Chapter XVI: Part 16

The dead are generally buried. By some Oddes the corpse is carried to the burial-ground wrapped up in a new cloth, and carried in a dhubati (thick coarse cloth) by four men. On the way to the grave, the corpse is laid on the ground, and rice thrown over its eyes. It is then washed, and the namam (Vaishnavite sect mark) painted, or vibuthi (sacred ashes) smeared on the forehead of a man, and kunkumam (coloured powder) on that of a female. Earth is thrown by those assembled into the grave before it is filled in. On the karmandhiram day, or last day of the death ceremonies, the relations repair to a tank or well outside the village. An effigy is made with mud, to which cooked rice, etc., is offered. Some rice is cooked, and placed on an arka (Calotropis) leaf as an offering to the crows. If a married woman has died, the widower cuts through his waist thread, whereas a widow is taken to the water's edge, and sits on a winnow. Her bangles are broken, and the bottu is snapped by her brother. Water is then poured over her head three times through the winnow. After bathing, she goes home, and sits in a room with a lamp, and may see no one till the following morning. She is then taken to one or more temples, and made to pull the tail of a cow three times. The Oddes of Coimbatore, in the Tamil country, have elaborated both the marriage and funeral ceremonies, and copy those of the Balijas and Vellalas. But they do not call in the assistance of a Brahman purohit.

A woman, found guilty of immorality, is said to have to carry a basketful of earth from house to house, before she is re-admitted to the caste.

The following note on a reputed cure for snake poisoning used by Oddes was communicated to me by Mr. Gustav Haller. "A young boy, who belonged to a gang of Oddes, was catching rats, and put his hand into a bamboo bush, when a cobra bit him, and clung to his finger when he was drawing his hand out of the bush. I saw the dead snake, which was undoubtedly a cobra. I was told that the boy was in a dying condition, when a man of the same gang said that he would cure him. He applied a brown pill to the wound, to which it stuck without being tied. The man dipped a root into water, and rubbed it on the lad's arm from the shoulder downwards. The arm, which was benumbed, gradually became sensitive, and at last the fingers could move, and the pill dropped off. The moist root was rubbed on to the boy's tongue and into the corner of the eye before commencing operations. The man said that a used pill is quite efficacious, but should be well washed to get rid of the poison. In the manufacture of the pill, five leaves of a creeper are dried, and ground to powder. The pill must be inserted for nine days between the bark and cambium of a margosa tree (Melia Azadirachta) during the new moon, when the sap ascends." The creeper is Tinospora cordifolia (gul bel) and the roots are apparently those of the same climbing shrub. There is a widespread belief that gul bel growing on a margosa tree is more efficacious as a medicine than that which is found on other kinds of trees.

The insigne of the caste at Conjeeveram is a spade. [181]

"In the Ceded Districts," Mr. F. S. Mullaly writes, [182] "some of the Wudders are known as Donga Wuddiwars, or thieving Wudders, from the fact of their having taken to crime as a profession. Those of the tribe who have adopted criminal habits are skilful burglars and inveterate robbers. They are chiefly to be found among the stone Wudder class, who, besides their occupation of building walls, are also skilful stone-cutters. By going about under the pretence of mending grindstones, they obtain much useful information as to the houses to be looted, or parties of travellers to be attacked. In committing a highway robbery or dacoity, they are always armed with stout sticks. Burglary by Wudders may usually be traced to them, if careful observations are made of the breach in the wall. The implement is ordinarily the crowbar used by them in their profession as stone-workers, and the blunt marks of the crowbar are, as a rule, noticeable. They will never confess, or implicate another of their fraternity, and, should one of them be accused of a crime, the women are most clamorous, and inflict personal injuries on themselves and their children, to deter the police from doing their duty, and then accuse them of torture. Women and children belonging to criminal gangs are experts in committing grain thefts from kalams or threshing-floors, where they are engaged in harvest time, and also in purloining their neighbours' poultry. Stolen property is seldom found with Wudders. Their receivers are legion, but they especially favour liquor shopkeepers in the vicinity of their encampment. Instances have been known of valuable jewellery being exchanged for a few drams of arrack. In each Wudder community, there is a headman called the Ganga Raja, and, in the case of criminal gangs of these people, he receives two shares of spoil. Identifiable property is altered at once, many of the Wudders being themselves able to melt gold and silver jewellery, which they dispose of for about one-tenth of the value."

It has been said of the navvies in England that "many persons are quite unaware that the migratory tribe of navvies numbers about 100,000, and moves about from point to point, wherever construction works are going forward, such as railways, harbour, canals, reservoirs and drainage works. Generally the existence of these works is unknown to the public until their completion. They then come into use, but the men who risked their lives to make them are gone nobody knows where. They are public servants, upon whose labours the facilities of modern civilised life largely depend, and surely, therefore, their claim on our sympathies is universal." And these remarks apply with equal force to the Oddes, who numbered 498,388 in the Madras Presidency at the census, 1901.

In the Census Report, 1901, Odderazulu is given as a synonym of Odde. One of the sections of the Yerukalas is also called Odde. Vadde (Odde) Cakali (Tsakala) is recorded, in the Vizagapatam Manual, as the name for those who wash clothes, and carry torches and palanquins.

Oddilu.--The Oddilu are described [183] by the Rev. J. Cain as principally raftsmen on the Godavari river, who have raised themselves in life, and call themselves Sishti Karanamalu. He states further that they are Kois (or Koyis) who are regarded as more honourable than any of the others, and have charge of the principal velpu (tribal gods).

Odhuvar (reader or reciter).--A name for Pandarams, who recite hymns in temples.

Odisi.--A sub-division of Bhondari.

