Chapter M (2)

The Madiga marriages are said to be conducted with much brawling and noise, owing to the quantity of liquor consumed on such occasions. Among the Madigas, as among the Kammas, Gangimakkulu, and Malas, marriage is said not to be consummated until three months after its celebration. This is apparently because it is considered unlucky to have three heads of a household within a year of marriage. By the delay, the birth of the child should take place only in the second year, so that, during the first year, there will be only two heads, husband and wife.

At the first menstrual period a girl is under pollution for ten days, when she bathes. Betel leaves and nuts, and a rupee are placed in front of the Pedda Madiga, who takes a portion thereof for himself, and distributes what remains among those who have assembled. Sometimes, just before the return of the girl to the house, a sheep is killed in front of the door, and a mark made on her face with the blood.

The Madigas dispose of their dead both by burial and cremation. The body is said to be "buried naked, except for a few leaves. Children are interred face downwards. Pregnant women are burnt. The bier is usually made of the milk-hedge (Euphorbia Tirucalli) plant." [144] The grave is dug by a Mala Vettivadu. The chinnadhinam ceremony is performed on the third day. On the grave a mass of mud is shaped into the form of an idol, to which are offered rice, cocoanuts, and jaggery (crude sugar) placed on leaves, one of which is set apart for the crows. Three stones are arranged in the form of a triangle, and on them is set a pot filled with water, which trickles out of holes made in the bottom of the pot. The peddadhinam is performed, from preference on a Wednesday or Sunday, towards the close of the third week after death. The son, or other celebrant of the rites, sets three stones on the grave, and offers food thereto. Food is also offered to the crows by the relations of the deceased, and thrown into a river or tank (pond), if the crows do not eat it. They all go to a tank, and make on the bank thereof an effigy, if the dead person was a female. To married women, winnows and glass bangles are offered. The bangles of a widow, and waist-thread of a widower, are removed within an enclosure on the bank. At night stories of Ankamma and Matangi are recited by Bainedus or Pambalas, and if a Matangi is available, homage is done to her.

In some places, Madigas have their own washermen and barbers. But, in the northern districts, the caste washerman does their washing, the cloths being steeped in water, and left for the washerman to take. "The Madigas," Mr. Francis writes, [145] "may not use the wells of the better classes, though, when water is scarce, they get over this last prohibition by employing some one in the higher ranks to draw water for them from such wells, and pour it into their chatties. In other districts they have to act as their own barbers and washermen, but in Anantapur this disability is somewhat relaxed, as the barbers make no objection to let them (and other low castes such as the Malas) use their razors for a consideration, and the dhobis will wash their clothes, as long as they themselves first unroll them, and dip them into the water. This act is held to remove the pollution, which would otherwise attach to them."

Like many castes, the Madigas have beggar classes attached to their community, who are called Dakkali and Mastiga. The Dakkalis may not enter the Madiga settlement. They sing songs in praise of the Madigas, who willingly remunerate them, as their curses are believed to be very effective. The Mastigas may enter the settlement, but not the huts. It is said to be a good omen to a Lingayat, if he sees a Madiga coming in front.

Gosangi is often used as a synonym for Madiga. Another synonym is Puravabatta, which is said to mean people older than the world by six months. At the Madras census, 1901, Chakara, Chundi, and Pavini or Vayani were returned as sub-castes, and Mayikkan was taken as the Malabar equivalent for Madiga.

Concerning the Madigas of Mysore, Mr. T. Ananda Row writes as follows. [146] "The Madigas are by religion Vaishnavites, Saivites, and Sakteyas, and have five different gurus belonging to mutts at Kadave, Kodihalli, Kongarli, Nelamangala, and Konkallu. The tribe is sometimes called Jambava or Matanga. It is divided into two independent sub-divisions, the Desabhaga and the others, between whom there is no intermarriage. The former, though under the above named mutts, acknowledge Srivaishnava Brahmins as their gurus, to whom they pay homage on all ceremonial occasions. The Desabhaga division has six sub-classes, viz.: Billoru (bowmen); Malloru (mallu = fight?); Amaravatiyavaru (after a town); Munigalu (Muni or rishi); Yenamaloru (buffalo); Morabuvvadavaru (those who place food in a winnow). The Madigas are mostly field labourers, but some of them till land, either leased or their own. In urban localities, on account of the value in the rise of skins, they have attained to considerable affluence, both on account of the hides supplied by them, and their work as tanners, shoe-makers, etc. Only 355 persons returned gotras, such as Matangi, Mareecha, and Jambava-rishi." At the Mysore census, 1891, some Madigas actually returned themselves as Matanga Brahmans, producing for the occasion a certain so-called Purana as their charter.

Madivala.--See Agasa.

Madukkaran.--See Gangeddu.

Madurai.--The name of a sub-division of Shanan, apparently meaning sweet liquor, and not the town of Madura.

Magadha Kani.--Recorded, at times of census, as a sub-division of Bhatrazu.

Maggam.--Maggam, Magga, and Maggada, meaning loom, have been recorded as exogamous septs of Kurubas, Malas, and Holeyas, some of whom are weavers.

Maghadulu.--A sub-division of Bhatrazu, named after one Maghade, who is said to have been herald at the marriage of Siva.

Magili (Pandanus fascicularis).--A gotra of Tsakalas and Panta Reddis, by whom the products of the tree may not be touched. The Panta Reddi women of this gotra will not, like those of other castes, use the flower-bracts for the purpose of adorning themselves. There is a belief, in Southern India, that the fragrant male inflorescence harbours a tiny snake, which is more deadly than the cobra, and that incautious smelling thereof may lead to death.

