Chapter IV: Part 4

Ande.--Ande (a pot) as a division of the Kurubas refers to the small bamboo or wooden vessel used when milking goats. It further denotes a division of the Koragas, who used to wear a pot suspended from their necks, into which they were compelled to spit, so as not to defile the highway.

Anderaut.--Recorded, in the Census Report, 1901, as a sub-division of Kurumba. Probably a form of Ande Kuruba. Raut is frequently a title of headmen among Lingayats.

Andi.--In a note on Andis in the Madras Census Report, 1901, Mr. W. Francis writes that "for a Brahman or an ascetic, mendicancy was always considered an honourable profession, to which no sort of shame attached. Manu says 'a Brahman should constantly shun worldly honour, as he would shun poison, and rather constantly seek disrespect as he would seek nectar'; and every Brahman youth was required to spend part of his life as a beggar. The Jains and Buddhists held the same views. The Hindu Chattrams [61] and Uttupuras, the Jain Pallis, and the Buddhist Viharas owe their origin to this attitude, they being originally intended for the support of the mendicant members of these religions. But persons of other than the priestly and religious classes were expected to work for their living, and were not entitled to relief in these institutions. Begging among such people--unless, as in the case of the Pandarams and Andis, a religious flavour attaches to it--is still considered disreputable. The percentage of beggars in the Tamil districts to the total population is .97, or more than twice what it is in the Telugu country, while in Malabar it is as low as .09. The Telugus are certainly not richer as a class than the Tamils, and the explanation of these differences is perhaps to be found in the fact that the south is more religiously inclined than the north, and has more temples and their connected charities (religion and charity go hand in hand in India), and so offers more temptation to follow begging as a profession. Andis are Tamil beggars. They are really inferior to Pandarams, but the two terms are in practice often indiscriminately applied to the same class of people. Pandarams are usually Vellalas by caste, but Andis are recruited from all classes of Sudras, and they consequently have various sub-divisions, which are named after the caste to which the members of each originally belonged, such as the Jangam Andis, meaning beggars of the Jangam caste, and the Jogi Andis, that is, Andis of the Jogi caste. They also have occupational and other divisions, such as the Kovil Andis, meaning those who do service in temples, and the Mudavandis or the lame beggars. Andi is in fact almost a generic term. All Andis are not beggars however; some are bricklayers, others are cultivators, and others are occupied in the temples. They employed Brahman priests at their ceremonies, but all of them eat meat and drink alcohol. Widows and divorcées may marry again. Among the Tinnevelly Andis, the sister of the bridegroom ties the tali (marriage badge) round the bride's neck, which is not usual."

In the Madras Census Report, 1891, the Andis are summed up as "beggars who profess the Saiva faith. They may be found in all the Tamil districts, begging from door to door, beating a small gong with a stick. The Andis differ from most other castes, in that a person of any caste may join their community. Some of them officiate as priests in village temples, especially when large sacrifices of goats, buffaloes, and pigs are made. They usually bury the dead. They have returned 105 sub-divisions, of which the most important are the following:--Jangam, Komanandi, Lingadari, Mudavandi, and Uppandi. Komanam is the small loin cloth, and a Komanandi goes naked, except for this slight concession to decency. Mudam means lame, and the Mudavandis (q.v.) are allowed to claim any deformed child belonging to the Konga Vellala caste. The etymology of Uppandi is difficult, but it is improbable that it has any connection with uppu, salt.

In the Tanjore Manual, it is noted that "in its ordinary acceptation the word Andi means houseless beggars, and is applied to those who profess the Saiva faith. They go out every morning, begging for alms of uncooked rice, singing ballads or hymns. They play on a small gong called semakkalam with a stick, and often carry a conch shell, which they blow. They are given to drinking."

It is recorded [62] that "South Indian beggars are divided into two classes, Panjathandi and Paramparaiandi. The former are famine-made beggars, and the latter are beggars from generation to generation. The former, a common saying goes, would rob from the person of a child at a convenient opportunity, while the latter would jump into a well, and pick up a child which had fallen into it by an accident, and make it over to its parents."

Andi (a god) occurs as an exogamous section of Sirukudi Kallans.

Andinia.--Recorded by Mr. F. Fawcett as an inferior sub-division of Dombs, who eat frogs.

Anduran.--A sub-division of Nayar potters, who manufacture earthenware articles for use in temples. The name is derived from Andur, a place which was once a fief under the Zamorin of Calicut.

Ane (elephant).--An exogamous sept of Holeya, Kappiliyan, Kuruba, Kadu Kurumba, Moger, and Gangadikara Vakkaliga. Yenigala or Yenuga (elephant) is further an exogamous sept of Kapus, who will not touch ivory. Anai-kombu (elephant tusk) occurs as a sub-division of Idaiyan.

Angarakudu (the planet Mars).--A synonym of Mangala.

Anja.--In the Madras Census Report, 1891, Ajna is returned as a sub-division of Pallan. This, however, seems to be a mistake for Anja (father), by which name these Pallans address their fathers.

Anju Nal (five days).--Recorded in the Salem Manual, as a name given to Pallis who perform the death ceremony on the fifth day after death.

