Chapter IV: Part I: The Game of Chess (1)

I

THE RULES OF THE GAME

BOARD AND MEN

The game of Chess is played by two armies who oppose each other on a square board or battlefield of sixty-four alternate white and black squares. Each army has sixteen men; one King, one Queen, two Rooks (or Castles), two Bishops, two Knights and eight Pawns. The Generals of the two armies are the two players themselves. The men of one side are of light color and are called White, those of the other side are of dark color and are called Black.

The object of the game is to capture the opposing King. When this is done the battle is ended, the side losing whose King is captured. To understand what is meant by the capture of the King it is first necessary to become acquainted with the laws according to which the different men move on the board.

To start with, the board must be placed so that the players have a white square at their right. Then the men take the positions shown in Diagram 1.

The Rooks occupy the corner squares; next to them stand the Knights; then the Bishops and in the center the King and the Queen.

+---------------------------------------+
8 | #R | #Kt| #B | #Q | #K | #B | #K | #R |
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7 | #P | #P | #P | #P | #P | #P | #P | #P |
|---------------------------------------|
6 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
5 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
4 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
3 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
2 | ^P | ^P | ^P | ^P | ^P | ^P | ^P | ^P |
|---------------------------------------|
1 | ^R | ^Kt| ^B | ^Q | ^K | ^B | ^Kt| ^R |
+---------------------------------------+
a b c d e f g h

DIAGRAM 1

The white Queen must be on the white square and the black Queen on the black square. These eight, men are commonly known as "pieces" in distinction from the Pawns. The latter occupy the line of squares immediately in front of the Pieces.

The lines of squares now occupied by the men and the other four vacant horizontal lines between them are called RANKS. The vertical lines of squares running perpendicularly to the ranks are called FILES. The oblique lines of squares, that is, lines which connect squares of the same color, are called DIAGONALS.

To describe the moves of the men on the board in a simple way it is necessary to indicate every square and every man by a short symbol. For this purpose different systems have been suggested at different times, but only two of them have been generally adopted. The older one, called the "descriptive notation," still predominates in the English, French and Spanish speaking countries, but as leading English and American writers have lately used the newer "algebraic notation" which is much more simple, the latter will be employed in this book. Later the former method will be explained for the sake of completeness.

In the algebraic notation the files are lettered from a to h, starting from the file on White's left. The ranks are numbered from 1 to 8, starting from the rank on which White's pieces stand at the beginning of the game. Each square is now easily indicated by naming the file and rank at which it forms the intersection. The Rook in Diagram 2, for instance, stands on e4, the Bishop on C4, the Pawns on h4 and g7, the Knight on f7, the Queen on d6 and the Kings on c1 and g3.

+---------------------------------------+
8 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
7 | | | | | | ^Kt| #P | |
|---------------------------------------|
6 | | | | #Q | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
5 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
4 | | | #B | | ^R | | | ^P |
|---------------------------------------|
3 | | | | | | | #K | |
|---------------------------------------|
2 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
1 | | | ^K | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------+
a b c d e f g h

DIAGRAM 2

As symbols for the men the first letters of their names are used. Thus K stands for King, Q for Queen, R for Rook, B for Bishop, Kt or N for Knight and P for Pawn.

THE MOVES OF THE MEN

Each of the six kinds of men moves in a different way. To remember the six varieties of moves naturally requires a little more effort than to remember just the one way of moving as in most other board games. But it takes only very little practice to become familiar with the various moves of the Chessmen and it is soon revealed to the learner that the variety of the moves enables a surprising depth and wealth of combinations which give keener and greater pleasure to this game than to any other.

The Rook

The Rook may move forward, backward or sideways in a straight line along a path not obstructed by a man of the same color. In other words, he may move to any square of the rank or file on which he stands unless another man of his own color is in the way. If there is a hostile man in the way he may capture him by occupying his square and removing him from the board.

In Diagram 2, for instance, the Rook could move to e5, e6, e7, e8, e3, e2, e1, f4, g4, d4 and c4. In making the latter move he would capture the black Bishop. The Rook may not go to h4 because a man of his own color stands there nor may he go to b4 or e4 because he is not allowed to jump over the Bishop. He could, of course, move to either of these squares on his next move after capturing the Bishop.

The Bishop

The Bishop moves along an oblique line, that is, he may move to any square of the diagonals on which he stands unless--as in the case of the Rook--his way is obstructed by a man of his own color. If there is a hostile man in the way he may capture him. In Diagram 2, therefore, the Bishop may move to a2, b3, d5, e6 or, by capturing the Knight, to f7. He may not move, however, to g8, until his next move after capturing the Knight. In the other diagonal all squares, that is, fi, e2, d3, b5 and a6, are accessible to him.

