as it is specially tested for phosphoric acid and potash. The latter is found in abundance wherever a large forest has been felled, burned grass-land being also considered good for this purpose, as it also contains those very requisite properties of Coffee soil.

If the soil be naturally light and poor and washed by every shower, the more soluble portions, together with the salts of the manure applied to the trees, is generally robbed by the heavy rains. In such a case it is next to impossible to keep a plantation in a high state of cultivation without an enormous expense in the constant application of manure. Many plantations are again subject to landslips, which are likewise produced by the violence of the rains; in such cases the destruction is most disastrous, and whenever landslips are frequent they may be taken as an evidence of a poor clay subsoil. The rain soaks through the surface, and not being able to percolate through the clay with sufficient rapidity, it lodges between the two strata, loosening the upper surface, which slides from the greasy clay, launched, as it were, by its own gravity, into the valley below. This is the worst kind of soil for the coffee tree, whose long tap-root is ever seeking nourishment from beneath. On such a soil it is very common to see a young plantation giving great promise, but as the trees increase in growth the tap-root reaches the clay subsoil, and the plantation immediately falls off. The subsoil is of far more importance to the coffee tree than the upper surface, as the latter may be improved by manure, while if the former is bad there is no remedy. The first thing to be considered being the soil, and the planter being satisfied with its quality, there is another item of equal importance to be taken into consideration when choosing a locality for a coffee plantation. This is an extent of grazing land sufficient for the support of cattle that may be required for producing manure. In countries with large proportions of forests this is, however, not always practicable, the planter having recourse to artificial manure.

The subject of climate, though quite as important as that of soil, can yet be described with more accuracy. The extreme limits of coffee cultivation lie between the isothermal lines of the 25° north and the 30° south of the equator, but the best zone of latitude is that lying between the 20° north and south of the equator, one having a mean temperature of 65° to 75° Fahrenheit. A constant and uniform moisture, either natural or artificial, is especially requisite and indispensable to the free development of the trees, together with a rainfall of from 75 to 150 inches per annum, falling early in the season, but must be well distributed at the same time. The regions, however, found to be best adapted for the most successful and profitable cultivation of Coffee, are well-watered mountain slopes at an elevation ranging from 1,000 to 4,000 feet above sea-level, in latitudes lying between 15° north and 15° south of the equator, although it is profitably grown at the present time from 25° north to 30° south of that line, but only in situations where the temperature does not fall below 55° at any time.

SELECTING LAND.

As a general rule, virgin forest land has been found the most suitable to break up for Coffee plantations, it having become naturally enriched by decayed vegetable matters, and the burning, to which it must first be subjected, frees it from all weeds and insects. But exceptional tracts of land, that have been once under cultivation and then allowed to run wild, also form good properties, and although the soil is rarely rich, it is generally exposed, and always entails great trouble and expense to keep down the weeds. A temperate climate within the tropics is to be preferred at all times, a certain degree of warmth and humidity combined being essential--in other words, an atmosphere resembling that of a northern hot-house produces the finest crops of Coffee, but, unfortunately, it is inimical to the unacclimated planter and favorable to weeds. The most suitable climate, under these circumstances, is precisely that which Americans prefer; frost, even though it be only at night and for a short period, is fatal, while the presence of water, preferably a running stream, is most essential for watering the young plants, as well as for the “pulping” process. In a wooded country the plantation may be laid out in blocks of fifty acres, encircled by natural belts of forest; but flat land must be avoided, as a wet soil is fatal to profitable coffee-growing, and flat lands also would entail great expenditure for drainage, while steep slopes, on the other hand, are also objectionable on account of the wash occasioned by rains carrying away both soil and manure, thus exposing the roots of the shrubs. The top or surface-soil must be fairly good in all cases, the subsoil may be, but must never be, composed of stiff clay, the shrub being essentially a lateral feeder.