Magura.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a small caste of Oriya leaf-plate makers and shikaris (huntsmen). The name is said to be derived from magora, meaning one who traces foot-paths and tracks.

Mahadev.--A synonym of Daira Muhammadan.

Mahankudo.--A title of Gaudo and Gudiya. The headman of the latter caste goes by this name.

Mahant.--The Mahant is the secular head and trustee of the temple at Tirumala (Upper Tirupati) in the North Arcot district, and looks after the worldly affairs of the swami (god). "Tirupati," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [147] "unlike most other temples, has no dancing-girls attached to it, and not to be strictly continent upon the sacred hill is a deadly sin. Of late years, however, even celibate Bairagis and priests take their paramours up with them, and the pilgrims follow suit. Everything is held to betoken the approaching downfall of the temple's greatness. The irregular life of the Mahant Balaram Das sixty years ago caused a great ferment, though similar conduct now would probably hardly attract notice. He was ejected from his office by the unanimous voice of his disciples, and one Govardhan Das, whose life was consistent with the holy office, was elected, and installed in the math (monastery) near the temple. Balaram Das, however, collected a body of disbanded peons from the palaiyams, and, arming them, made an attack upon the building. The walls were scaled, and the new Mahant with his disciples shut themselves up in an inner apartment. In an attempt at rescue, one man was killed, and three were seriously wounded. A police force was sent to co-operate with the Tirupati poligars (feudal chiefs), but could effect nothing till the insurgent peons were threatened with the loss of all their lands. This broke up the band, and Balaram Das' followers deserted him. When the gates were broken open, it was found that he and a few staunch followers had committed suicide. But perhaps the greatest scandal which has occurred in the history of the math was that which ended in the conviction of the present Mahant's predecessor, Bhagavan Das. He was charged with having misappropriated a number of gold coins of considerable value, which were supposed to have been buried beneath the great flagstaff. A search warrant was granted, and it was discovered that the buried vessels only contained copper coins. The Mahant was convicted of the misappropriation of the gold, and was sentenced to two years' rigorous imprisonment, but this was reduced to one year by the High Court. On being released from jail, he made an effort to oust his successor, and acquire possession of the math by force. For this he was again sent to jail, for six months, and required to furnish security to be of good behaviour."

It is recorded by Sir M. E. Grant Duff, [148] formerly Governor of Madras, that "while the municipal address was being read to me, a huge elephant, belonging to the Zemindar of Kalahastri, a great temporal chief, charged a smaller elephant belonging to the Mahant or High Priest of Tripaty, thus disestablishing the church much more rapidly, alas! than we did in Ireland."

Mahanti.--Mahanti is, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, defined as "a caste akin to the Koronos or Karnams (writers and accountants). The name is sometimes taken by persons excommunicated from other castes." The word means great, or prestige. According to a note submitted to me, the Mahantis gradually became Karnams, with the title of Patnaik, but there is no intermarriage between them and the higher classes of Karnams. The Mahantis of Orissa are said to still maintain their respectability, whereas in Ganjam they have as a class degenerated, so much so that the term Mahanti is now held up to ridicule.

Mahapatro.--Said to be a title sold by the caste council to Khoduras. Also a title of Badhoyis, and other Oriya castes.

Maharana.--A title of Badhoyi.

Maheswara (Siva).--A synonym of Jangams (priests of the Lingayats). The Jangams of the Silavants, for example, are known by this name.

Mailari.--The Mailaris are a class of beggars, who are said [149] to "call themselves a sub-division of the Balijas, and beg from Komatis only. Their ancestors were servants of Kannyakammavaru (or Kannika Amma, the virgin goddess of the Komatis), who burnt herself to avoid falling into the hands of Raja Vishnu Vardhana. On this account, they have the privilege of collecting certain fees from all the Komatis. The fee, in the Kurnool district, is eight annas per house. When he demands the fee, a Mailari appears in full dress (kasi), which consists of brass human heads tied to his loins, and brass cups to his head; a looking-glass on the abdomen; a bell ringing from his girdle; a bangle on his forearm ; and wooden shoes on his feet. In this dress he walks, holding an umbrella, through the streets, and demands his fee. If the fee is not paid, he again appears, in a more frightful form called Bhuthakasi. He shaves his whiskers, and, almost naked, proceeds to the burning-ground, where he makes rati, or different kinds of coloured rice, and, going to the Komatis, extorts his fee." I am informed that the Mailaris travel about with an image of Kannyakamma, which they exhibit, while they sing in Telugu the story of her life.

The Mailaris are stated, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, to be also called Bala Jangam. Mailari (washerman) is also an exogamous sept of the Malas.

Majji.--Recorded as a title of Bagatas, Doluvas, and Kurumos, and as a sept of Nagaralus. In the Madras Census Report, 1901, it is described as a title given to the head peons of Bissoyis in the Maliahs.

Majjiga (butter-milk).--An exogamous sept of Boya.

Majjula.--A sub-division of Korono.

Majjulu.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "cultivators in Vizagapatam, and shikaris (hunters) and fishermen in Ganjam. They have two endogamous divisions, the Majjulus and the Racha Majjulus, the members of the latter of which wear the sacred thread, and will not eat with the former. In their customs they closely resemble the Kapus, of which caste they are perhaps a sub-division. For their ceremonies they employ Oriya Brahmans, and Telugu Nambis. Widow marriage is allowed. They burn their dead, and are said to perform sraddhas (memorial services). They worship all the village gods and goddesses, and eat meat. They have no titles."