As the Bishop is confined to squares of the same color as the one on which he stood at the beginning of the game he has access only to thirty-two squares of the board, and from this it is evident that the Rook to whom all squares of the board are accessible is a stronger man.

The Queen

The Queen has the power of both Rook and Bishop having the choice of moving to any square of the rank, file or diagonal on which she stands as long as her path is clear. In Diagram 2 the squares to which the Queen may move are, therefore, e3, b4, c5, e7, f8, f1, b5, C7, b8, d1, d2, d3, d4, ds, d7, d8, a6, b6, c6, e6, f6, g6 and h6. Like the Rook and Bishop she has the power of capturing a hostile man by occupying his square.

The Queen is by far the most powerful of the pieces. Later it will be seen that ordinarily her strength is about equal to the strength of two Rooks.

The King

The King, like the Queen, moves and captures in any direction, but he is much less powerful because he may move only one square at a time. Nevertheless, he is the most important man, for, as said at the beginning, the object of each side is the capture of the opposing King.

To save the King from untimely death there is a rule that the King may not move into any square which is in the direct range of any man of his enemy. Thus, in Diagram 2 the black King may move to f2, g2, h2, f3 and h3, but he may not move to f4 or g4 nor may he capture the Pawn on h4, for on any of these squares he could be captured by the white Rook.

The white King in Diagram 2 has only three squares to which he may go, namely, b1, b2 and c2, as the squares d1 and d2, though being in his range, are commanded by the black Queen.

The Knight

The Knight moves neither in rank nor file nor diagonal and, therefore, usually offers a little more difficulty to the beginner than the other pieces. The Knight's move is perhaps best described as a leap to the next but one square of different color.[Footnote: It may be helpful to consider the Knight's move when completed as having described a letter "L" composed of four squares, three in one direction and one at right angles to them.] For instance, in Diagram 2 the Knight may move to d8, d6, e5, g5, h6 and h8. In moving to d6 he would capture the Queen.

His move would be in no way obstructed if some of his own or his adversary's men were occupying the squares next to the one on which he stands. This enables the Knight as the only one of the pieces to move at the beginning of the game before any Pawn move has been made.

The strength of the Knight is ordinarily regarded as about equal to that of the Bishop. The latter's range is larger but the Knight has the advantage of being able to reach any square of the board regardless of color.

The Pawn

It remains to describe the move of the Pawn, the only man who captures in a different way from that in which he moves. The Pawn moves FORWARD ONLY in the file in which he stands, and only one square at a time with the exception of his first move on which he may advance two squares. Thus, in Diagram 2, the white Pawn may move only to h5 while the black Pawn may move to either g6 or g5.

The Pawn may capture only diagonally, only forward and only one square at a time. The privilege of taking a double step on the first move does not extend to the capture. Thus in Diagram 2, the white Pawn could capture only a black man on g5, the black Pawn only a man on either f6 or h6, but not on e5. If a man stood on h5, the Pawn h4 would be blocked. Likewise would the Pawn on g7 be blocked by a man on g6.

There is one peculiar rule to be remembered in connection with the move of the Pawn. If a Pawn uses his privilege of making a double step to avoid capture by a hostile Pawn he can be put back one square and captured just the same. For instance, in Diagram 2, if the white Pawn stood on h5 and Black moved his Pawn to g5, White could put Black's Pawn back to g6 and capture him with his Pawn. This way of capturing is called taking "en passant" (French for "in passing") and can be done only by a Pawn, never by a piece.

Lastly must be mentioned the power of the Pawn to become transformed into a piece. This is done automatically whenever a Pawn reaches the extreme opposite side of the board. That is, the player must remove the Pawn from the board and put any piece on his place except a King. Thus it can happen that a player may play with three or more Rooks, Bishops, Knights or Queens. As the Queen is the strongest Piece the Pawns are practically always exchanged for Queens and for this reason the process of the exchange is called "queening."

Although a Pawn has comparatively little value as measured by his mobility--his range of movement--he is really a very valuable man because of the possibility of his eventually queening.

Castling

Only once in a game is a player allowed to move more than one piece at a time. This one move is called "castling" and is made by the King together with one of the Rooks. In castling the King moves two squares toward the Rook and the Rook is placed on the square over which the King has passed. In the position of Diagram 3 both players may castle either side.

White, in "castling King's side" would place his King on g1 and the King's Rook on f1; in "castling Queen's side" the King would leap to c1 while the Queen's Rook would take his stand on d1. Likewise Black would castle by either playing the King to g8 and the Rook from h8 to f8, or the King to c8 and the Rook to a8 to d8.