In opening a plantation, which is in all cases to be shaded by preserving a portion of the original forest trees, the first thing to be done is--after having ascertained the amount of land that can be conveniently planted in one season--to clear a wide road through the underwood from one end of the block of forest to the other, and as many at right angles to the line as may facilitate easy examination and of thoroughly inspecting the land to be cleared. The next thing to be done is to cut another wide line round the entire portion to be cleared, leaving a belt of from fifteen to twenty yards wide as a margin which is always to be kept uncleared, as this marginal belt will be found useful for shelter. The amount of shade must be regulated according to the value of the exposure as shown in the aspect. A great deal of shade being required on southern slopes, very little on northern ones, and only a moderate degree of shade being required for eastern and western slopes. The preliminary lines having been cleared, the whole of the underwood should then be cut down from one end to the other, and while it is yet green such portions of the larger trees as it may be difficult to remove by carting or dragging along the ground, should be cut up in pieces, but never burned, as is frequently the custom. This work should be completed by the end of December. The land being thus thoroughly cleared, lines of road should be laid out and the usual linings and pit diggings carried out, and the plants put down immediately after. The next point to be attended to is to plant out such trees as are particularly suited to coffee shading, and to remove any kinds which experience has proved to be injurious; these latter vary in the different countries. As the shade trees grow up, the same care must be taken of them as of the coffee tree, as regards pruning or topping, the lower branches being judiciously removed, the object being to grow a tree not only luxuriant but lofty, in order that it may throw a long shadow and so afford greater protection to the plants in its vicinity. Another point to be considered in the location of a successful Coffee plantation is situation, as regards shade, sun and wind, as a location and method of cultivation suited to one climate may be entirely unsuited to another. In sea-coast or moist climates planting without shade is generally the custom, while in dry arid climates shade is indispensable, as in wet or damp districts Coffee cannot be grown to advantage under the shade of the largest trees; the methods of cultivation therefore should be entirely different in the differing districts or localities. To be emphatic, _climate should regulate shade, that is, shade plantations thrive best in hot, dry climates, and unshaded in moist or humid ones_.

SITUATION AND ASPECT.

The Coffee-plant in most countries has been found to flourish best, and produce more abundantly, and reach a greater longevity on upland or mountain situations at altitudes ranging from one to four thousand feet above sea-level; but a mean elevation of three thousand feet has been found by experience to be best adapted for its most profitable culture. In the selection of a site for the establishment of a coffee plantation the same general rules are observed throughout all the coffee-growing countries; and, while an eastern or southern exposure is preferable at all times, it is not essential under all conditions, this general principle being subject to modifications from such causes as local peculiarities of climate, abundance of forest shade and methods of special cultivation. Many plantations situated at sea-level are generally overshadowed by thickets of dense foliage, while those situated on mountain slopes are usually much exposed to winds and wash. In the older coffee-growing countries of the East an eastern aspect is considered the most desirable, a western exposure being generally selected on the American continent, as it loses less of its moisture. The opposite slope being more exposed to the vertical rays of the sun thereby preserves a more equal temperature.

Before clearing and burning the planter should take considerable pains to ascertain the values of the different aspects as regards sun and wind with the view of regulating the amount of shade accordingly, as it is impossible to exaggerate the importance of the various exposures. For the effects the sun’s rays have on certain aspects in heating the soil and drying up the plant are such as would be extremely difficult to believe had the effects not been verified by competent observers and with the aid of a thermometer. And as regards sites, northern and southern slopes in particular, the difference between the one exposure and the other is just what constitutes the difference between green and dried grass, and between leaves luxuriously green and leaves dried and withered. The grass on the northern aspects being green and comparatively fresh, while even in a valley sheltered from drying winds the grass on the southern slopes is completely withered. An equally striking difference is observable in the coffee plants grown on these situations, those on the northern slopes being full of health and life, while those situated on the southern are yellow, drooping and sickly; even in districts where coffee will not thrive without a considerable amount of shade the plants thrive well with little or even none on a northern bank, and look better than on a moderately shaded southern aspect. Nor in the nursery is the effect less of aspect, less striking, a nursery situated on a northern slope requiring less water and far less shade over the young plants than in a nursery sloping towards the south.