Makado (monkey).--An exogamous sept of Bottada.

Makkathayam.--The name, in the Malayalam country, for the law of inheritance from father to son. The Canarese equivalent thereof is makkalsanthanam.

Mala.--"The Malas," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [150] "are the Pariahs of the Telugu country. Dr. Oppert derives the word from a Dravidian root meaning a mountain, which is represented by the Tamil malai, Telugu mala, etc., so that Mala is the equivalent of Paraiyan, and also of Mar or Mhar and the Mal of Western and Central Bengal. I cannot say whether there is sufficient ground for the assumption that the vowel of a Dravidian root can be lengthened in this way. I know of no other derivation of Mala. [In C. P. Brown's Telugu Dictionary it is derived from maila, dirty.] The Malas are almost equally inferior in position to the Madigas. They eat beef and drink heavily, and are debarred entrance to the temples and the use of the ordinary village wells, and have to serve as their own barbers and washermen. They are the musicians of the community, and many of them (for example in the villages near Jammalamadugu in the Cuddapah district) weave the coarse white cotton fabrics usually worn by men."

The Malas will not take water from the same well as the Madigas, whom they despise for eating carrion, though they eat beef themselves.

Both Malas and Tamil Paraiyans belong to the right-hand section. In the Bellary district the Malas are considered to be the servants of the Banajigas (traders), for whom they do certain services, and act as caste messengers (chalavathi) on the occasion of marriages and funerals. At marriages, six Malas selected from certain families, lead the procession, carrying flags, etc., and sit in the pial (verandah) of the marriage house. At funerals, a Mala carries the brass ladle bearing the insignia of the right-hand section, which is the emblem of the authority of the Desai or headman of the section.

The Malas have their own dancing girls (Basavis), barbers, and musicians (Bainedus), Dasaris or priests, and beggars and bards called Mastigas and Pambalas (drum people), who earn their living by reciting stories of Ankamma, etc., during the funeral ceremonies of some Telugu castes, acting as musicians at marriages and festivals to the deities, begging, and telling fortunes. Other beggars are called Nityula (Nitiyadasu, immortal). In some places, Tsakalas (washerman caste) will wash for the Malas, but the clothes must be steeped in water, and left till the Tsakala comes for them. The Malas will not eat food prepared or touched by Kamsalas, Medaras, Madigas, Beri Chettis, Boyas, or Bhatrazus. The condition of the Malas has, in recent times, been ameliorated by their reception into mission schools.

In a case, which came before the High Court of Madras on appeal a few years ago, a Mala, who was a convert to Christianity, was sentenced to confinement in the stocks for using abusive language. The Judge, in summing up, stated that "the test seems to be not what is the offender's creed, whether Muhammadan, Christian, or Hindu, but what is his caste. If he belongs to one of the lower castes, a change of creed would not of itself, in my judgment, make any difference, provided he continues to belong to the caste. If he continues to accept the rules of the caste in social and moral matters, acknowledges the authority of the headmen, takes part in caste meetings and ceremonies, and, in fact, generally continues to belong to the castes, then, in my judgment, he would be within the purview of the regulation. If, on the other hand, he adopts the moral standards of Christianity instead of those in his caste, if he accepts the authority of his pastors and teachers in place of that of the headman of the caste, if he no longer takes part in the distinctive meetings and ceremonies of the caste ... then he can no longer be said to belong to one of the lower castes of the people, and his punishment by confinement in the stocks is no longer legal."

Between the Malas and Madigas there is no love lost, and the latter never allow the former, on the occasion of a festival, to go in palanquins or ride on horseback. Quite recently, in the Nellore district, a horse was being led at the head of a Madiga marriage procession, and the Malas followed, to see whether the bridegroom would mount it. To the disgust of the Madigas, the young man refused to get on it, from fear lest he should fall off.

The Malas will not touch leather shoes, and, if they are slippered with them, a fine is inflicted, and the money spent on drink.