Odiya.--It is noted, in the Madras Census Report, 1891, that "this is the principal Uriya caste of farmers in Ganjam. Odia and Uriya are different forms of one and the same word, and this caste name simply means a native of the Odia or Uriya country, as Telaga means a man of the Telugu country. In both cases, therefore, we find a number of persons included, who are in reality members of some other caste. The total number of sub-divisions of Odia, according to the census schedules, is 146, but a number of these are names of various Uriya castes, and not true sub-divisions. The largest sub-division is Benaito, which is returned by 62,391 persons. The Nunia sub-division, the next largest, was returned by 9,356 individuals." It is further recorded, in the Census Report, 1901, that Odiya, Oriya, or Uriya "is one of the vaguest terms in the whole of Table XIII (Caste and Tribe). The Odiyas are a race by themselves, split up into many castes. 'Odiya' also often means merely a man who speaks Oriya. The term is, however, so constantly returned by itself without qualification, that Odiya has perforce figured in the tables of all the censuses as a caste. The Odiyas of the hills differ, however, from the Odiyas of the plains, the Odiyas of Ganjam from those of Vizagapatam, and the customs of one muttah (settlement) from those of the next." Mr. Narasing Doss writes to me that "Odiya literally means an inhabitant of Odissa or Orissa. There is a separate caste called Odiya, with several sub-divisions. They are cultivators by profession. Marriage is infant or adult. They employ Brahmans at ceremonials. Widows and divorcees are remarried. They eat fish and meat, but not fowls or beef, and do not drink liquor. They burn the dead. Members of the Nagabonso sept claim to be descendants of Nagamuni, the serpent rishi."

I gather that there are three main sections among the Odiyas, viz., Benaito, Nuniya, and Baraghoria, of which the first-named rank above the others in the social scale. From them Oriya Brahmans and Koronos will accept water. The Benaitos and Nuniyas are found all over Ganjam, whereas the Baraghorias are apparently confined to villages round about Aska and Purushothapur. There are numerous exogamous gotras within the caste, among which are Nagasira (cobra), Gonda (rhinoceros), Kochipo (tortoise), and Baraha (boar). The gods of the gotra should be worshipped at the commencement of any auspicious ceremony. The Odiyas also worship Jagannatha, and Takuranis (village deities). A number of titles occur in the caste, e.g., Bissoyi, Podhano, Jenna, Bariko, Sahu, Swayi, Gaudo, Pulleyi, Chando, Dolei, and Torei.

When an unmarried girl is ill, a vow is taken that, if she recovers, she shall be married to the dharma devata (sun), which is represented by a brass vessel.

People of mixed origin sometimes call themselves Odiyas, and pass as members of this caste. Some Bhayipuos, for example, who correspond to the Telugu Adapapas, call themselves Odiyas or Beniya Odiyas.

Odiya Toti.--A Tamil synonym for Oriya Haddis employed as scavengers in municipalities in the Tamil country.

Ojali.--The Ojali, Vojali, or Ozolu are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as being "Telugu blacksmiths in the Vizagapatam Agency. They eat beef, but are somewhat superior to the Paidis and Malas in social position. They are also called Mettu Kamsali." It is stated in the Vizagapatam Manual that, during the reign of Chola Chakravati, the Kamsalas (artisans) claimed to be equal to Brahmans. This offended the sovereign, and he ordered their destruction. Some only escaped death by taking shelter with people of the 'Ozu' caste. As an acknowledgment of their gratitude many of the Kamsalas have ozu affixed to their house-name, e.g., Kattozu, Lakkozu.

Okkiliyan.--Okkiliyan is the Tamil synonym for Vakkaliga, the large caste of Canarese cultivators, and the name is derived from okkalu, meaning cultivation or agriculture. In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the Vakkaligas or Okkiliyans are described as "Canarese cultivators, who originally belonged to Mysore, and are found mainly in Madura and Coimbatore. The caste is split up into several sub-divisions, the names of two of which, Nonaba and Gangadikara, are derived from former divisions of the Mysore country. Each of these is again split up into totemistic exogamous sections or kulas, some of which are Chinnada (gold), Belli (silver), Khajjaya (cake), Yemme (buffalo), Alagi (pot), Jola (cholum: a millet)." The Vakkaligas say they are descendants of the Ballal Rajah of Anegundi, and that they left their homes in pursuit of more suitable occupation, and settled themselves in Konganad (Coimbatore). The Okkiliyans, whom I have investigated, were settled in the Tamil country in the Coimbatore district, where they were engaged as cultivators, bakers, milk-vendors, bricklayers, merchants, cart-drivers, tailors, cigar manufacturers, and coolies. They returned the following eight endogamous sub-divisions:--

(1) Gangadikara, or those who lived on the banks of the Ganges.
(2) Gudi, temple.
(3) Kire (Amarantus), which is largely cultivated by them.
(4) Kunchu, a tassel or bunch.
(5) Kamati, foolish. Said to have abandoned their original
occupation of cultivating the land, and adopted the
profession of bricklayer.
(6) Gauri, Siva's consort.
(7) Bai.
(8) Sanu.

Like other Canarese castes, the Okkiliyans have exogamous septs (kuttam or kutta), such as Belli (silver), Kasturi (musk), Pattegara (headman), Aruva, Hattianna, etc. By religion they are both Saivites and Vaishnavites. Those of the Aruva sept are all Saivites, and the Hatti sept are Vaishnavites. Intermarriage between Saivites and Vaishnavites is permitted, even though the former be Lingayats. The Okkiliyans also worship village deities, and sacrifice goats and fowls to Magaliamma and Koniamma.

The Kiraikkarans of Coimbatore, whose main occupation is cultivating kirai (Amarantus) and other vegetables, are said to be Kempati Okkiliyans, i.e. Okkiliyans who emigrated from Kempampatti in Mysore.