With regard to the aspect of wind the subject is an infinitely more difficult one than aspect as regards the sun’s rays, the value of the latter being mathematically ascertained, for in countries full of hills and ravines one is constantly liable to be deceived as to the points that are exposed and those that are sheltered from the force of the wind; what is the right side of the hill for one planter is often the wrong side for another, whose plantation is perhaps only a few miles distant. While one planter may rail against the east wind, another will be equally loud against a west. The winds, however, that are most to be dreaded as being absolutely fatal to a coffee plantation are the fierce gales accompanied by torrents of rain. These winds are injurious in two ways: first, the plants are blown about, their hold on the soil weakened and the tender rootlets broken as fast as they are formed, and in the second case, the rain which accompanies such winds is driven into the hillsides with such force as to occasion a certain amount of wash, the particles of soil being lifted and valuable top soil swept away and utterly lost. The southwest winds are only fatally injurious on the first barrier; further inland their force is greatly modified, and to such an extent that little or no injury results from them.

In estimating the value and importance of exposures, planters and others of experience are frequently deceived; as aspects that one would naturally conclude are very much exposed often remain untouched by the wind, while on others apparently sheltered it has been known to burst with tremendous force. Of aspects as regards wind there are two points that may fairly be relied upon. The first is the appearance of the soil on the slopes, and the second the inclination of the forest trees. The soils on windy slopes will be found invariably to present a hardened and washed appearance, and are deficient in decayed vegetable matter on the surface. The inclination of the trees, also, and especially the extent to which their heads are bent, denotes how forcibly the wind strikes on these sites. In summing up on these important points of aspect it may be observed, as regards the sun’s rays, it is patent that a northern aspect is the best, and a southern one the worst, because the latter is exactly twice as hot as the former. And as regards the eastern and western aspects there is not, as regards heat arising from the sun’s rays, much to choose between them.

SHELTER AND SHADE.

The worst enemy of the Coffee shrub is wind, its effects becoming apparent in pinched and stunted growth or in lack of foliage. In situations where the soil is soft and yielding it does equal mischief by working the stems in the ground, so that in a short time a funnel is formed round the neck of the plant, and this being continually chafed the bark is worn off, the roots are loosened, and the plant dies of what is called “wind-wrung.” Should it be rescued before the bark is entirely worn off the plant may live, but it will be extremely liable to attacks from “lug worm” or any other blight that may be prevalent in the locality. Belts of jungle or forest land are sometimes left standing as a protection from wind, but opinions differ as to the advantage of this plan, some planters holding that more harm is likely to result from the wind being concentrated into eddies instead of taking its natural and more equitable course. This question can only be decided by the local surroundings in each case. Such belts being sure to form nurseries for weeds and vermin are not intended to be permanent, and should gradually give way to fruit or other useful trees. Sometimes artificial shelter is erected, but is considered too costly to find general favor; indeed, in moderately sheltered situations, staking, combined with low topping, ought to be sufficient to secure the stability of the plant. Where they are not, the situation has little to recommend it for successful Coffee culture.

Shade is also a consideration of great importance, and the opinion now generally adopted is that the wholesale felling of the forest in some sections has been altogether a mistake, and that plantations which are now extinct might still be flourishing had the forest shade been at least partially retained. The history of Coffee cultivation in the East proves that in hot climates, and where prolonged periods of drought may recur, Coffee will not flourish permanently, except under shade. In a state of nature the Coffee plant universally affects shade. This is the more remarkable, though the seeds are deposited by wild animals and birds as freely on open grass-lands as in forests. The suspicion that the “bover leaf disease,” and other immediate causes of decay, are only induced by weakened state of the shrubs consequent upon their exposure to light and periods of drought, is supported by the fact that where shade trees are found standing upon an abandoned plantation, they are still surrounded by a surviving remnant of Coffee bushes. The question as to where shade is necessary is, however, one of climate, as it has been proved that it is not universally beneficial. The advantages to be derived from it in very hot climates being: diminished exhaustion and consequently increased longevity of the plant, reduced cost of cultivation, a conservation of the nutritious properties of the soil, and an actual increase of them, as the cover given to the ground causes the surface vegetable matter to decay more rapidly. And provided the tree be a subsoil feeder, the shedding of the leaves will yield a positive gain of surface matter which the roots of the Coffee plant would otherwise never have reached. In addition to these there is the direct value of the timber grown on the estate. The only serious drawback to shade would seem to be a diminished yield of Coffee, but this is fully atoned for by the increased longevity of the plant.

CLEANING AND BURNING.