Of the share which the Malas take in a village festival in the Cuddapah district, an excellent account is given by Bishop Whitehead. [151] "The village officials and leading ryots," he writes, "collect money for the festival, and buy, among other things, a barren sheep and two lambs. Peddamma and Chinnamma are represented by clay images of female form made for the occasion, and placed in a temporary shrine of cloth stretched over four poles. On the appointed evening, rice is brought, and poured out in front of the idol by the potter, and rice, ghi (clarified butter), and curds are poured on the top of it. The victims are then brought, and their heads cut off by a washerman. The heads are placed on the ground before the idol. The people then pour water on the heads, and say 'speak' (paluku). If the mouth opens, it is regarded as a sign that the goddess is propitious. Next, a large pot of boiled cholam (millet) is brought, and poured in a heap before the image, a little further away than the rice. Two buffaloes are then brought by the Malas and Madigas. One of the Malas, called the Asadi, chants the praises of the goddess during the ceremony. The animals are killed by a Madiga, by cutting their throats with a knife, one being offered to Peddamma, and the other to Chinnamma. Some of the cholam is then taken in baskets, and put under the throat of the buffaloes till it is soaked with blood, and then put aside. A Madiga then cuts off the heads of the buffaloes with a sword, and places them before the idol. He also cuts off one of the forelegs of each, and puts it crosswise in the mouth. Some of the cholam is then put on the two heads, and two small earthen saucers are put upon it. The abdomens are then cut open, and some of the fat taken out, melted, and put in each saucer with a lighted wick. A layer of fat is spread over the eyes and mouths of the two heads, some of the refuse of the stomach is mixed with the cholam soaked in blood, and a quantity of margosa (Melia Azadirachta) leaves put over the cholam. The Asadi then takes some of this mixture, and sprinkles it round the shrine, saying 'Ko, bali,' i.e., accept the sacrifice. Then the basket is given to another Mala, who asks permission from the village officials and ryots to sprinkle the cholam. He also asks that a lamb may be killed. The lamb is killed by a washerman, and the blood allowed to flow into the cholam in the basket. The bowels of the lamb are taken out, and tied round the wrist of the Mala who holds the basket, and puts it round his neck. He then goes and sprinkles the cholam mixed with blood, etc., in some cases round the village, and in others before each house, shouting 'Ko, bali' as he goes. The people go in procession with him, carrying swords and clubs to drive away evil spirits. During the procession, limes are cut in half, and thrown into the air to propitiate evil spirits. Other lambs are killed at intervals during the course of the procession. In the afternoon, the carcases of the two buffaloes offered the night before are taken away by the Malas and Madigas. One is cut open, and some of the flesh cooked near the shrine. Part of it, with some of the cholam offered before the images, is given to five Mala children, called Siddhulu, i.e., holy or sinless, who, in some cases, are covered with a cloth during the meal. The rest is eaten by Malas. The remainder of the carcases is divided among the Malas and Madigas, who take it to their own homes for a feast. The carcases of the lambs belong to the Malas and washermen. The carcase of the barren sheep is the perquisite of the village officials, though the Kurnam, being a Brahmin, gives his portion away."

At a festival to the village goddess which is held at Dowlaishweram in the Godavari district once every three years, a buffalo is sacrificed. "Votive offerings of pots of buttermilk are presented to the goddess, who is taken outside the village, and the pots are emptied there. The head of the buffalo and a pot of its blood are carried round the village by a Mala, and a pig is sacrificed in an unusual and cruel manner. It is buried up to its neck, and cattle are driven over it until it is trampled to death. This is supposed to ensure the health of men and cattle in the ensuing year." [152]

In connection with a village festival in the Godavari district, Bishop Whitehead writes as follows. [153] "At Ellore, which is a town of considerable size and importance, I was told that in the annual festival of Mahalakshmi about ten thousand animals are killed in one day, rich people sending as many as twenty or thirty. The blood then flows down into the fields behind the place of sacrifice in a regular flood, and carts full of sand are brought to cover up what remains on the spot. The heads are piled up in a heap about fifteen feet high in front of the shrine, and a large earthen basin, about 1 1/2 feet in diameter, is then filled with gingelly oil and put on the top of the heap, a thick cotton wick being placed in the basin and lighted. The animals are all worshipped with the usual namaskaram (folded hands raised to the forehead) before they are killed. This slaughter of victims goes on all day, and at midnight about twenty or twenty-five buffaloes are sacrificed, their heads being cut off by a Madiga pujari (priest), and, together with the carcases, thrown upon the large heaps of rice, which have been presented to the goddess, till the rice is soaked with blood. The rice is collected in about ten or fifteen large baskets, and is carried on a large cart drawn by buffaloes or bullocks, with the Madiga pujari seated on it. Madigas sprinkle the rice along the streets and on the walls of the houses, as the cart goes along, shouting poli, poli (food). A large body of men of different castes, Pariahs and Sudras, go with the procession, but only the Madigas and Malas (the two sections of the Pariahs) shout poli, the rest following in silence. They have only two or three torches to show them the way, and no tom-toms or music. Apparently the idea is that, if they make a noise or display a blaze of lights, they will attract the evil spirits, who will swoop down on them and do them some injury, though in other villages it is supposed that a great deal of noise and flourishing of sticks will keep the evil spirits at bay. Before the procession starts, the heads of the buffaloes are put in front of the shrine, with the right forelegs in their mouths, and the fat from the entrails smeared about half an inch thick over the whole face, and a large earthen lamp on the top of each head. The Pambalas play tom-toms, and chant a long story about Gangamma till daybreak, and about 8 A.M. they put the buffalo heads into separate baskets with the lighted lamps upon them, and these are carried in procession through the town to the sound of tom-toms. All castes follow, shouting and singing. In former times, I was told, there was a good deal of fighting and disturbance during this procession, but now the police maintain order. When the procession arrives at the municipal limits, the heads are thrown over the boundary, and left there. The people then all bathe in the canal, and return home. On the last day of the festival, which, I may remark, lasts for about three months, a small cart is made of margosa wood, and a stake fixed at each of the four corners, and a pig and a fowl are tied to each stake, while a fruit, called dubakaya, is impaled on it instead of the animal. A yellow cloth, sprinkled with the blood of the buffaloes, is tied round the sides of the cart, and some margosa leaves are tied round the cloth. A Pambala sits on the cart, to which are fastened two large ropes, each about 200 yards long. Then men of all castes, without distinction, lay hold of the ropes, and drag the cart round the town to the sound of tom-toms and music. Finally it is brought outside the municipal limits and left there, the Pariahs taking away the animals and fruits."