+---------------------------------------+
8 | #R | | | | #K | | | #R |
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7 | #P | #P | #P | | #Q | #P | #P | #P |
|---------------------------------------|
6 | | | #Kt| #P | | #Kt| | |
|---------------------------------------|
5 | | | #B | | #P | | ^B | |
|---------------------------------------|
4 | | | ^B | | ^P | | #B | |
|---------------------------------------|
3 | | | ^Kt| ^P | | ^Kt| | |
|---------------------------------------|
2 | ^P | ^P | ^P | ^Q | | ^P | ^P | ^P |
|---------------------------------------|
1 | ^R | | | | ^K | | | ^R |
+---------------------------------------+
a b c d e f g h

DIAGRAM 3.

+---------------------------------------+
8 | #R | #Kt| | | #K | | | #R |
|---------------------------------------|
7 | #P | #P | | | | #P | #P | #P |
|---------------------------------------|
6 | | | #P | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
5 | | | | #P | ^P | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
4 | | ^B | | | | ^P | | |
|---------------------------------------|
3 | | | | | #Kt| ^Kt| | |
|---------------------------------------|
2 | ^P | ^P | ^P | | | | ^P | ^P |
|---------------------------------------|
1 | ^R | | | | ^K | | | ^R |
+---------------------------------------+
a b c d e f g h

DIAGRAM 4.

Castling is permitted only when neither King nor Rook concerned has previously moved, when none of the squares between the King and the Rook are obstructed and when none of the three squares involved in the King's move are controlled by an adverse man. Thus if in check (see page 17) the player may not castle. In Diagram 4, neither White nor Black may castle.

SPECIAL TERMS

Attack and Defense

A man is said to ATTACK another man if he moves so that on his next move he could capture the other man. Thus, in Diagram 5, White could attack Black's Bishop by moving his Rook to d1 or to e6.

A man is said to DEFEND or to PROTECT another man if he moves so that in case the other man is captured by a hostile man he could recapture the latter. Thus, in Diagram 5, Black could defend his Bishop by moving his Knight to either e4 or e8 in case White attacks with the Rook from d1. Should White attack from e6, then Black would not defend the Bishop with the Knight, for on e4 as well as on e8 the Knight is unprotected and could be captured by the Rook without White losing anything in exchange. Black has a much more simple way to defend the attack of the Rook from e6, that is, by capturing the Rook with the Pawn f7. For this reason White would not have moved the Rook to e6.

Check and Checkmate

If a man makes a move which attacks the opposing King the King is said to be in "check." The player whose King is checked then has to make a move which gets the King out of check

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8 | | | | | | | #K | |
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7 | | | | | | #P | #P | |
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6 | | | | #B | | #Kt| | #P |
|---------------------------------------|
5 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
4 | ^P | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
3 | | | ^P | | | | | ^P |
|---------------------------------------|
2 | | | | | | | ^P | |
|---------------------------------------|
1 | | | | | ^R | | ^K | |
+---------------------------------------+
a b c d e f g h

DIAGRAM 5.

or he forfeits the game. This is the only case in which a player is not at liberty to make any move he likes.

Unless the attacking man can be captured there are only two ways of getting out of check. One of these is to interpose a man between the King and the attacking piece, and the other to move the King out of the line of attack. In Diagram 5 Black could give check by moving the Bishop to c5. In answer to this White has four moves at his disposal. He may either move the King to f1 or h1 or h2, or he may interpose his Rook on e3. The latter would be very unwise as Black would simply take the Rook with his Bishop, again checking White's King. The situation would then not have changed at all except that White would have lost his Rook. White's King could not move to f2, for this would leave him still attacked by the Bishop.

Instead of checking on c5 Black could have attacked White's King on h2. But in this case the King would have simply captured the Bishop.

If it were White's move he could give check with the Rook on e8. But Black could take the Rook with the Knight. He would naturally do this instead of either moving out with the King to h7 or interposing the Bishop on f8.

If a King is in Check and there is no move with which to get him out of it he is said to be "checkmate" and the game is ended. Diagram 6 shows an example in which either player can give checkmate on the move.

If it were White's move he would take the Pawn on g6 with his Queen. Now Black's King is in check as White's Queen threatens to take him on the next move. The King cannot move to either g7 or h7, for these two squares are also commanded by White's Queen.

+---------------------------------------+
8 | | | | ^R | | #Kt| #K | #R |
|---------------------------------------|
7 | #P | #B | #P | | | #P | | |
|---------------------------------------|
6 | | #P | #Q | #B | | | #P | |
|---------------------------------------|
5 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
4 | | | | | | ^Kt| ^Kt| |
|---------------------------------------|
3 | | ^B | | ^Q | | | | ^P |
|---------------------------------------|
2 | ^P | ^P | ^P | | | | ^P | ^K |
|---------------------------------------|
1 | | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------+
a b c d e f g h

DIAGRAM 6.