When forest land is taken for cultivation the first step is to effectually clear it of all timber and underwood, the latter being first cut by means of a “cattie” or machete, the large trees being felled from the top, and their branches lopped off so as to compact the pile, as otherwise the “burn” will only be partial. A fine day, after the night’s dew has evaporated, is best for setting fire to the prostrate mass, the advantages of a thorough burn being that subsequent operations are greatly facilitated, and that the weeds and insects are thoroughly destroyed, while the disadvantage is that the upper soil is burnt and rendered unfit for filling into the holes. That injury may, to a great extent, be obviated by “lining and pitting” the land beforehand, by which means the surface soil would be mostly covered over with the earth taken out of the pits, and thus be protected from the fire. On the other hand, the “lines” could not be marked out with accuracy or with any regularity, so that the estate would subsequently suffer to some extent in appearance, though it is an open question how far this drawback is worth considering in comparison with the other advantages gained. When there is not sufficient timber to make a good burn, the brush is felled and burnt in heaps, after which the ground is carefully gone over for the purpose of rooting up the tree stumps which remain, but these are sometimes so difficult to eradicate that they are left to decay, care being taken, however, to knock off shoots as fast as they appear. It is, however, a bad method and one seldom followed, as the rotting stumps harbor vermin of all kinds. After burning the wood the ashes should be scattered evenly over the ground as manure to enrich the soil.

LINING AND MARKING.

Immediately after the burn the plantation is “lined and marked out” for the reception of the plants, the two following methods being most in vogue among old and experienced planters: (1) A base line is laid down as nearly as possible straight up and down the slope, and a cross line is set off exactly at right angles to it; on this line stakes are driven into the ground at the distances determined upon for the final position of the young plants, to each stake a rope is fixed and stretched parallel with the base line, and as straight as possible, smaller stakes being provided along these lines, a rope is then finally held across them at succeeding stages of equal width as guided by measuring poles and the small stakes, and the small stakes are put in where the movable rope crosses the fixed ones, each stake indicating the site of the plant. (2) A rope is furnished with bits of scarlet rag or flannel at the distances decided on between the plants and stretched across the plot, stakes being inserted at each rag, the rope is then moved forward a stage at a time, gauged by measuring rods. The first plan is the better, especially in broken ground, but is more laborious, the second being best available in even grass-land, but the stretch of the rope must be estimated and allowed for, the great object being to have the lines perfectly regular, and instead of making any deviation where stumps or other obstacles occur, the rope is laid over them and the corresponding plant omitted.

ROADING AND DRAINING.

Efficient roads not only greatly facilitate the making of a Coffee plantation, but they should be so laid out as to serve the additional purpose of drainage. A cart road should pass through the centre of the plantation wherever it is possible to avoid a steeper gradient than one in fifteen, emerging upon the main highway. From this branch roads should be cut at right angles with as easy gradients as possible, and not more than from one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet apart; these branch roads should cross the lay of the ground so as to check, to the fullest extent, the effects of waste, and a boundary path encircling the estate is also useful for many reasons, but the main central road should be set out before pitting and planting. An excess of road accommodation as regards both the number and width of the paths is far preferable to insufficient roadway, despite the extra first outlay, and if the ground be such, it may cost a great deal to keep the roads clean and free from weeds. This, however, may be greatly lessened by plowing them up and planting them with an annual crop until the land is exhausted, as not only will the roads be bounded by the plowing but weeds will not so readily grow.

Nothing is more important than the thorough drainage of a Coffee plantation, in order to carry away the excess of moisture during heavy rains without allowing the surface soil to be washed away. For this purpose continuous open trenches are cut in parallel lines across the face of the slope and at from ten to fifteen yards apart; their gradient, however, should never exceed one in twelve, one in twenty or even one in thirty will be still better, their width may be from fifteen to eighteen inches and their depth not less than one foot on the lower side. They will need constant cleaning out and repair, especially after a heavy shower, and must in all cases empty into a natural or artificial channel amply capable of carrying off the water; if furnished with breaks to catch the suspended or detached soil so much the better, as the latter can be collected and returned to the plantation as a dressing.

LAYING OUT THE NURSERY.