The hereditary headman of the caste, at Coimbatore, is called Pattakaran, who has under him a Chinna (little) Pattakaran. The headman presides over the caste council meetings, settles disputes, and inflicts fines and other forms of punishment. If a person is accused of using coarse language, he is slapped on the cheek by the Chinna Pattakaran. If, during a quarrel, one person beats the other with shoes, he has to purify himself and his house, and feed some of his fellow castemen. The man who has been slippered also has to undergo purificatory ceremony, but has not to stand a feast. In cases of adultery, the guilty persons have to carry a basket of sand on the head round the quarters of the community, accompanied by the Chinna Pattakaran, who beats them with a tamarind switch. In some places, I am informed, there is a headman for the village, called Uru Goundan, who is subject to the authority of the Nattu Goundan. Several nadus, each composed of a number of villages, are subject to a Pattakar, who is assisted by a Bandari. All these offices are hereditary.

When a Gangadikara girl reaches puberty, her maternal uncle, or his son, constructs a hut of stems of cocoanut leaves, reeds and branches of Pongamia glabra. Every day her relations bring her a cloth, fruits, and flowers. On alternate days she is bathed, and dressed in a cloth supplied by the washerwoman. The hut is broken up, and a new one constructed on the third, fifth, and seventh days. During the marriage ceremony, the bridegroom carries a dagger (katar) with a lime stuck on its tip, and partly covered with a cloth, when he proceeds to the bride's house with a bamboo, new clothes, the tali (marriage badge), jewels, wrist-thread (kankanam), fruits, cocoanuts, rice, and a new mat, camphor, etc. He must have the dagger with him till the wrist-threads are untied. The barber cuts the nails of the bridegroom. The Pattakaran, or a Brahman priest, takes round the tali to be blessed by those assembled, and gives it to the bridegroom, who ties it on the bride's neck. The ends of the cloths of the contracting couple, with betel leaves and areca nuts in them, are tied together, and they link together the little finger of their right hands. They then look at the sky, to see the pole-star, Arundati, who was the wife of the ascetic Vasishta, and the emblem of chastity. The marriage booth has four posts, and the milk-post is made of the milk hedge (Euphorbia Tirucalli), to which are tied mango leaves and a wrist-thread. At some Okkiliyan marriages, the caste priest, called Kanigara (soothsayer), officiates at the tali-tying ceremony. Very great importance is attached to the linking of the fingers of the bridal couple by the Kanigara or maternal uncle. The dowry is not given at the time of marriage, but only after the birth of a child. For her first confinement, the woman is taken to her parents' home, and, after delivery, is sent back to her husband with the dowry. This is not given before the birth of a child, as, in the event of failure of issue or death of his wife, the husband might claim the property, which might pass to a new family.

Among some Okkiliyans the custom is maintained by which the father of a young boy married to a grown-up girl cohabits with his daughter-in-law until her husband has reached maturity.

A dead person, I was informed at Coimbatore, is buried in a sitting posture, or, if young and unmarried, in a recumbent position. As the funeral procession proceeds on its way to the burial-ground, the relations and friends throw coins, fruits, cakes, cooked rice, etc., on the road, to be picked up by poor people. If the funeral is in high life, they may even throw flowers made of gold or silver, but not images, as some of the higher classes do. At the south end of the grave, a hollow is scooped out for the head and back to rest in. A small quantity of salt is placed on the abdomen, and the grave is filled in. Leaves of the arka plant (Calotropis gigantea), or tangedu (Cassia auriculata), are placed in three corners, and a stone is set up over the head. The son, having gone round the grave with a pot of water and a fire-brand, breaks the pot on the stone before he retires. The widow of the deceased breaks her bangles, and throws them on the grave. The son and other mourners bathe, and return home, where they worship a lighted lamp. On the third day, dried twigs of several species of Ficus and jak tree (Artocarpus integrifolia), milk, a new cloth, plantains, tender cocoanuts, cheroots, raw rice, betel, etc., required for worship, are taken to the grave. The twigs are burnt, and reduced to ashes, with which, mixed with water, the figure of a human being is made. It is covered with a new cloth, and flowers are thrown on it. Puja is done to plantains, cocoanut, etc., placed on a plantain leaf, and milk is poured over the figure by relations and friends. The widow breaks her tali string, and throws it on the figure. The son, and the four bearers who carried the corpse to the grave, are shaved. Each of the bearers is made to stand up, holding a pestle. The barber touches their shoulders with holy grass dipped in gingelly (Sesamum) oil. Raw rice, and other eatables, are sent to the houses of the bearers by the son of the deceased. At night the cloths, turban, and other personal effects of the dead man are worshipped. Pollution is removed on the eleventh day by a Brahman sprinkling holy water, and the caste people are fed. They perform sradh. By some Okkiliyans, the corpse is, like that of a Lingayat Badaga, etc., carried to the burial-ground in a structure called teru kattu, made of a bamboo framework surmounted by a canopy, whereon are placed five brass vessels (kalasam). The structure is decorated with cloths, flags, and plantain trees.

The Morasu Vakkaligas, who sacrifice their fingers, are dealt with separately (see Morasu).

Olai.--A sub-division of Palli, the members of which wear an ear ornament called olai.

Olaro.--A sub-division of Gadaba.

Olekara.--See Vilyakara.

Olikala (pyre and ashes).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.

Omanaito.--The Omanaitos or Omaitos are an Oriya cultivating caste, for the following account of which I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. According to a tradition, the ancestor of the caste was one Amatya, a minister of Sri Rama at Ayodhya. After Rama had gone to heaven, there was no one to take care of them, and they took to agriculture. The caste is divided into two endogamous sections, called Bodo (big) and Sanno (little). The latter are regarded as illegitimate children of the former by a Bottada, Gaudo, or other woman. The Bodo section is divided into septs, called Sva (parrot), Bhag (tiger), Kochchimo (tortoise), Naga (cobra), Sila (stone), Dhudho (milk), Kumda (Cucurbita maxima), and Kukru (dog).