Moreover, the latter cannot be taken by the Pawn on f7 as the black King would be in check by the Bishop on b3. The Pawn is "pinned" by the Bishop. Black's Knight cannot take White's Queen either as he is pinned by White's Rook. Finally, there is no piece available which may be interposed between White's Queen and Black's King; in other words: Black is checkmate, his game is lost.

If it were Black's move he would take the Pawn g2 with the Queen. Now White's King is in check as Black's Queen threatens to take him on the next move. He may not take the Queen as he would then be captured by the Bishop b7. Neither may the Knight f4 take the Queen as he is pinned by the Bishop d6. Moreover, the King may not escape to g1, h1 or g3, these three squares lying in the rangeof Black's Queen; and so there is no move on the board with which to get White's King out of check: He is checkmate, White loses the game.

Stalemate

If a player, without being in check, cannot make any move which would not get his King into check, he is said to be STALEMATE. In this case the game is considered a draw. Diagram 7 shows an example.

White on the move, although his forces are much inferior, can draw the game by checking with the Rook on f3. Black cannot very well make a move with his King in reply, as then White's Rook would take the Queen. Black, therefore, must capture the Rook with the Queen and with this move he stalemates White, as the latter has no move left which would not bring his King into check.

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8 | | | | | | | | |
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7 | | | | | | | | |
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6 | | | | | | | | |
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5 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
4 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
3 | | | | #Q | | | | #K |
|---------------------------------------|
2 | | | | | | ^R | | |
|---------------------------------------|
1 | | | | | #R | ^Kt| ^K | |
+---------------------------------------+
a b c d e f g h

DIAGRAM 7.

If it were Black's move he would easily win. In fact he has two different ways of checkmating White in three moves. One of them would be to take the Knight with the Rook, attacking the King and forcing White's Rook to recapture as the King has no square to go to; then to give check with the Queen on g3 forcing White's King to h1 and enabling the mate with the Queen on g2 or h2.

The other way would be to start with the check on g3. As White's Knight is pinned he cannot capture the Queen.

+---------------------------------------+
8 | | | | | | | #K | |
|---------------------------------------|
7 | | | | | | | #P | |
|---------------------------------------|
6 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
5 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
4 | | | | | ^Q | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
3 | | #Q | | | | | ^P | |
|---------------------------------------|
2 | #P | | | | | | | ^P |
|---------------------------------------|
1 | | | | | | | | ^K |
+---------------------------------------+
a b c d e f g h

DIAGRAM 8

Interposing the Rook on g2 would not help either as the Queen would simply take him at the same time checkmating the King. White's only move is, therefore, to play the King into the corner, and Black then mates by first taking the Knight and then moving the Queen to g2 or h2.

Perpetual Check

If a player is able to check the opposing King continually and he indicates his intention to do so the game is considered a draw. In the following position, for instance, White on the move can draw the game by giving a perpetual check on e8 and h5. Black cannot help himself as he has to go back and forth with the King on h7 and g8. Without the possibility of this perpetual check White would be lost, for he cannot prevent the Pawn a2 from queening and with two Queens against one Black would easily win as will be seen later from the discussion of elementary endings.

Exchange

To exchange means to capture a hostile man when it allows a man of the same value to be captured by the opponent.

It is rather confusing that the term "exchange" is also used for the difference in value between a Rook and a Bishop or a Knight. To win the exchange, in this sense, means to capture a Rook and to lose for it only a Bishop or a Knight.

Double Pawn

Two Pawns of the same player standing in one file are called a double Pawn. Three Pawns in one file are called a triple Pawn.

Passed Pawn

A Pawn whose advance to the eighth rank is not blocked by an opposing Pawn in the same file and who does not have to pass one on an adjoining file is called a passed Pawn.

Isolated Pawn

A Pawn is called isolated if there are no Pawns of the same player on the adjoining files.

Backward Pawn

A Pawn is called backward if he cannot advance far enough to be protected by fellow Pawns in an adjoining file.

Fork

A Pawn is said to fork two pieces if he attacks them simultaneously.

Minor Piece

The Bishops and the Knights are called minor Pieces as compared with the Rooks and the Queen.

Sacrifice

To sacrifice means to give up a man without obtaining for him a man of the opponent or to give up a man for one of lesser value.

Discovered Check and Double Check

A discovered Check is an attack on the King caused by a man moving out of the line of a piece which he was obstructing. If the man discovering the Check also attacks the King the Check is called a double Check.

SYMBOLS FOR MOVES

In addition to the symbols used for squares and men, as explained on page 5, the following are used to indicate the moves:

-- means "moves to"

X means "captures"

o-o means "Castles King's side"

o-o-o means "Castles Queen's side"

+ means "check"

+/- means "checkmate"

Thus: R-f5 means the Rook moves to square f5. If either Rook could move to f5 then the original square of the Rook to be moved must also be shown.

Kte3xd5 means the Knight standing on e3 captures the man standing on d5.

o-o-o means the player castles Queen's side and in so doing gives check.