The Coffee plant is propagated in three different ways, by “Seeds,” “Buddings,” and “Cuttings,” the two last being the most troublesome and objectionable, there being at the same time no branch of Coffee cultivation of more importance and none so frequently mismanaged or neglected as that of the production of the plant in the nursery, the greatest care and most constant watching being absolutely necessary to the attainment of success.

For this purpose should be selected a patch of gently sloping virgin soil, warm and dry, soft in nature and not richer than that to which the plants are to be subsequently transferred, but close to water, running water, if possible. The seed-beds must be somewhat shaded, but not so as to entirely exclude the sun nor so that the shading plant may gather rain and send it in streams upon the beds; it must also be cleared of all the largest stumps and thoroughly dug to a depth of from nine to twelve inches and made very friable and at the same time slightly raised to promote drainage, and divided by paths into narrow strips. A deep trench is cut above the bed in an oblique direction to prevent damage by rain and wash. The seeds are sown in rows six to nine inches apart and about two feet deep and strewn about one inch apart in the holes, after which they are lightly covered with mould and shaded. A cheap and efficient shading may be secured by laying branches across a light framework of poles. All watering must be done in the morning or toward sunset. A bushel of coffee-seed should yield from 20,000 to 30,000 plants, the best seed being what is known as “parchment” coffee, picked when fully ripe, pulped by hand, unfermented, unwashed and dried in the shade. When the plants produce from two to four leaves, exclusive of the seed-leaves, they are carefully loosened and transferred, in damp, cloudy weather, from the seed-beds to the nurseries and placed there from nine to twelve inches apart. Great care must be taken meantime not to double up the tender tap-roots, but if the tap-root is very long, it is best shortened by an oblique cut, which soon shoots again. But when transplanting from seed-beds to nurseries is not practiced the plants are left in the seed-beds until they grow larger. Many planters, however, strongly recommend the former plan, as by checking the growth of the plants the young roots become hardened and better able, when finally planted out in the field, to resist insects, disease and unfavorable weather. A practical suggestion for preventing young seedlings from being eaten off at the surface of the ground by grubs is to lightly wrap them with a piece of paper about three inches broad where the stem joins the roots when planting. The risk of having the young seedlings burnt up just after planting is best guarded against by various simple measures for shading them. In about a year, or when the plants have attained the height of about eighteen inches, they are ready for transfer to the permanent positions on the plantation which has been meantime prepared for their reception.

In selecting a plot for a nursery such a command of water as will facilitate the flooding of every bed so as to thoroughly saturate the soil, will be found indispensable, as it has been found by experience that it is much cheaper to carry soil to water than water to soil. If a good supply of water cannot be conveniently had on forest land by erecting a tank or directing a stream, the cheapest plan will be found to be to transport the soil already prepared and lay it down to the depth of a foot to eighteen inches on any land that has a good command of water. A couple of boys can effectually irrigate a large nursery by this means if the water be conducted to each bed, while twenty men will be required to carry water as many yards to a nursery of the same size, and even then the beds will be but one-half watered. But economy alone is not the only advantage to be gained by this method of flooding the beds, as this process can be carried on at any time of the day, while watering-pots cannot be used except early in the morning or late in the afternoon without scorching the leaves.

If the nursery is formed on forest land as, if possible, it should be, the timber should be felled, cut up and carried or rolled off the ground--and not, as is too commonly the case, burnt on it--to obtain the best results. The former plan is the most expensive but will be found to pay better in the end, as the surface mould is not injured and the friable nature of the soil is preserved intact, whereas burning by consuming the vegetable matter on the surface renders the soil more tenacious and less suitable to the springing of the seed. The beds should never exceed five feet in breadth, and each bed should be sixteen in length. Between each row of beds shallow channels should be cut along which the water may be conducted to the head of each bed, and in these channels during the dry season water should be allowed to run continuously, penetrating by this means gradually into the land, keeping it cool and moist. During the extreme hot weather the longitudinal division between the beds should consist of earth heaped up to the height of three inches, which will not only render the flooding of the beds more complete, but will also prevent them drying up as rapidly as they otherwise would. But during any storm these divisions should be removed and each converted into a channel to convey away the superfluous rain-water.