The caste headman is called Bhatha Nayak, whose office is hereditary. He arranges council meetings for settling social questions, and takes a leading part in excommunicating members of the caste. Like the Gonds, the Omanaitos cannot tolerate a man suffering from sores, and he is formally excommunicated. To be received back into the caste, he has to give a caste feast, of which the Bhatha Nayak is the first to partake.

Girls are married before or after puberty. A man claims his paternal aunt's daughter in marriage. As soon as a young man's parents think it is time that he should get married, they set out, with some sweets and jaggery (crude sugar), for the house of the paternal aunt, where the hand of her daughter is asked for. A second visit of a similar nature is made later on, when the marriage is decided on. An auspicious day is fixed by the Desari. A messenger is sent to the house of the bride-elect with some rice, three rupees, a sheep, and a new cloth, which are presented to her parents, who invite the bridegroom and his party to come on the appointed day. On that day, the bridegroom is conducted in procession, sometimes on horseback, to the bride's village. There, in front of her hut, a pandal (booth) has been constructed of eight posts of the sal tree (Shorea robusta), and a central post of the ippa (Bassia) tree, to which seven pieces of turmeric and seven mango leaves are tied. At the auspicious moment, the bridegroom is conducted in procession to the booth, and the messenger says aloud to the paternal aunt "The bridegroom has come. Bring the bride quickly." She stands by the side of the bridegroom, and the Desari links together their little fingers, while the women throw rice coloured with turmeric over them. Water, which has been brought from the village stream at early morn, and coloured with turmeric, is poured over the couple from five pots. They then dress themselves in new cloths presented by their fathers-in-law. A feast is given by the bride's party. On the following day, the bride is conducted to the home of the bridegroom, at the entrance to which they are met by the bridegroom's mother, who sprinkles rice coloured with turmeric over them, and washes their feet with turmeric-water. Liquor is then distributed, and a meal partaken of. The Desari takes seven grains of rice and seven areca nuts and ties them up in the ends of the cloths of the contracting couple. On the following day, a feast is held, and, next day, the parties of the bride and bridegroom throw turmeric-water over each other. All then repair to the stream, and bathe. A feast follows, for which a sheep is killed.

It is noted, in the Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam District, that in the course of an Omanaito wedding there is a free fight, with mud for missiles.

The remarriage of widows is permitted, and a younger brother may marry the widow of his elder brother. Divorce is allowed, and divorcées may marry again.

The Omanaitos worship Takurani and Chamariya Devata, as priest of whom a member of the caste officiates. An annual festival is held in the month of Chaitro.

The dead are burnt. Pollution on account of a death in a family lasts for ten days, during which the caste occupation is not carried out, and the mourners are fed by people of another sept. On the eleventh day a feast is held, at which liquor is forbidden.

The caste title, is usually Nayako, but the more prosperous take the title Patro.

Ondipuli.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as Telugu-speaking cultivators and cattle-breeders in the Salem district. The name is sometimes applied to the beggars attached to the Palli caste.

Onnam Parisha (first party).--A section of Elayad.

Onne (Pterocarpus Marsupium).--An exogamous sept of Toreyas, who are not allowed to mark their foreheads with the juice which exudes from the trunk of this tree.

Onteddu.--Onteddu or Onti-eddu is the name of a sub-division of Ganigas or Gandlas, who only use one bullock for their oil-mills.

Opoto.--Opoto or Apoto is the name of the palanquin-bearing section of Gaudos.

Oppamtara.--A title conferred by the Raja of Cochin on some Nayars.

Oppanakkaran (trader).--Telugu traders and agriculturists. Recorded as a sub-division of Balija.

Oppomarango (Achyranthes aspera).--An exogamous sept of Bhondari, the members of which may not use the root as a tooth-brush.

Ore.--An honorific title of Nayars.

Origabhakthudu (saluting devotee).--A class of mendicants, who are said to beg only from Perikes.

Oriya.--Oriya, or Uriya, is a general term for those who speak the Oriya language. At times of census, it has been recorded as a sub-division of various castes, e.g., Sondi and Dhobi.

Oruganti.--A sub-division of Kapu and Mutracha.

Orunul (one string).--A sub-division of Marans, whose widows do not remarry.

Oshtama.--A corrupt form of the word Vaishnava, applied to Satanis, who are called by illiterate folk Oishnamaru or Oshtamaru.

Osta.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as the name of a caste of barbers for Muhammadans.

Otattu (tile-makers).--An occupational name for Nayars, who tile or thatch temples and Brahman houses.

Ottaisekkan.--The name, indicating those who work their oil-mill with a single bullock, of a sub-division of Vaniyan.

Ottikunda (empty pot).--An exogamous sept of Kamma.

P

Paccha (green).--An exogamous sept of Kamma. The equivalent Pacchai is a sub-division of Tamil Paraiyans, and of Malaiyalis who have settled on the Pacchaimalais (green hills). Pacchi powaku (green tobacco) occurs as an exogamous sept of Devanga. Pacchai Kutti is the name given to Koravas who travel about the country as professional tattooers, the operation of tattooing being known as pricking with green. In like manner, Pacchai Botlu is the name for Oddes, who are itinerant tattooers in the Ganjam, Vizagapatam, and Godavari districts.

Pachilia.--A sub-division of Oriya Gaudos.

Pada (fighting).--A sub-division of Nayar.

Padaharu Madala (sixteen madalas).--The name, indicating the amount of the bride-price, of a section of Upparas. A madala is equal to two rupees. Some say that the name has reference to the modas, or heaps of earth, in which salt was formerly made.

Padaiyachi.--A synonym or title of Palli or Vanniyan, and Savalakkaran.

Padal.--A title of headmen of the Bagatas.