[Footnote: In the descriptive notation alluded to on page 5 every square of the board has two different names, each player counting the ranks from his own side. The files are named after the pieces which stand on them at the beginning of the game. Thus, c4 would be QB4 (Queen's Bishop's fourth) or QB5 depending on whether a black or a white move is described. If a square is referred to without relation to a particular move it is necessary to add from which side of the board the square is counted. It is customary to say in cases of this kind "White's Queen's fourth" or "Black's Queen's fourth," etc.

Instead of naming the square on which a capture takes place, the man captured is named, so that an additional description is necessary in case more than one man of the same kind can be captured.

As a matter of comparison the first ten moves of a game are described above in both notations.]

! signifies a good move.

? signifies a bad move.

(1) P-d4 P-d5
(2) P-c4 P-e6
(3) Kt-c3 P-c5
(4) Kt-f3 Kt-c6
(5) Pxd5 Pxd5
(6) B-f4 Kt-f6
(7) P-e3 B-e6
(8) B-d3 B-e7
(9) o-o o-o
(10) R-c1 Kt-h5

(1) P-Q4 P-Q4
(2) P-QB4 P-K3
(3) Kt-QB3 P-QB4
(4) Kt-B3 Kt-QB3
(5) PxQP KPxP
(6) B-KB4 Kt-B3
(7) P-K3 B-K3
(8) B-Q3 B-K7
(9) Castles Castles
(10) R-B Kt-KR4

CHESS LAWS

If a player having the move touches one of his men he is compelled to move him; if he touches a hostile man he must capture him. This law is void, however, if the man so touched cannot be legally moved or captured.

A man may be moved to any square accessible to him as long as the hand of the player has not left him. If an illegal move has been made it must be retracted and if possible another move must be made with the same man. If a player has castled illegally, King and Rook must be moved back and the King must make another move, if there is a legal one.

If a player touches a man with the sole object of adjusting his position, he must indicate his intention by saying "j'adoube" (French for: I adjust) beforehand. In castling, the King must be moved first as otherwise a doubt might arise whether castling or a Rook's move only was intended.

A game is void if a mistake has been made in setting up board or men or if in the course of the game the position or number of men have been altered in a manner not in accordance with the rules of play and the position cannot be reconstructed from the point where the error was made.

If a player resigns his game before he is actually mated he acknowledges that in the end mate is unavoidable, and the game is counted as a loss to him.

If neither player has sufficient material left to enforce a mate (compare following chapter) the game is considered a draw. A draw may also be claimed by either player if the moves are repeated so that the same position occurs three times with the same player on the move, or if fifty moves have been made without the capture of a man or the move of a Pawn.

II

ELEMENTARY TACTICS

The beginner who thinks he ought to be able to play a good game of Chess after learning the moves of the men is like the soldier who is confident that he could lead an army after he has learned how to march.

He may have great strategical gifts but he will not be able to use them to any advantage unless he is thoroughly conversant with the tactical possibilities afforded by the cooperation of the different units of which his army is composed and by the topography of the ground on which the battle takes place.

The different conditions of the battle ground in war which make some positions more easily accessible to infantry than to artillery and vice versa have their equivalent on the Chess board in the different ways in which the men move and which make certain squares accessible to some of them which others cannot reach.

The first thing, then, for the beginner to do is to acquaint himself thoroughly with the characteristic features of each man so that he may know exactly how much work to expect from him. The best way to accomplish this is the study of the elementary problems which are in end games, that is, in positions where only a few men are left on each side.

FUNDAMENTAL ENDINGS

Considering that the object of the game is the capture of the opposing King, it seems most important to find out whether there are positions in which this capture can be accomplished in the face of the best possible defense. Naturally a player must have a certain material superiority to be able to force a mate, and the first question which offers itself is what MINIMUM force is required to compel the surrender of a King whose men have all been captured during the game.

It is clear that in order to checkmate the lone King it is necessary to attack the square on which he stands as well as all adjacent squares to which he could escape. The most unfavorable position for the King is, of course, a corner of the board as there he has only three squares to go to while in the middle of the board eight squares are accessible to him. Consequently, in an ending in which one player has only his King left the other player will try to drive the King into a corner where he needs control over only three additional squares.

It can easily be seen that this can be done without difficulty with King and Queen or with King and Rook. Supposing, for instance, White has his King on c3 and his Queen on h3 while Black's King stands on d6 as shown in the following diagram.

+---------------------------------------+
8 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
7 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
6 | | | | #K | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
5 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
4 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
3 | | | ^K | | | | | ^Q |
|---------------------------------------|
2 | | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------------|
1 | | | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------+
a b c d e f g h

DIAGRAM 9.

How will White proceed in order to drive the King into a corner and checkmate him there?