The following detailed account of the Peddamma or Sunkulamma jatra (festival) in the Kurnool district, is given in the Manual. "This is a ceremony strictly local, in which the entire community of a village takes part, and which all outsiders are excluded from participating in. It is performed whenever a series of crops successively fail or cattle die in large numbers of murrain, and is peculiarly adapted, by the horrible nature of the attendant rites and the midnight hour chosen for the exhibition of its most ghastly scenes, to impress the minds of an ignorant people with a belief in its efficacy. When the celebration of the jatra is resolved on, a dark Tuesday night is selected for it, and subscriptions are collected and deposited with the Reddi (headman) or some respectable man in the village. Messengers are sent off to give intimation of the day fixed for the jatra to the Bynenivadu, Bhutabaligadu, and Poturaju, three of the principal actors in the ceremony. At the same time a buffalo is purchased, and, after having its horns painted with saffron (turmeric) and adorned with margosa leaves, is taken round the village in procession with tom-toms beating, and specially devoted to the sacrifice of the goddess Peddamma or Sunkulamma on the morning of the Tuesday on which the ceremony is to take place. The village potter and carpenter are sent for, and ordered to have ready by that evening two images of the goddess, one of clay and the other of juvi wood, and a new cloth and a quantity of rice and dholl (peas: Cajanus indicus) are given to each of them. When the images are made, they are dressed with the new cloths, and the rice and dholl are cooked and offered as naivedyam to the images. In some villages only one image, of clay, is made. Meanwhile the villagers are busy erecting a pandal (booth) in front of the village chavidi (caste meeting-house), underneath which a small temple is erected of cholam straw. The Bynenivadu takes a handful of earth, and places it inside this little temple, and the village washerman builds a small pyal (dais) with it, and decorates it with rati (streaks of different coloured powders). New pots are distributed by the potter to the villagers, who, according to their respective capabilities, have a large or small quantity of rice cooked in them, to be offered as kumbham at the proper time. After dark, when these preparations are over, the entire village community, including the twelve classes of village servants, turn out in a body, and, preceded by the Bynenivadu and Asadivandlu, proceed in procession with music playing to the house of the village potter. There the image of the goddess is duly worshipped, and a quantity of raw rice is tied round it with a cloth. A ram is sacrificed on the spot, and several limes are cut and thrown away. Borne on the shoulders of the potter, the image is then taken through the streets of the village, Bynenivadu and Asadivandlu dancing and capering all the way, and the streets being drenched with the blood of several rams sacrificed at every turning of the road, and strewed with hundreds of limes cut and thrown away. The image is then finally deposited in the temple of straw already referred to, and another sheep is sacrificed as soon as this is done. The wooden image, made by the carpenter, is also brought in with the same formalities, and placed by the side of the image of clay. A pot of toddy is similarly brought in from the house of the Idigavadu (toddy-drawer), and set before the images. Now the devarapotu, or buffalo specially devoted to the sacrifice of the goddess, is led in from the Reddi's house in procession, together with a sheep and a large pot of cooked rice. The rice in the pot is emptied in front of the images and formed into a heap, which is called the kumbham, and to it are added the contents of many new pots, which the villagers have ready filled with cooked rice. The sheep is then sacrificed, and its blood shed on the heap. Next comes the turn of the devarapotu, the blood of which also, after it has been killed, is poured over the rice heap. This is followed by the slaughter of many more buffaloes and sheep by individuals of the community, who might have taken vows to offer sacrifices to the goddess on this occasion. While the carnage is going on, a strict watch is kept on all sides, to see that no outsider enters the village, or steals away any portion of the blood of the slaughtered animals, as it is believed that all the benefit which the villagers hope to reap from the performance of the jatra will be lost to them if an outsider should succeed in taking away a little of the blood to his village. The sacrifice being over, the head and leg of one of the slaughtered buffaloes are severed from its body, and placed before the goddess with the leg inserted into the mouth of the head. Over this head is placed a lighted lamp, which is fed with oil and buffalo's fat. Now starts a fresh procession to go round the village streets. A portion of the kumbham or blood-stained rice heaped up before the image is gathered into two or three baskets, and carried with the procession by washermen or Madigas. The Bhutabaligadu now steps forward in a state of perfect nudity, with his body clean shaven from top to toe, and smeared all over with gore, and, taking up handfuls of rice (called poli) from the baskets, scatters them broadcast over the streets. As the procession passes on, bhutams or supernatural beings are supposed to become visible at short distances to the carriers of the rice baskets, who pretend to fall into trances, and, complaining of thirst, call for more blood to quench it. Every time this happens, a fresh sheep is sacrificed, and sometimes limes are cut and thrown in their way. The main streets being thus sprinkled over with poli or blood-stained rice, the lanes or gulleys are attended to by the washermen of the village, who give them their share of the poli. By this time generally the day dawns, and the goddess is brought back to her straw temple, where she again receives offerings of cooked rice from all classes of people in the village, Brahmins downwards. All the while, the Asadivandlu keep singing and dancing before the goddess. As the day advances, a pig is half buried at the entrance of the village, and all the village cattle are driven over it. The cattle are sprinkled over with poli as they pass over the pig. The Poturaju then bathes and purifies himself, and goes to the temple of Lingamayya or Siva with tom-toms and music, and sacrifices a sheep there. The jatra ends with another grand procession, in which the images of the goddess, borne on the heads of the village potter and carpenter, are carried to the outskirts of the village, where they are left. As the villagers return home, they pull to pieces the straw temple constructed in front of the chavidi, and each man takes home a straw, which he preserves as a sacred relic. From the day the ceremony is commenced in the village till its close, no man would go to a neighbouring village, or, if he does on pressing business, he would return to sleep in his own village. It is believed that the performance of this jatra will ensure prosperity and health to the villagers and their cattle.