Padam.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a sub-division of Nayar. Padamangalum or Padamangalakkar is also recorded as a sub-division of Nayars, who escort processions in temples. Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar writes that "Padamangalam and the Tamil Padam are recorded as a division of Nayars, but they are said to be immigrants to Travancore from the Tamil country." Padam also occurs as an exogamous sept of Moosu Kamma.

Padarti.--A title of pujaris (priests) in South Canara, and a name by which Stanikas are called.

Padavala (boat).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.

Padiga Raju.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, as the same as Bhatrazu. The Padiga Rajulu are, however, beggars attached to the Padma Sales, and apparently distinct from Bhatrazus. The name is probably derived from padiga, a kind of vessel, and may bear reference to the vessel which they carry with them on their begging expeditions.

Padma (lotus).--A sub-division of Velama.

Padma Sale.--The Padma (lotus) Sales are a Telugu-speaking caste of weavers, who are scattered all over the Madras Presidency. The majority are engaged in their hereditary occupation, but only the minority possess looms of their own, and they work, for the most part, for the more prosperous owners of hand-looms. As a class they are poor, being addicted to strong drinks, and in the hands of the money-lenders, who take care that their customers always remain in debt to them. Like the Kaikolans, the Padma Sales weave the coarser kinds of cotton cloths, and cannot compete with the Patnulkarans and Khatres in the manufacture of the finer kinds.

The Padma Sales have only one gotra, Markandeya. But, like other Telugu castes, they have a number of exogamous septs or intiperus, of which the following are examples:--

Bandari, treasurer. Bomma, an idol. Canji, gruel. Chinthaginjala, tamarind seeds. Gorantla, Lawsonia alba. Jinka, gazelle. Kalava, ditch. Kasulu, copper coins. Kongara, crane. Kadavala, pots. Manchi, good. Nili, indigo. Nukalu, flour of grain or pulse. Nyayam, justice. Utla, rope for hanging pots. Pothu, male. Paththi, cotton. Putta, ant-hill. Thelu, scorpion. Tangedla, Cassia auriculata. Tumma, Acacia arabica. Avari, indigo plant. Chinnam, gold? Gurram, horse. Geddam, beard. Kota, fort. Meda, raised mound Middala, storeyed house. Mamidla, mango. Narala, nerves. Pula, flowers. Sadhu, quiet or meek.

The Padma Sales profess to be Vaishnavites, but some are Saivites. All the families of the exogamous sept Sadhu are said to be lingam-wearing Saivites. In addition to their house-god Venkateswara, they worship Pulikondla Rangaswami, Maremma, Durgamma, Narasappa, Sunkalamma, Urukundhi Viranna, Gangamma, Kinkiniamma, Mutyalamma, Kalelamma, Ankamma, and Padvetiamma. Their caste deity is Bhavana Rishi, to whom, in some places, a special temple is dedicated. A festival in honour of this deity is celebrated annually, during which the god and goddess are represented by two decorated pots placed on a model of a tiger (vyagra vahanam), to which, on the last day of the ceremonial, large quantities of rice and vegetables are offered, which are distributed among the loom-owners, pujari, headman, fasting celebrants, etc.

The Padma Sales belong to the right-hand, and the Devangas to the left-hand faction, and the latter aver that the Padma Sales took away the body of the goddess Chaudeswari, leaving them the head.

Three kinds of beggars are attached to the Padma Sales, viz., Sadhana Surulu, Padiga Rajulu or Koonapilli vandlu, and Inaka-mukku Bhatrazus. Concerning the Sadhana Surulu, Buchanan writes as follows. [184] "The Vaishnavite section of the Samay Sale is called Padma Sale. The whole Shalay formerly wore the linga, but, a house having been possessed by a devil, and this sect having been called on to cast him out, all their prayers were of no avail. At length ten persons, having thrown aside their linga, and offered up their supplications to Vishnu, they succeeded in expelling the enemy, and ever afterwards they followed the worship of this god, in which they have been initiated by their brethren. The descendants of these men, who are called Sadana Asholu (Sadana Surulu), or the celebrated heroes, never work, and, having dedicated themselves to god, live upon the charity of the industrious part of the caste, with whom they disdain to marry."

The Padiga Rajulu are supposed to be the descendants of three persons, Adigadu, Padigadu and Baludu, who sprang from the sweat of Bhavana Rishi, and the following legend is current concerning the origin of the Padma Sales and Padiga Rajulu. At the creation of the world, men were naked, and one Markandeya, who was sixteen years old, was asked to weave cloths. To enable him to do so, he did thapas (penance), and from the sacred fire arose Bhavana Rishi, bearing a bundle of thread obtained from the lotus which sprang from Vishnu's navel. Bhavana Rishi made cloths, and presented them to the Devatas, and offered a cloth to Bhairava also. This he refused to accept, as it was the last, and not the first, which is usually rolled up, and kept on the loom. Finding it unsuitable for wearing, Bhairava uttered a curse that the cloths made should wear out in six months. Accordingly, Siva asked Bhavana to procure him a tiger's skin for wearing. Narada came to the assistance of Bhavana, and told him to go to Udayagiri, where Bhadravati, the daughter of Surya, was doing penance to secure Bhavana as her husband. She promised to secure a skin, if he would marry her. To this he consented, and, in due course, received the tiger's skin. Making the tiger his vahanam (vehicle), he proceeded to the abode of Siva (Kailasam), and on his way thither met a Rakshasa, whom he killed in a fight, in the course of which he sweated profusely. From the sweat proceeded Adigadu, Padigadu, and Baludu. When he eventually reached Siva, the tiger, on the sacred ashes being thrown over it, cast its skin, which Siva appropriated. In consequence of this legend, tigers are held in reverence by the Padma Sales, who believe that they will not molest them.