Anjuttan (men of the five hundred).--Recorded at times of census, as a sub-division of Panan, and a synonym of Velan. In the Gazetteer of Malabar, it appears as a sub-division of Mannans, who are closely akin to the Velans. The equivalent Anjuttilkar occurs as a synonym for Tenkanchi Vellalas in Travancore.

Anna (brother).--The title of numerous classes, e.g., Dasari, Gavara, Golla, Konda Dora, Koppala Velama, Mangala, Mila, Paidi, and Segidi.

Annam (cooked rice).--An exogamous sept of Gamalla and Togata.

Annavi.--A title of Savalakkarans, who play on the nagasaram (reed instrument) in temples.

Antalavar.--Recorded in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a sub-division of Nayar.

Antarala.--A synonym of Ambalavasi, denoting those who occupy an intermediate position between Brahmans and Sudras.

Antarjanam (inside person).--A term applied to Nambutiri Brahman females, who live in seclusion. [63]

Anuloma.--One of the two classes of Sudras, viz., Anuloma and Veloma. The term Anuloma is applied to those born of a higher-caste male and a lower-caste female, e.g., barbers are said to be the offspring of a Brahman and a Vaisya woman.

Anumala (seeds of Dolichos Lablab).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. The equivalent Anumolla occurs as an exogamous sept of Kamma.

Anuppan.--The Anuppans are described, in the Madras Census Report, 1891, as "a small caste of Canarese farmers, found chiefly in the districts of Madura, Tinnevelly, and Coimbatore. Their original home appears to have been Mysore or South Canara, probably the former. Their language is a corrupt form of Canarese. The most important sub-division is Allikulam (lily clan). Some of them are Saivites, and others Vaishnavites. Brahmans are employed as priests by the Vaishnavites, but not by the Saivites. Remarriage of widows is practised, but a woman divorced for adultery cannot remarry during the life-time of her husband."

In the Gazetteer of the Madura district, it is stated that "the Anuppans are commonest in the Kambam valley. They have a tradition regarding their migration thither, which closely resembles that current among the Kappiliyans and Tottiyans (q.v.). Local tradition at Kambam says that the Anuppans were in great strength here in olden days, and that quarrels arose, in the course of which the chief of the Kappiliyans, Ramachcha Kavandan, was killed. With his dying breath he cursed the Anuppans, and thenceforth they never prospered, and now not one of them is left in the town. Their title is Kavandan. They are divided into six territorial groups called Medus, which are named after three villages in this district, and three in Tinnevelly. Over each of these is a headman called the Periyadanakkaran, and the three former are also subject to a Guru who lives at Sirupalai near Madura. These three are divided again into eighteen kilais or branches, each of which intermarries only with certain of the others. Caste panchayats (councils) are held on a blanket, on which (compare the Tottiyan custom) is placed a pot of water containing margosa (Melia Azadirachta) leaves, to symbolise the sacred nature of the meeting. Women who go astray with men of other castes are expelled, and various ceremonies, including (it is said) the burying alive of a goat, are enacted to show that they are dead to the community. The right of a man to his paternal aunt's daughter is as vigorously maintained as among the Kappiliyans and Tottiyans, and leads to the same curious state of affairs (i.e., a woman, whose husband is too young to fulfil the duties of his position, is allowed to consort with his near relations, and the children so begotten are treated as his). No tali (marriage badge) is tied at weddings, and the binding part of the ceremonies is the linking, on seven separate occasions, of the little fingers of the couple. Like the Kappiliyans, the Anuppans have many caste and family deities, a number of whom are women who committed sati." (See Kappiliyan).

Apoto.--Apoto, or Oppoto, is a sub-division of Gaudos, the occupation of which is palanquin-bearing.

Appa (father).--A title of members of various Telugu and Canarese castes, e.g., Idiga, Kannadiyan, Linga Balija, and Tambala.

Arab.--A Muhammadan territorial name, returned at times of census. In the Mysore Census Report, 1901, the Arabs are described as itinerant tradesmen, whose chief business is horse-dealing, though some deal in cloths.

Aradhya.--For the following note I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The Aradhyas are a sect of Brahmans found mainly in the four northern districts of the Madras Presidency, and to a smaller extent in the Cuddapah and Kurnool districts. A few are also found in the Mysore State. They differ in almost every important respect from other Brahmans. Basava, the founder of the Lingayat religion, was born in a family of Brahmans, who, with others round about them, were apparently the first converts to his religion. According to Mr. C. P. Brown, [64] they were "in all probability his personal friends; he persuaded them to lay aside their name, and call themselves Aradhya or Reverend.' They revere the four Aradhyas, visionary personages of the Lingayat creed, of whom very little is known. At all social and religious functions, birth, marriage, initiation and funerals, four vases of water are solemnly placed in their name, and then invoked to preside over them. Their names are Revanaradhya, Marularadhya, Ekoramaradhya, and Panditaradhya. In four ages, it is said, these four successively appeared as precursors of the divine Basava, and were, like Basava, Brahmans. A Purana, known as the Panditaradhya Charitra, is named after the last of these. Versions thereof are found both in Canarese and Telugu. A Sanskrit poem, called Siddhanta Sikhamani, represents Revanaradhya as a human manifestation of one of the ministers of Siva.