A direct onslaught with the Queen on e6 or d7 is clearly not advisable as the Queen would not be protected on these squares, so that the King could simply capture her. A long range attack from h2, g3, d3 or h6 is not effective either as it would not restrict the mobility of the King who could go to either d5 or e6 or e5, that is away from the corner to which he is to be driven.

The correct way of maneuvering for White will be to confine Black's King to a smaller and smaller territory until he finally has to back up against the side or the corner of the board. This consideration indicates the following line of play:

(1)Q-f5, K-c6; (2)Q-e5, K-d7; (3) K-c4, K-c6; (4) Q-e7, K-b6; (5) Q-d7, K-a6. White must now be very careful to avoid a stalemate which would result if he deprived the King of all mobility without attacking him at the same time. This would be the case if he now moved Q-c7. For then Black could not move the King to b5, as this square is controlled by White's King, and he could not go to any of the other four squares in his range on account of White's Queen attacking all of them. The correct move is (6) K- c5. This leaves only the square a5 for Black's King, and White checkmates by (7) Q-a7 or (7) Q-b5.

If, in Diagram 9, White had a Rook on h3 instead of the Queen, the mating process would take a few more moves, but there would be no escape for Black either.

It will again be White's aim to confine Black's King to a smaller and smaller number of squares. The best way to start will therefore be (1) R-e3. No matter what Black replies, he cannot prevent White from driving him to the edge of the board in a similar way to the one shown in the following example:

(1) ..., K-d5; (2) R-e1. This is a WAITING MOVE. Black must leave d5, thus enabling either White's King to advance or the Rook to occupy e5. (2) ..., K-c5; (3) R-e5; K-d6; (4) K-d4, K-c6; (5) R- d5, K-b6; (6) R-c5, K-b7; (7) K-d5, K-b6; (8) K-d6, K-b7; (9) R- b5, K-a6; (10) K-c6, K-a7; (11) K-c7, K-a6; (12) R-h5, K-a7; (13) R-a5 mate.

The two examples discussed show that it is not necessary to drive the King into the corner but that he can be mated on any square of the edge by Queen or Rook. It will be observed that in the mating position three of the six squares at Black's disposal are controlled by White's King and the other three by the Rook (or the Queen). If White had only a Bishop or a Knight in addition to the King he could never mate Black, for neither Bishop nor Knight can attack the King and at the same time control a square adjacent to the King. This, however, is at least necessary to force the mate, even in the most unfavorable position of the King, that is, in the corner.

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6 | ^Kt| | | | | | | |
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3 | | | | | | | | #P |
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2 | | | | | | ^K | | #K |
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a b c d e f g h

DIAGRAM 10.

There are possibilities of a player mating his opponent with only King and Knight or King and Bishop, but then there must be a man of the opponent blocking the escape of the King. Diagram 10 is an example of such a case. White plays (1) Kt-c5, K-h1; (2) Kt-e4. Now Black cannot continue with P-h2, as White would checkmate with Kt-g3. Therefore, he must play (2) ..., K-h2. White then gets the Knight in such a position as to deprive Black's King of the escape to h2 and to keep the square g3 accessible to the Knight: (3) Kt-d2 (not Kt-g3, which would stalemate Black's King), K-h1; (4) Kt-f1. The only move left to Black is now P-h2, and White mates by (5) Kt-g3.

If it were Black's move in the position of the Diagram the game would be a draw, for after (1) ..., K-h1; (2) Kt-c5, P-h2 Black is stalemate unless White moves his King so as to make the square g1 accessible to Black. However, he will not do that as it would enable Black to queen the Pawn and to win the game.

In the case of King and Bishop against King and another man a mate can only occur through a blunder. Supposing for instance White has the King on f3 and a Bishop on d5 and Black has the King on h1 and a Bishop or a Pawn on h2, then White on the move would mate by K-f2. But it is evident that Black must have made a blunder, for on the move preceding the position of the Diagram he must have either played his King into the corner or moved the Bishop or Pawn to h2, both moves which were in no way forced.

To checkmate with King and two Bishops against King or with Bishop and Knight against King offers no difficulty.

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1 | ^K | ^B | ^B | | | | | |
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a b c d e f g h

DIAGRAM 11.

The only thing the player must keep in mind is that he needs his King for the drive. The two pieces are not sufficient to confine the opposing King to the corner. In Diagram 11 for instance, it will be the best policy for White to advance right away with his King in order to prevent Black's King from escaping into the middle of the board. The following play might then ensue:

(1) K-b2, K-b7; (2) K-c3, K-c6; (3) K-d4, K-d6; (4) B-f5, K-c6; (5) B-f4, K-b5; (6) B-e4, K-b4; (7) B-d3, K-b3; (8) B-d2, K-b2; (9) K-c4, K-a3; (10) K-c3, K-a4; 11) K-c2 (not K-b2 which would stalemate Black's King), K-a3; (12) B-b5, K-a2; (13) B-c1, K-a1; (14) B-b2, K-a2; (15) B-c4 mate.