The legendary origin of the Padma Sales is given as follows in the Baramahal Records. [185] "In former days, the other sects of weavers used annually to present a piece of cloth to a rishi or saint, named Markandeyulu. One year they omitted to make their offering at the customary period, which neglect enraged the rishi, who performed a yaga or sacrifice of fire, and, by the power of mantras or prayers, he caused a man to spring up out of the fire of the sacrifice, and called him Padma Saliwarlu, and directed him to weave a piece of cloth for his use. This he did, and presented it to the rishi, saying 'Oh! Swami, who is thy servant to worship, and how is he to obtain moksham or admittance to the presence of the Supreme?' The rishi answered 'Pay adoration to me, and thou wilt obtain moksham.'"

The office of headman (Setti or Gaudu) is hereditary. The headman has under him an assistant, called Ummidi Setti or Ganumukhi, who is the caste messenger, and is exempt from the various subscriptions for temple festivals, etc.

When a girl reaches puberty, she is forbidden to eat meat or Amarantus during the period of ceremonial pollution. In settling the preliminaries of a marriage, a Brahman purohit takes part. With some Padma Sales it is etiquette not to give direct answers when a marriage is being fixed up. For example, those who have come to seek the hand of a girl say "We have come for a sumptuous meal," to which the girl's parents, if consenting to the match, will reply "We are ready to feed you. You are our near relations." The marriage rites are a blend of the Canarese and Telugu types. In the Ceded districts, the bride is conveyed to the house of the bridegroom, seated on a bull, after worship has been done to Hanuman. As she enters the house, a cocoanut is waved, and thrown on the ground. She then bathes in an enclosure with four posts, round which cotton thread has been wound nine times. Wrist-threads of cotton and wool are tied on the bride and bridegroom. The bottu (marriage badge) is tied round the bride's neck, and she stands on a pile of cholum (Sorghum vulgare: millet) on the floor or in a basket. The bridegroom stands on a mill-stone. While the bottu is being tied, a screen is interposed between the contracting couple. The bride's nose-screw ornament is dropped into a plate of milk, from which she has to pick it out five times. Towards evening, the bridal couple go in procession through the streets, and to the temple, if there is one. On their return to the house, the bridegroom picks up the bride, and dances for a short time before entering. This ceremony is called dega-ata, and is performed by several Telugu castes.

Some Padma Sales bury their dead in the usual manner, others, like the Lingayats, in a sitting posture. It is customary, in some places, to offer up a fowl to the corpse before it is removed from the house, and, if a death occurs on a Saturday or Sunday, a fowl is tied to the bier, and burnt with the corpse. This is done in the belief that otherwise another death would very soon take place. The Tamilians, in like manner, have a proverb "A Saturday corpse will not go alone." On the way to the burial-ground, the corpse is laid down, and water poured into the mouth. The son takes a pot of water round the grave, and holes are made in it by the Ummidi Setti, through which the water trickles out. On the fifth day, a sheep is killed, and eaten. During the evening the Satani comes, and, after doing puja (worship), gives the relatives of the deceased sacred arrack (liquor) in lieu of holy water (thirtham) and meat, for which he receives payment. On the last day of the death ceremonies (karmandiram), the Satani again comes with arrack, and, according to a note before me, all get drunk. (See Sale.)

Pagadala (trader in coral).--A sub-division or exogamous sept of Balija and Kavarai. The Pagadala Balijas of the Vizagapatam district are described as dealing in coral and pearls. Pagada Mukara (coral nose-ring) has been returned as a sub-division of Kamma.

Pagati Vesham.--A class of Telugu beggars, who put on disguises (vesham) while begging. [186] At the annual festival at Tirupati in honour of the goddess Gangamma, custom requires the people to appear in a different disguise every morning and evening. These disguises include those of a Bairagi, serpent, etc. [187]

Paguththan.--A title of Sembadavan.

Paida (gold or money).--An exogamous sept of Mala. The equivalent Paidam occurs as an exogamous sept of Devanga.

Paidi--The Paidis are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, 1891, as "a class of agricultural labourers and weavers, found in the Vizagapatam district. Some of them are employed as servants and village watchmen. They are closely akin to the Panos and Dombos of the hills, and Malas of the plains. They speak a corrupt dialect of Uriya." In the Census Report, 1901, Kangara (servant) is recorded as a synonym for Paidi.

For the following note on the Paidis of the Vizagapatam district, I am mainly indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. There is a great deal of confusion concerning this caste, and the general impression seems to be that it is the same as Domb and Pano. I am informed that the same man would be called Paidi by Telugus, Domb by the Savaras, and Pano by the Konds. In the interior of the Jeypore Agency tracts the Dombs and Paidis both repudiate the suggestion that they are connected with each other. The Paidis, in some places, claim to belong to the Valmiki kulam, and to be descended from Valmiki, the author of the Ramayana. A similar descent, it may be noted, is claimed by the Boyas. In the Vizagapatam Manual, the Paidimalalu or Paidi Malas (hill Malas) are described as cultivating land, serving as servants and village watchmen, and spinning cotton. It is said that they will not eat food, which has been seen by Komatis. The Paidis stoutly deny their connection with the Malas.

When a Paidi girl reaches puberty, she is kept under pollution for a varying number of days, and, on the last day, a Madiga is summoned, who cuts her finger and toe nails, after which she bathes. Girls are married either before or after puberty. The menarikam custom is in force, according to which a man should marry his maternal uncle's daughter. If he does so, the bride-price (voli) is fixed at five rupees; otherwise it is ten rupees. The marriage ceremonies last over four days, and are of the low-country Telugu type. The remarriage of widows and divorce are permitted.

The Paidis are Vaishnavites, and sing songs in praise of Rama during the month Karthika (November-December). Each family feeds a few of the castemen at least once during that month. They also observe the Sankramanam festival, at which they usually wear new clothes. The dead are either burnt or buried, and the chinna (small) and pedda rozu (big day) death ceremonies are observed.