"The origin of this Sunkulamma jatra is based on the following legend, which is sung by the Byneni and Asadivandlu when they dance before the images. Sunkulamma was the only daughter of a learned Brahmin pandit, who occasionally took pupils, and instructed them in the Hindu shastras gratuitously. One day, a handsome youth of sixteen years came to the pandit, and, announcing himself as the son of a Brahmin of Benares come in quest of knowledge, requested that he might be enlisted as a pupil of the pandit. The pandit, not doubting the statement of the youth that he was a Brahmin, took him as a pupil, and lodged him in his own house. The lad soon displayed marks of intelligence, and, by close application to his studies, made such rapid progress that he became the principal favourite of his master, who was so much pleased with him that, at the close of his studies, he married him to his daughter Sunkulamma. The unknown youth stayed with his father-in-law till he became father of some children, when he requested permission to return to his native place with his wife and children, which was granted, and he accordingly started on his homeward journey. On the way he met a party of Mala people, who, recognising him at once as a man of their own caste and a relation, accosted him, and began to talk to him familiarly. Finding it impossible to conceal the truth from his wife any longer, the husband of Sunkulamma confessed to her that he was a Mala by caste, and, being moved by a strong desire to learn the Hindu shastras, which he was forbidden to read, he disguised himself as a Brahmin youth, and introduced himself to her father and compassed his object; and, as what had been done in respect to her could not be undone, the best thing she could do was to stay with him with her children. Sunkulamma, however, was not to be so persuaded. Indignant at the treachery practiced on her and her parent, she spurned both her husband and children, and returning to her village, sent for her parent, whose house she would not pollute by going in, and asked him what he would do with a pot denied by the touch of a dog. The father replied that he would commit it to the flames to purify it. Taking the hint, she caused a funeral pile to be erected, and committed suicide by throwing herself into the flames. But, before doing so, she cursed the treacherous Mala who bad polluted her that he might become a buffalo, and his children turn into sheep, and vowed she would revive as an evil spirit, and have him and his children sacrificed to her, and get his leg put into his mouth, and a light placed on his head fed with his own fat."

The following additional information in connection with the jatra may be recorded. In some places, on a Tuesday fifteen days before the festival, some Malas go in procession through the main streets of the village without any noise or music. This is called mugi chatu (dumb announcement). On the following Tuesday, the Malas go through the streets, beating tom-toms, and proclaiming the forthcoming ceremony. This is called chatu (announcement). In some villages, metal idols are used. The image is usually in the custody of a Tsakala (washerman). On the jatra day, he brings it fully decorated, and sets it up on the Gangamma mitta (Gangamma's dais). In some places, this is a permanent structure, and in others put up for the jatra at a fixed spot. Asadis, Pambalas, and Bainedus, and Madiga Kommula vandlu (horn-blowers) dance and sing until the goddess is lifted up from the dais, when a number of burning torches are collected together, and some resinous material is thrown into the flames. At the same time, a cock is killed, and waved in front of the goddess by the Tsakala. A mark is made with the blood on the forehead of the idol, which is removed to a hut constructed by Malas with twigs of margosa (Melia Azadirachta), Eugenia Jambolana and Vitex Negundo. In some villages, when the goddess is brought in procession to the outskirts of the village, a stick is thrown down in front of her. The Asadis then sing songs, firstly of a most obscene character, and afterwards in praise of the goddess.

The following account of "the only Mala ascetic in Bharatavarsha" (India) is given by Mr. M. N. Vincent. [154] The ascetic was living on a hill in Bezwada, at the foot of which lay the hamlets of the Malas. The man, Govindoo by name, "was a groom in the employ of a Muhammadan Inspector of Police, and he was commissioned on one occasion to take a horse to a certain town. He was executing his commission, when, on the way, and not far from his destination, the animal shied and fell into the Krishna river, and was swept along the current, and poor Govindoo could not help it. But, knowing the choleric temper of his employer, and in order to avoid a scolding, he roamed at large, and eventually fell in with a company of Sadhus, one of whose disciples he became, and practiced austerities, though not for the full term, and settled eventually on the hill where we saw him occupying the old cave dwelling of a former Sadhu. It appears that there was something earthly in the man, Sadhu though he was, as was evidenced from his relations with a woman votary or disciple, and it was probably because of this phase of his character that some people regarded him as a cheat and a rogue. But this unfavourable impression was soon removed, and, since the time he slept on a bed of sharp thorns, as it were in vindication of his character, faulty though it had been, he has been honoured. A good trait in the man should be mentioned, namely, that he wrote to his parents to give his wife in marriage to some one else, as he had renounced his worldly ties."