In the fight of King, Bishop and Knight against the King the mate can be enforced only in a corner controlled by the Bishop, if the lone King always makes the best move. Diagram 12 may serve as an example of this ending. White has a black Bishop and so he will have to drive Black's King to either h8 or a1 as it is not possible to mate him in the white corner a8, unless he makes a blunder.

After (1) B-e5 for instance, Black must of course not go into the corner as Kt-b6 would mate him. He will play K-c8 and White will have to prevent the flight of the black King into the middle of the board. It is easy to see, by the way, that the Kt cannot be placed so as to control the square c8, thereby forcing the King into the corner, and to threaten the mate on b6 at the same time. For he can control c8 only from a black square while he would have to stand on a white square to be able to reach b6 in one move.

After (1) B-e5, K-c8; (2) K-b6, K-d7; (3) Kt-f4 Black's King is confined to the seventh and eighth ranks and it is only a question of time when he will be forced to h8.

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8 | | #K | | | | | | |
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6 | ^K | | | | | | | |
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5 | | | | ^Kt| | | | |
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4 | | | | | | | | |
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3 | | | ^B | | | | | |
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2 | | | | | | | | |
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1 | | | | | | | | |
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a b c d e f g h

DIAGRAM 12.

White's Bishop being only capable of commanding black squares the Knight will have to be used to drive the King from white squares. For instance: K-c8; (4) K-c6, K-d8; (5) Kt-g6, K-c8; (6) Kt-e7, K-d8; (7) K-d6, K-e8; (8) K-e6, K-d8; (9) B-h2. A waiting move. White wants to place the Bishop on c7 so as to make d8 inaccessible to Black. (9) K-e8; (10) B-c7, K-f8; (11) Kt-f5, K- e8; (12) Kt-g7, K-f8; (13) K-f6, K-g8; (14) K-g6, K-f8; (15) B- d6, K-g8; (16) Kt-f5, K-h8; (17)

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8 | | #K | | | | | | |
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6 | | ^K | | ^Kt| | | | |
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5 | | | ^Kt| | | | | |
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a b c d e f g h

DIAGRAM 13.

B-a3. Again a waiting move. White cannot play Kt-h6 right away as Black would be stalemate. (17) ..., K-g8; (18) Kt-h6, K-h8; (19) B-b2 mate.

It is not possible to force a mate with King and two Knights, for even if a position similar to Diagram 13 is arrived at, in which the King can be driven into the corner, the Knight who prevents the King from escaping is never ready to give the checkmate, and in order to prevent a stalemate the other Knight would have to let the King out of the corner again. If Black had a spare move, for instance if he had a Pawn left, then White would win. (1) Kt- a6, K-a8; (2) Kt-e8, Pawn moves; (3) Kt-c7 mate.

RELATIVE VALUE OF THE MEN

From the foregoing examples it is possible to form a vague idea of the strength of the different pieces. The Queen is apparently the strongest piece. On account of her superior mobility she can confine the hostile King with a few moves and force him into a mating net. Of the other pieces the Rook is no doubt the strongest for he is sufficient to force a mate in conjunction with his own King, while Bishop or Knight cannot do so. Two Bishops apparently are stronger than two Knights, while it is not possible yet to say anything about the relative value of one Bishop and one Knight.

The above valuation, however, holds good only on the comparatively vacant board, where the pieces can make full use of their mobility. It is the mobility alone which decides the value of a man, and positions often occur in which a Knight is more valuable than a Rook or in which a Pawn might be preferable to a Bishop and so on. The reason is that sometimes the weaker man occupies a commanding square while the stronger man is obstructed somehow or other so that he cannot be made to work. Examples for positions of this kind will be discussed in the Chapter on combination.

Although it is impossible to indicate exactly the relative value of the men in each position, experience enables a fair estimation of their average strength. The Queen is about as strong as two Rooks or as three minor pieces (Bishops or Knights). A minor piece is about equivalent to three Pawns, and a Rook is consequently equal to a minor piece and one to two Pawns.

The value of a Pawn is the hardest thing to grasp for the beginner. A Pawn appears to be of so little use on account of his limited mobility, that it seems hardly worth while to waste time on saving a Pawn that is attacked, as so much greater things are apparently at issue. What he overlooks is the latent value of the Pawn which lies in the possibility of queening him later in the game.

To realize the importance of the Pawn it is necessary to know exactly under what conditions he CAN be queened. This knowledge is all the more indispensable to the Chess player as the vast majority of all games finally resolve themselves into Pawn endings in which the advantage of one or more Pawns decides the issue.