Some Paidis are cultivators, but a large number are prosperous traders, buying up the hill produce, and bringing it to the low-country, where it is sold at markets. Their children study English in the hill schools. The caste titles are Anna and Ayya.

Some time ago some prisoners, who called themselves Billaikavu (cat-eaters), were confined in the Vizagapatam jail. I am informed that these people are Mala Paidis, who eat cat flesh.

The following note refers to the Paidis who live in the southern part of Ganjam. Some have settled as watchmen, or in other capacities, among the Savaras, whose language they speak in addition to their own. In their marriage ceremonies, they conform to the Telugu type, with certain variations adopted from the Oriya ceremonial. On the first day, a pandal (booth) is set up, and supported on twelve posts. A feast is given to males during the day, and to females at night. Like the Oriya Dandasis, they bring water from seven houses of members of castes superior to their own. The auspicious time for tying the pushte (gold marriage badge) on the following day is fixed so as to fall during the night. At the appointed time, the bridegroom rushes into the house of the bride, and the contracting couple throw rice over each other. Taking the bride by the hand, the bridegroom conducts her to the pandal, wherein they take their seats on the dais. The bride should be seated before the bridegroom, and there is a mock struggle to prevent this, and to secure first place for the bridegroom. He then ties a mokkuto (chaplet) on the bride's forehead, a thread on her wrist, and the pushte on her neck. After this has been done, the couple bathe with the water already referred to, and once more come to the dais, where a small quantity of rice, sufficient to fill a measure called adda, is placed before them. Some amusement is derived from the bride abstracting a portion of the rice, so that, when the bridegroom measures it, there is less than there should be. The marriage ceremonies conclude on the third day with offerings to ancestors, and distribution of presents to the newly married couple.

The death ceremonies are based on the Oriya type. On the day after death, the funeral pyre is extinguished, and the ashes are thrown on to a tree or an ant-hill. As they are being borne thither, the priest asks the man who carries them what has become of the dead person, and he is expected to reply that he has gone to Kasi (Benares) or Jagannatham. A cloth is spread on the spot where the corpse was burnt, and offerings of food are placed on it. On the fourth day, a pig is killed and cooked. Before being cooked, one of the legs is hung up near the spot where the deceased breathed his last. Death pollution is got rid of by touching oil and turmeric, and the ceremonies conclude with a feast. An annual offering of food is made, in the month of November, to ancestors, unless a death takes place in the family during this month.

The Ganjam Paidis worship the Takuranis (village deities), and sacrifice goats and sheep at local temples. As they are a polluting caste, they stand at a distance opposite the entrance to the temple, and, before they retire, take a pinch or two of earth. This, on their return home, they place on a cloth spread on a spot which has been cleansed, and set before it the various articles which have been prepared as offerings to the Takurani. When a Paidi is seriously ill, a male or female sorcerer (Bejjo or Bejjano) is consulted. A square, divided into sixteen compartments, is drawn on the floor with rice-flour. In each compartment are placed a leaf, cup of Butea frondosa, a quarter-anna piece, and some food. Seven small bows and arrows are set up in front thereof in two lines. On one side of the square a big cup, filled with food, is placed. A fowl is sacrificed, and its blood poured thrice round this cup. Then, placing water in a vessel near the cup, the sorcerer or sorceress throws into it a grain of rice, giving out at the same time the name of some god or goddess. If the rice sinks, it is believed that the illness is caused by the anger of the deity, whose name has been mentioned. If the rice floats, the names of various deities are called out, until a grain sinks.

It is recorded [188] that, in the Parvatipur country of the Vizagapatam district, "the Paidis (Paidi Malas) do most of the crime, and often commit dacoities on the roads. Like the Konda Doras, they have induced some of the people to employ watchmen of their caste as the price of immunity from theft. They are connected with the Dombus of the Rayagada and Gunupur taluks, who are even worse."

Paik.--It is noted by Yule and Burnell, [189] under the heading Pyke or Paik, that "Wilson gives only one original of the term so expressed in Anglo-Indian speech. He writes 'Paik or Payik, corruptly Pyke, Hind., etc. (from S. padatika), Paik or Payak, Mar., a footman, an armed attendant, an inferior police and revenue officer, a messenger, a courier, a village watchman. In Cuttack the Paiks formerly constituted a local militia, holding land of the Zamindars or Rajas by the tenure of military service.' But it seems clear to us that there are here two terms rolled together: (a) Pers. Paik, a foot-runner or courier; (b) Hind. paik and payik (also Mahr.) from Skt. padatika, and padika, a foot-soldier."

In the Madras Census Report, 1891, Paiko is defined as "rather an occupational than a caste name. It means a foot-soldier, and is used to denote the retainers of the Uriya Chiefs of Ganjam and Vizagapatam. These men were granted lands on feudal tenure, and belonged to various castes. They are now ordinary agriculturists. Some are employed in the police, and as peons in the various public departments." In the records relating to human sacrifice and infanticide, 1854, the Paiks are referred to as matchlock men, by whom the Konds and Gonds are kept in abject servitude. In the Vizagapatam Manual, 1869, various castes are referred to as being "all paiks or fighting men. Formerly they were a very numerous body, but their numbers are much diminished now, that is as fighting men, for the old army used to be paid, some in money, and some in grants of land. Now there are very few paiks kept up as fighting men; those discharged from service have taken to trading with the coast, and to cultivating their pieces of land. The fort at Kotapad on the Bustar frontier always had a standing garrison of several hundred paiks. They are gradually being disbanded since we have put police there. The men are a fine race, brave, and capital shots with the matchlock." Paiko has been recorded, at times of census, as a synonym or sub-division of Rona. And Paikarayi occurs as a title of Badhoyis.

Paiki.--A division of Toda.