At Vanavolu, in the Hindupur taluk of the Anantapur district, there is a temple to Rangaswami, at which the pujari (priest) is a Mala. People of the upper castes frequent it, but do their own puja, the Mala standing aside for the time. [155]

It is noted, in the Madras Census Report, 1891, that the chief object of worship by the Balijas is Gauri, their caste deity. "It is said that the Malas are the hereditary custodians of the idol of Gauri and her jewels, which the Balijas get from them whenever they want to worship her. The following story is told to account for this. The Kapus and the Balijas, molested by the Muhammadan invaders on the north of the river Pennar, migrated to the south when the Pennar was in full flood. Being unable to cross the river, they invoked their deity to make a passage for them, for which it demanded the sacrifice of a first-born child. While they stood at a loss what to do, the Malas, who followed them, boldly offered one of their children to the goddess. Immediately the river divided before them, and the Kapus and the Balijas crossed it, and were saved from the tyranny of the Muhammadans. Ever since that time, the Malas have been respected by the Kapus and Balijas, and the latter even deposited the images of Gauri, the bull and Ganesa, which they worshipped in the house of a Mala. I am credibly informed that the practice of leaving these images in the custody of Malas is even now observed in some parts of Cuddapah district and elsewhere."

An expert Mala medicine-man has been known to prescribe for a Brahman tahsildar (revenue officer), though the consultation was conducted at a most respectful distance on the part of the honoured physician.

Mala weavers are known as Netpanivandlu (Nethapani, weaving work). According to the Census Report, 1891, the sub-divisions of the Malas, which are numerically strongest, are Arava, Kanta, Murikinadu, Pakanati, and Reddi Bhumi. To these may be added Sarindla, Savu, Saindla, and Daindla. Concerning some of these divisions, the following legend is current. A Mala married eighteen wives, one from each kulam or tribal division. The god Poleramma, objecting to the sacrifice of sheep and goats, wanted him to offer up a woman and child in substitution for the animals, and the Mala broke the news to his wives, one of whom eloped with a Reddi, and gave origin to the Reddi Bhumis (bhumi, earth). Another ran away, and gave rise to the Pakanatis (eastern country). A third hid herself, and escaped by hiding. Hence her descendants are called Daindla vandlu, concerning whom there is a proverb "Dagipoyina vandlu Daindla vandlu" or "Those who escaped by hiding are Daindlas." One of the wives, who fled to the forest, found her way out by clearing the jungle, and her descendants are called Sarindla (straight). The wife who consented to be sacrificed with her child was restored to life by Poleramma, and gave rise to the Savu (death) or Saindla (belonging to a death house) section. The Daindlas are said to be Tamil Paraiyans, who settled down in the Telugu country, and adopted the manners and customs of the Malas. Some call themselves Arava (Tamil) Malas. They are employed as servants in European houses, horse-keepers, etc.

In connection with the origin of the Malas, the Rev. S. Nicholson writes as follows. "Originally the Malas belonged to the kudi paita section of the community, i.e., their women wore the cloth over the right shoulder, but now there are both right and left paita sections, and this must be taken as the principal division. The right-hand (right paita) section is again divided into (a) Reddi Bhumalavaru, (b) Pokunativaru. The left-hand (left paita) section are Murikinativaru. The following legend professes to account for the existence of the three divisions. When Virabahuvu went to the rescue of Harischandra, he promised Kali that, if she granted him success, he would sacrifice to her his wives, of whom he had three. Accordingly, after his conquest of Vishvamithrudu, he returned, and called his wives that he might take them to the temple in order to fulfil his vow. The wives got some inkling of what was in store for them, and one of them took refuge in the house of a Reddi Bhumala, another ran away to the eastern country (Pokunati), while the third, though recently confined, and still in her dirty (muriki) cloth, determined to abide by the wish of her lord. She was, therefore, sacrificed to Kali, but the goddess, seeing her devotion, restored her to life, and promised to remain for ever her helper. The reason given for the change in the method of wearing the cloth is that, after the incident described above took place, the women of the Murikinati section, in order to express their disapproval of the two unfaithful wives, began to wear their cloths on the opposite, viz., the left, shoulder. In marriages, however, whatever the paita of the bride, she must wear the cloth over the right shoulder.

"The Reddi Bhumalu and Pokunativaru say that the reason they wear the cloth over the right shoulder is that they are descendants of the gods. According to a legend, the goddess Parvati, whilst on a journey with her lord Parameshvarudu, discarded one of her unclean (maila) cloths, from which was born a little boy. This boy was engaged as a cattle-herd in the house of Parameshvarudu. Parvati received strict injunctions from her lord that she should on no account allow the little Mala to taste cream. One day, however, the boy discovered some cream which had been scraped from the inside of the pot sticking to a wall. He tasted it, and found it good. Indeed, so good was it that he came to the conclusion that the udder from which it came must be even better still. So one day, in order to test his theory, he killed the cow. Then came Parameshvarudu in great anger, and asked him what he had done, and, to his credit be it said, the boy told the truth. Then Parameshvarudu cursed the lad and all his descendants, and said that from henceforth cattle should be the meat of the Malas--the unclean."

The Malas have, in their various sub-divisions, many exogamous septs, of which the following are examples:--

(a) Reddi Bhumi.

Avuka, marsh.
Bandi, cart.
Bommala, dolls.
Bejjam, holes.
Dakku, fear.
Dhidla, platform or back-door.
Dhoma, gnat or mosquito.
Gera, street.
Kaila, measuring grain in threshing-floor.
Katika, collyrium.
Naththalu, snails.
Paida, money or gold.
Pilli, cat.
Rayi, stone.
Samudrala, ocean.
Silam, good conduct.
Thanda, bottom of a ship.

(b) Pokunati.

Allam, ginger.
Dara, stream of water.
Gadi, cart.
Gone, sack.
Gurram, horse.
Maggam, loom.
Mailari, washerman.
Parvatha, mountain.
Pindi, flour-powder.
Pasala, cow.
Thummala, sneezing.