As regards seed there is very little to be said, except that it should, as a matter of importance, be selected from the finest and healthiest trees, and consist only of the ripest and finest berries to be had. These precautions are seldom attended to, however, as it has never been ascertained definitely that plants from carefully selected seeds are any better than from those grown at random. Seeds have been sown from trees both native and imported--on some plantations, of all ages and in every kind of way--pulped by hand, pulped by machinery, and not pulped at all, sometimes fresh and as frequently six months old. Yet no difference could be perceived in the way the seeds come up, or in the plants produced from them, but, as a matter of convenience, it is much preferable to separate the seeds from the pulp and put them down in drills. In the drills the seed should be planted at least a quarter of an inch apart, and between each drill should be left a space of from four to five inches. The seed should be planted in March or April, except where a crop of plants has been previously taken from the soil, when the seed should be put down a month earlier; in from fourteen to eighteen months excellent plants ought to be had, if the soil consists of virgin land. Many planters put down nursery seedlings that have sprung up under the old coffee trees, but this plan is not to be adopted when seed can be procured, and especially where the water is good.

An excellent soil for sowing the seed is prepared from an admixture of loam and leaf-mould, obtained from the decayed leaves of trees and vegetable matter, ground fine, well sifted and then mixed with an equal quantity of sand; while for the successful propagation of the young plants a manure composed of finest soil, cattle and sheep dung, dried, pulverized, sifted and then blended with proportionate quantities of a fine sandy loam has been found specially adapted for the purpose. The tap-roots of the young plants being extremely long and tender, an abundant supply of the latter will be found requisite, a good depth being very necessary to nourish and maintain them during the early period of growth. During the hot weather the young plants should be shaded, the most approved method of shading being to place posts about four feet high, with forked heads, driven into the ground at the corner of each bed, long sticks being then laid across them from post to post, resting in the forks and also laterally, the whole being then covered with grass, reeds or other material. Some months before the plants are required this shade should be judiciously thinned, and ultimately removed altogether, in order to harden the plants gradually by exposure to the sun and air. The plants, too, at this period, should be allowed to grow nearly to the required size, stinted of water and brought to a stand-still, in order that the heads of the plants and the extremities of them may solidify, for if the plants be transferred to the plantation with newly-formed and tender shoots they run great risk of being nipped off by the scorching rays of the sun, which frequently makes its appearance when least expected in rainy or cloudy weather. And when the nursery is at all exposed to dry, east winds the rows and divisions between the row of beds should be thickly planted with rose and fruit trees, as these not only add to the appearance of the nursery, but are also extremely valuable as shelters.

The next branch of planting that demands special attention is that of transferring or transplanting the young shrubs or plants at the best possible distance from one another. Distances should be altered in accordance with the poorness or richness of the soil; the richer and stronger the land, the greater distance should they be planted apart; and the poorer the soil and more exposed the location, the closer and more thickly they should be grown. If roads are made across the slopes and about midway up them, it may be laid down as a general rule that the plants above the roads should be planted far closer than those in the richer soil below. Thus, if six feet by six feet be found a convenient distance in the best land, four and a half feet by five and a half feet will be found the best distance in the poorer and more exposed positions. One prime object must always be borne in mind, _i.e._, to cover the soil, in order the better to shade it, to keep down weeds, and at the same time leave sufficient room between the rows to allow of passing up and down the lines with ease, and for the pickers to get about without forcing their way and breaking the branches. Bearing these objects in mind, a planter should regulate his distances carefully in accordance with his soil, situation and climate. But on these points a planter must, in a great measure, rely upon his own judgment, and these suggestions are mainly intended to caution the planter against fixing on any arbitrary distance as being the best.

DISTANCES OF PLANTS.

Scarcely any two planters are agreed as to the best distances to allow between the plants, the question being governed to a great extent by the richness of the soil, as well as by climate and situation, the object in view must be that with the greatest convenient number of trees in a given space none shall interfere with or incommode its neighbor. In cold or exposed situations where the plants cannot obtain any great size, close planting is necessary, the reverse being the case where the climate is warm and humid and the soil is productive, and consequently likely to produce large bushes. In Java and the West Indies the space is often 10 × 12 feet, but other crops are there usually planted between the Coffee rows, while in India and Ceylon distances vary from four feet each way to eight feet, the best being perhaps seven feet between the rows and six feet between the plants. The number of trees contained in an acre planted 6 × 7 feet will be about 1,000; 6 × 6, 1,200; 6 × 5, 1,450; 5 × 5, 1,750; 5 × 4, 2,150; and 4 × 5, 2,700. The advantages to be gained in wide planting are that field labor is facilitated and the shrubs grow larger, the disadvantage being that more room is left for weeds.