In most of these cases some pieces are on the board in addition to the Pawns and sometimes it is only by their exchange that the game can be won. The most elementary example is that shown in the following Diagram.

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4 | #Q | | | | ^P | | | |
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3 | | #K | | | | | | |
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2 | | | | | | | | |
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1 | | | ^Q | | | | ^K | |
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a b c d e f g h

DIAGRAM 14.

White is a Pawn ahead and it will be his object to Queen it. The beginner, in his haste to advance the Pawn, will probably play P- e5 at once and lose the Pawn, as Black can answer Q-d4 check with simultaneous attack on the Pawn. The correct way to play for White is (1) Q-d1+, K-a3 or b4; (2) Qxa4, Kxa4. Now that the Queens are exchanged White need not any longer worry about any interference with his plans to queen the Pawn except maneuvers of the black King, which might still lead to the capture or the blockade of the Pawn.

A rash advance of the Pawn would again be the wrong thing. The right way of playing is indicated by a simple calculation. The Pawn needs four moves to reach the queening square. But the black King arrives there in the same number of moves, so that he can capture the Pawn the moment he queens. Consequently White will only be able to enforce the safe queening of his Pawn if he can gain control of the queening square with his own King, thus protecting the Pawn at the time of queening.

Now, White needs three moves to bring his King up to his Pawn on f4. In the meantime Black will have reached the square d6 and after White's (4) K-f5 Black will block the further advance of White's King by K-e7. However, White can force Black to give the way free. The maneuver by which he does this is one which occurs in a similar form in nearly all Pawn endings and its thorough grasp is therefore essential. Diagram 15 shows the critical position.

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7 | | | | | #K | | | |
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6 | | | | | | | | |
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5 | | | | | | ^K | | |
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4 | | | | | ^P | | | |
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3 | | | | | | | | |
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2 | | | | | | | | |
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1 | | | | | | | | |
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a b c d e f g h

DIAGRAM 15.

White can win the game only by playing (5) K-e5. The technical term for this move is "going into OPPOSITION." The Kings oppose each other in one line on squares of the same color and the one who has to move out of opposition--in this case Black's King--is compelled to allow the advance of the opposing King to the next line. If Black plays K-d7, White answers (6) K-f6, and if Black plays K-f7, (6) K-d6 would follow. Then, after Black's K-e8, White repeats the maneuver by taking the opposition with (7) K- e6, and again Black must back out with either K-d8 or K-f8, so that White can advance to either f7 or d7. This clears the way for the Pawn who now advances unimpeded to the queening square.

The important role which the opposition of the Kings play in Pawn endings is still more strikingly illustrated by the situations which would result if in the position of Diagram 15 White played (5) P-e5 instead of K-e5. Black would then draw the game by maintaining the opposition himself. He would play K-f7 and although after (6) P-e6, K-e7; (7) K-e5 White has regained the opposition he cannot keep it if Black continues correctly. The move which saves the game for Black is K-e8. K-d8 or K-f8 lose, as then White could go into opposition by K-d6 or K-f6. The play in these three cases would be this: A: (7) ..., K-e8, (8) K-f6, K-f8; (9) P-e7+, K-e8; (10) K-e6 and Black is stalemate, the game is drawn. B: (7) ..., K-d8; (8) K-d6, K-e8; (9) P-e7 and Black must move K-f7 enabling White to obtain control of the queening square by (10) K-d7. C: (7) ..., K-f8, (8) K-f6, K-e8, etc., similar to the play in B.

To sum up the investigation of this Pawn ending: The deciding factor is the opposition of the Kings on the 6th and 8th ranks. If the weaker party succeeds in obtaining that opposition with the Pawn on the 6th rank he draws the game.

If the Pawn is not yet advanced to the 6th rank the opposition of the Kings is of no avail to the weaker party as the Pawn advancing would force the opposing King out of opposition again. Suppose, for instance, White has the King on e6 and the Pawn on e5 while Black's King stands on e8 with White on the move. White must get out of opposition by playing K-f6 or K-d6 and Black keeps the opposition by K-f8 or K-d8. But then White has a move to spare which forces Black out of opposition and thereby wins the game. He plays P-e6 and the game ends in the way discussed above.

The ending King and Pawn against King is one of the most important for every Chess player to know, not only because a great number of positions can be reduced to this ending by the exchange of all the other men left on the board, but also because it gives the first insight into the peculiar maneuvers of the King which have to be carried out in connection with gaining or giving up the opposition, and which, as will be seen later on, constitute the essence of the most frequent pawn endings.

For the beginner, of course, the opposition maneuvers are rather difficult to grasp and it is fortunate for him that the vast majority of pawn endings are of a much simpler form. The winning maneuver in these endings into which most Chess games resolve themselves, is easily explained and after understanding it the beginner can readily see the fundamental principle underlying every game.