Pailman.--Pailman or Pailwan has been described [190] as "an occupational term meaning a wrestler, used by all classes following the occupation, whether they are Hindus or Musalmans. The Hindus among them are usually Gollas or Jettis." In the Telugu country, the Pailmans wrestle, and perform various mountebank, conjuring, and juggling feats. A wandering troupe of Maratha Pailwans performed before me various stick-exercises, acrobatic and contortionist feats, and balancing feats on a bamboo pole supported in the kamerband (belly-band) of a veteran member of the troupe. The performance wound up with gymnastics on a lofty pole kept erect by means of ropes tied to casual trees and tent-pegs, and surmounted by a pliant bamboo, on which the performer swung and balanced himself while playing a drum, or supporting a pile of earthen pots surmounted by a brass vessel on his head. The entertainment took place amid the music of drum and clarionet, and the patter of one of the troupe, the performers playing the drum in the waits between their turns.

Painda.--A synonym of Paidi.

Pakanati (eastern territory).--A sub-division of various Telugu classes, e.g., Balija, Golla, Kamsala, Kapu, Mala, and Tsakala.

Paki.--Recorded by the Rev. J. Cain [191] as a sweeper caste in the Godavari district, members of which have come from the neighbourhood of Vizagapatam, and are great sticklers for their caste rules.

Pakinadu.--A territorial sub-division of Kamsalas and other Telugu castes, corresponding to Pakanati.

Pakirithi.--Pakirithi or Parigiri, meaning Vaishnavite, is a sub-division of Besthas, who, on ceremonial occasions, wear the Vaishnava sect mark.

Pal (milk).--Pal or Pala has been recorded as a sub-division of Idaiyan and Kurumba, and an exogamous sept of Mala. (See Halu.)

Palakala (planks).--An exogamous sept of Kamma.

Palamala.--Palama is recorded as a sub-division of the Kanikars of Travancore and Palamalathillom, said to denote the mountain with trees with milky juice, as an exogamous sept of the same tribe.

Palavili.--A gotra of Gollas, who are not allowed to erect palavili, or small booths inside the house for the purpose of worship.

Palayakkaran.--See Mutracha.

Paligiri.--A sub-division of Mutracha.

Palissa (shield) Kollan.--A class of Kollans in Malabar, who make leather shields. It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that, at the tali-kettu ceremony, "the girl and manavalan (bridegroom) go to the tank on the last day of the ceremony. The girl, standing in the tank, ducks her whole body under water thrice. As she does so for the third time, a pandibali or triangular platter made of cocoanut fronds and pieces of plantain stem and leaf plaited together and adorned with five lighted wicks, is thrown over her into the water, and cut in half as it floats by an enangan, who sings a song called Kalikkakam. Lastly, the girl chops in two a cocoanut placed on the bank. She aims two blows at it, and failure to sever it with a third is considered inauspicious. Among Palissa Kollans and some other castes, the lucky dip ceremony is performed on the last day (called nalam kalyanam or fourth marriage). An enangan, drawing out the packets at random, distributes them to the manavalan, the girl, and himself in turn. It is lucky for the manavalan to get the gold, and the girl the silver. A significant finish to the ceremony in the form of a symbolical divorce is not infrequent in South Malabar at all events. Thus, among the Palissa Kollans the manavalan takes a piece of thread from his mundu (cloth), and gives it, saying 'Here is your sister's accharam' to the girl's brother, who breaks it in two and puffs it towards him. In other cases, the manavalan gives the girl a cloth on the first day, and cuts it in two, giving her one half on the last; or the manavalan and an enangan of the girl hold opposite ends of a cloth, which the manavalan cuts and tears in two, and then gives both pieces to the girl."

Paliyans of Madura and Tinnevelly. In a note on the Malai (hill) Paliyans of the Madura district, the Rev. J. E. Tracy writes as follows. "I went to their village at the foot of the Periyar hills, and can testify to their being the most abject, hopeless, and unpromising specimens of humanity that I have ever seen. There were about forty of them in the little settlement, which was situated in a lovely spot. A stream of pure water was flowing within a few feet of their huts, and yet they were as foul and filthy in their personal appearance as if they were mere animals, and very unclean ones. Rich land that produced a luxuriant crop of rank reeds was all around them, and, with a little exertion on their part, might have been abundantly irrigated, and produced continuous crops of grain. Yet they lived entirely on nuts and roots, and various kinds of gum that they gathered in the forest on the slopes of the hills above their settlement. Only two of the community had ever been more than seven miles away from their village into the open country below them. Their huts were built entirely of grass, and consisted of only one room each, and that open at the ends. The chief man of the community was an old man with white hair. His distinctive privilege was that he was allowed to sleep between two fires at night, while no one else was allowed to have but one--a distinction that they were very complaisant about, perhaps because with the distinction was the accompanying obligation to see that the community's fire never went out. As he was also the only man in the community who was allowed to have two wives, I inferred that he delegated to them the privilege of looking after the fires, while he did the sleeping, whereas, in other families, the man and wife had to take turn and turn about to see that the fire had not to be re-lighted in the morning. They were as ignorant as they were filthy. They had no place of worship, but seemed to agree that the demons of the forest around them were the only beings that they had to fear besides the Forest Department. They were barely clothed, their rags being held about them, in one or two cases, with girdles of twisted grass. They had much the same appearance that many a famine subject presented in the famine of 1877, but they seemed to have had no better times to look back upon, and hence took their condition as a matter of course. The forest had been their home from time immemorial. Yet the forest seemed to have taught them nothing more than it might have been supposed to have taught the prowling jackal or the laughing hyæna. There were no domesticated animals about their place: strange to say, not even a pariah dog. They appeared to have no idea of hunting, any more than they had of agriculture. And, as for any ideas of the beauty or solemnity of the place that they had selected as their village site, they were as innocent of such things as they were of the beauties of Robert Browning's verse."