HOLING AND PITTING.

Around or beside each stake a hole is next dug, its size depending much upon the kind of soil; in stiff or poor land two feet each way is not too large, but in good light ground eighteen inches will suffice, but they had better be too deep than not deep enough. The implement commonly used for this purpose is a kind of grubbing-hoe or spade-bar. The earth thrown out is usually left to mellow until just before planting, after which the hole is filled in with the best of the mould, which must have been previously carefully freed from stones, roots and other extraneous matter, and mixed with a little manure. The filling-in must be done very lightly and the loose earth should rise in a heap above the hole. This operation is best performed while the ground is moist, but it is also a good plan to break down the sides somewhat, more especially if they are hardened.

PLANTING AND PICKING.

When the holes have been duly prepared the young plants are removed from the nursery with the same care as they are transplanted to the nursery from the seed-beds; for taking up the young plants an ordinary prong is much superior to the spade-bar, but hand-pulling must be rigidly guarded against. The fibrous roots of each plant as taken up are carefully pruned off to about four inches so that they may not be doubled up in the planting, the tap-root being also shortened to about nine inches by a clean sloping cut for the same reason, and a ball of earth should surround the roots and if the plants are exposed to the air for more than a few minutes, the roots should be covered with wet moss or some other damp material. A dull, cloudy day should be chosen for this operation whenever possible, as in bright sunshine the plants would be all burnt up. The plants are carried in batches in wicker trays or baskets to the plantation and are placed in the ready prepared holes by hand, great care being taken that no roots are doubled up, that the plants are upright and that they are placed no deeper in the ground than they were before, and in treading the earth down around the plant every precaution is necessary to prevent leaving holes for the accumulation of water around the roots. The surface must also be made firm and level as possible, but on a steep slope the outer edge may be slightly higher than the inner, to check the effect of any wash that may occur, but in subsequent weeding it will be necessary to guard against exposing the lateral roots. There is some diversity of opinion as to the size and age most suitable for putting out nursery plants, but when dull, rainy weather can be depended on for some little time, nursery plants of the second year are the most satisfactory, plants of one season only being too tender for the operation, but under ordinary conditions and with due care no serious loss of plants should be incurred in this way. A novel plan, one which may be advantageously adopted on small plantations, is the one resembling the method of planting Cinchona. A number of calabashes are deprived of their small end and emptied of their contents, into these the seedlings are placed and gradually exposed to the sun as they grow and finally planted in the calabashes; the latter soon rot and form manure for the plants. A new plan that has been much followed is the substitution of “stumps” for nursery plants--that is, plants that have been in the nursery for about three years are dug up and pruned back leaving only about six to eight inches of stem; they are hardier and safer in a general way than whole plants, more especially in uncertain weather, as they will strike readily, even without rainfall for some little time after being put in, provided the ground has become sufficiently moist to prevent their being burnt up, but they cannot be used in districts where a long period of drought may be expected to succeed to a wet season. The planting of stumps is performed in the usual way, the plants send up several shoots from the parent stem of these, the finest are retained to form the future tree and the rest are pulled off carefully. The shoot that is left grows rapidly, but from the way it springs from the stem it is liable to be accidentally broken off either by a high wind or by the weeders. The crookedness of the stump from native-grown seed renders them very inferior; the best size for stumps is the thickness of a common pencil.

DIBBLING AND STAKING.