(c) Sarindla.

Boori, a kind of cake.
Ballem, spear.
Bomidi, a fish.
Challa, butter milk.
Chinthala, tamarind.
Duddu, money.
Gali, wind.
Karna, ear.
Kaki, crow.
Mudi, knot.
Maddili, drum.
Malle, jasmine.
Putta, ant-hill.
Pamula, snake.
Pidigi, handful.
Semmati, hammer.
Uyyala, see-saw.

(d) Daindla.

Dasari, priest.
Doddi, court or backyard.
Gonji, Glycosmis pentaphylla.
Kommala, horn.
Marri, Ficus bengalensis.
Pala, milk.
Powaku, tobacco.
Thumma, Acacia arabica.

Concerning the home of the Malas, Mr. Nicholson writes that "the houses (with mud or stone walls, roofed with thatch or palmyra palm leaves) are almost invariably placed quite apart from the village proper. Gradually, as the caste system and fear of defilement become less, so gradually the distance of their houses from the village is becoming less. In the Ceded Districts, where from early times every village was surrounded by a wall and moat, the aloofness of the houses is very apparent. Gradually, however, the walls are decaying, and the moats are being filled, and the physical separation of the outcaste classes is becoming less apparent."

Mr. Nicholson writes further that "according to their own traditions, as told still by the old people and the religious mendicants, in former times the Malas were a tribe of free lances, who, 'like the tiger, slept during the day, and worked at night.' They were evidently the paid mercenaries of the Poligars (feudal chiefs), and carried out raids and committed robberies for the lord under whose protection they were. That this tradition has some foundation may be gathered from the fact that many of the house-names of the Malas refer to weapons of war, e.g., spear, drum, etc. If reports are true, the old instinct is not quite dead, and even to-day a cattle-stealing expedition comes not amiss to some. The Malas belong to the subjugated race, and have been made into the servants of the community. Very probably, in former days, their services had to be rendered for nothing, but later certain inam (rent-free) lands were granted, the produce of which was counted as remuneration for service rendered. Originally, these lands were held quite free of taxation, but, since the advent of the British Raj, the village servants have all been paid a certain sum per month, and, whilst still allowed the enjoyment of their inam lands, they have now been assessed, and half the actual tax has to be paid to Government. The services rendered by the Malas are temple service, jatra or festival service, and village service. The village service consists of sweeping, scavenging, carrying burdens, and grave-digging, the last having been their perquisite for long ages. According to them, the right was granted to them by King Harischandra himself. The burial-grounds are supposed to belong to the Malas, and the site of a grave must be paid for, the price varying according to the position and wealth of the deceased, but I hear that, in our part of the country, the price does not often exceed two pence. Though the Brahmans do not bury, yet they must pay a fee of one rupee for the privilege of burning, besides the fee for carrying the body to the ghat. There is very little respect shown by the Malas at the burning-ghat, and the fuel is thrown on with jokes and laughter. The Malas dig graves for all castes which bury, except Muhammadans, Oddes, and Madigas. Not only on the day of burial, but afterwards on the two occasions of the ceremonies for the dead, the grave-diggers must be given food and drink. The Malas are also used as death messengers to relatives by all the Sudra castes. When on this work, the messenger must not on any account go to the houses of his relatives though they live in the village to which he has been sent.

"The chief occupations of the Malas are weaving, and working as farm labourers for Sudras; a few cultivate their own land. Though formerly their inam lands were extensive, they have been, in the majority of cases, mortgaged away. The Malas of the western part of the Telugu country are of a superior type to those of the east, and they have largely retained their lands, and, in some cases, are well-to-do cultivators. In the east, weaving is the staple industry, and it is still carried on with the most primitive instruments. In one corner of a room stands the loom, with a hole in the mud floor to receive the treadles, and a little window in the wall, level with the floor, lights the web. The loom itself is slung from the rafters, and the whole can be folded up and put away in a corner. As a rule, weaving lasts for eight months of the year, the remainder of the year being occupied in reaping and stacking crops, etc. Each weaver has his own customers, and very often one family of Malas will have weaved for one family of Sudras for generations. Before starting to weave, the weaver worships his loom, and rubs his shuttle on his nose, which is supposed to make it smooth. Those who cannot weave subsist by day labour. As a rule, they stick to one master, and are engaged in cultivation all the year round. Many, having borrowed money from some Sudra, are bound to work for him for a mere pittance, and that in grain, not cash."

In a note on a visit to Jammalamadugu in the Cuddapah district, Bishop Whitehead writes as follows. [156] "Lately Mr. Macnair has made an effort to improve the methods of weaving, and he showed us some looms that he had set up in his compound to teach the people the use of a cheap kind of fly-shuttle to take the place of the hand-shuttle which is universally used by the people. The difficulties he has met with are characteristic of many attempts to improve on the customs and methods of India. At present the thread used for the hand-shuttle is spun by the Mala women from the ordinary cotton produced in the district. The Mala weavers do not provide their own cotton for the clothes they weave, but the Kapus give them the cotton from their own fields, pay the women a few annas for spinning it, and then pay the men a regular wage for weaving it into cloth. But the cotton spun in the district is not strong enough for the fly-shuttle, which can only be profitably worked with mill-made thread. The result is that, if the fly-shuttle were generally adopted, it would leave no market for the native cotton, throw the women out of work, upset the whole system on which the weavers work, and, in fact, produce widespread misery and confusion!"