When the land is very rich and friable holing may be replaced by the less expensive plan known as “dibbling,” which is performed in two ways: (1) by the aid of the spade-bar is made a sufficiently deep hole into which the plant is dropped, and secured by treading the earth lightly around; (2) a patch of ground measuring about one foot each way is thoroughly loosened without the soil being taken out, in the disturbed earth a hole is made with the hand, the plant is then inserted and trodden around as before; the latter method is preferable. Dibbling is only practicable in exceptionable cases, and is, moreover, open to objection, as a hole is often left in which water may accumulate and rot the plant, and the roots are more liable to injury than in ordinary planting, but, on the other hand, much labor is saved. When the plants are exposed to the wind they should be provided with supports as soon as they are ten to twelve inches high, and present a resisting surface. For the first season’s plants lining pegs may be used, but larger plants will need strong, inflexible stakes, three to four feet long, entering the ground on the windward side at about six inches distant from the plant, and at such an angle as to meet the stem at about its middle. The plant is attached to the stake by a broad loop of some vegetable fibre, firmly tied to the stake but loose around the stem of the plant. If the plants have already been worked round by the wind they will need earthing up to five or six inches as well. The ties should be brushed with coal-tar, as a protection against theft, insects and decay.

SUPPLYING VACANCIES.

Every precaution should be taken to guard against failures, as “supplies,” as they are called, will seldom, if ever, do as well as young plants put into virgin soil, but in new land failures can be entirely guarded against by care, and their number may subsequently be limited by keeping the ground free from weeds, and by good draining, manuring and pruning. A certain number of vacancies, however, will occur from time to time. And they must be filled up in the following manner: The original pit having been re-emptied should be enlarged an inch or two all around, but especially in depth, and this should be done in dry weather, the pit being left open for some time, and only filled in when the time for planting has arrived, but in most cases it will be desirable to refill the pit with the soil which has been taken out of it. Where the vacancy is in the midst of old trees a large pit is necessary to protect the new plant from being interfered with by these roots, and it will be also well to isolate the young plant by surrounding it with a ring trench, six to eight inches wide and one foot deep. It is also desirable to put a basketful or so of new soil from the first into the pit near the top, but where this cannot be managed a few handfuls of manure should be mixed with surface mould, for only strong, healthy plants must be used for this purpose. Stumps are, by some planters, considered more suitable than nursery plants for supplying vacancies, as, being hardier, they throw out from three to four “suckers,” the best of which are selected when they have attained a height of from six to nine inches, the others being carefully pulled off. Well-formed nursery plants, with three or four pairs of primaries and about twelve to fifteen inches high, put in just as they come from the beds with a good ball around the roots, are to be preferred when steady wet weather can be calculated on for some time, but in any case supplies ought to be put in early in the wet season, so as to give them every advantage; they should also be marked by a tall stake, and should be allowed to bear a maiden crop before being topped or pruned.

CATCH-CROPS.

Much has been said for and against the growing of other crops on the plantation among the Coffee shrubs. In Java and other Coffee-growing countries of the East it is grown between the rows. In Ceylon two catch-crops were long in vogue, but they appear now to have gone out of fashion, it being claimed that they exhausted the soil and produced too much there. While in Mexico, the West Indies, Central and South America, the culture of plantains, yams, cocoa and bananas was carried to such an extreme on many plantations that the Coffee became, in fact, of only secondary importance, or was even entirely killed out. There is nothing, however, to object to in the simultaneous cultivation of several crops, so long as each has proper space and sufficient manure, and the plants are not antagonistic to each other, as many claim, and the failure of one crop may be compensated for by the success of the other. Rice and tobacco have been found to yield good returns as catch-crops, but they possess a disadvantage, in not affording any shade to the young Coffee plants. Cocoa, yams, bananas and plantains are perhaps even less advisable, and similar attempts with cotton have proved altogether failures, while maize, on the other hand, is highly recommended from experiences in Brazil and other countries. When adopted, it should be planted thinly in three rows, eighteen inches apart between the Coffee rows, and two plants apart in the Coffee rows between the Coffee plants. The seed should be sown immediately after the Coffee is planted. It grows very quickly and should early be thinned out to eighteen inches apart in the rows, and will soon be high enough to completely shelter and partially shade the Coffee, which will grow all the faster in consequence, the latter being also greatly benefited by the extra working of the ground. In the fall a dressing of manure--the same manure will suit both Coffee and maize--is applied and the ground plowed or deeply hoed, preferably the former. The crops may also be repeated the following spring, reducing it, however, to two rows and one Coffee plant and repeating the manuring and plowing or hoeing, but this time the choice between the plow and hoe must be governed by the size of the Coffee shrubs; if too high, the latter is best.

MANURES AND MANURING.