As might be expected, the members of this sect are staunch Saivites. They wear both the Brahminical sacred thread, and the linga suspended from another thread. They revere in particular Ganapathi. The lingam which they wear they usually call the prana lingam, or life lingam. The moment a child, male or female, is born, it is invested with the lingam; otherwise it is not considered to have pranam or life. The popular belief is that, if by some accident the lingam is lost, a man must either fast until he recovers it, or not survive so dire a calamity. This is a fixed dogma with them. A man who loses his prana linga stands up to his neck in water, and repeats mantrams (sacred formulæ) for days together; and, on the last day, the lost lingam comes back to him miraculously, if he has been really orthodox in his life. If he does not succeed in recovering it, he must starve and die. The theory is that the lingam is the life of the man who wears it, and, when it is lost beyond recovery, he loses his own life. Incredible stories of miraculous recoveries of the lingam are told. In one case, it is said to have returned to its owner, making a loud noise in water; and in another it was found in a box under lock and key. In this connection, the following story is narrated by Colonel Wilks. [65] "Poornia, the present minister of Mysore, relates an incident of a Lingayat friend of his, who had unhappily lost his portable God, and came to take a last farewell. The Indians, like more enlightened nations, readily laugh at the absurdities of every sect but their own, and Poornia gave him better counsel. It is a part of the ceremonial preceding the sacrifice of the individual that the principal persons of the sect should assemble on the bank of some holy stream, and, placing in a basket the lingam images of the whole assembly, purify them in the sacred waters. The destined victim in conformity to the advice of his friend, suddenly seized the basket, and overturned its contents into the rapid Caveri. Now, my friends, said he, we are on equal terms; let us prepare to die together. The discussion terminated according to expectation. The whole party took an oath of inviolable secrecy, and each privately provided himself with a new image of the lingam."

Aradhyas, as has been indicated, differ from other Brahmans in general in some of their customs. Before they partake of food, they make an offering of it to the lingam which they are wearing. As they cannot eat without making this offering, they have the entire meal served up at the commencement thereof. They offer the whole to the lingam, and then begin to eat. They do not accept offerings distributed in temples as other Brahmans do, because they have already been offered to the God, and cannot therefore be offered again to the lingam. Unlike other Lingayats, Aradhyas believe in the Vedas, to which they give allegorical interpretations. They are fond of reading Sanskrit, and a few have been well-known Telugu poets. Thus, Palapuri Somanatha, who lived in the fourteenth century A.D., composed the Basava Purana and the Panditaradhya Charitra, and the brothers Piduparthi Somanatha and the Basavakavi, who lived in the sixteenth century, composed other religious works.

Aradhyas marry among themselves, and occasionally take girls in marriage from certain of the Niyogi sub-divisions of the Northern Circars. This would seem to show that they were themselves Niyogis, prior to their conversion. They do not intermarry with Aruvelu Niyogis. Unlike other Brahmans, they bury their dead in a sitting posture. They observe death pollution for ten days, and perform the ekodishta and other Brahminical ceremonies for their progenitors. They perform annually, not the Brahminical sradha, but the aradhana. In the latter, there is no apasavyam (wearing the sacred thread from right to left), and no use of gingelly seeds and dharba grass. Nor is there homam (raising the sacrificial fire), parvanam (offering of rice-balls), or oblation of water. Widows do not have their heads shaved.

The title of the Aradhyas is always Aradhya.

Arakala.--A small class of cultivators, recorded mainly from the Kurnool district. The name is possibly derived from araka, meaning a plough with bullocks, or from arakadu, a cultivator.

Arampukatti.--The name, denoting those who tie flower-buds or prepare garlands, of a sub-division of Vellalas.

Aranadan, See Ernadan.

Arane (lizard).--An exogamous sub-sept of Kappiliyan.

Arashina (turmeric).--A gotra or exogamous sept of Agasa, Kurni, Kuruba, and Odde. The equivalent Pasupula occurs as an exogamous sept of Devanga. In Southern India, turmeric (Curcuma) is commonly called saffron (Crocus). Turmeric enters largely into Hindu ceremonial. For example, the practice of smearing the face with it is very widespread among females, and, thinking that it will give their husbands increase of years, women freely bathe themselves with turmeric water. The use of water, in which turmeric has been infused, and by which they give the whole body a bright yellow colour, is prescribed to wives as a mark of the conjugal state, and forbidden to widows. [66] To ward off the evil eye, a vessel containing turmeric water and other things is waved in front of the bridal couple at weddings. Or they are bathed in turmeric water, which they pour over each other. The tali or bottu (gold marriage badge) is attached to a cotton thread dyed with turmeric, and, among some castes, the tying together of the hands of the bride and bridegroom with such a thread is the binding portion of the ceremony.

Arasu or Rajpinde.--"This caste," Mr. Lewis Rice writes (1877):-- [67] "are relatives of or connected with the Rajahs of Mysore. During the life-time of the late Maharaja, they were divided into two factions in consequence of the refusal of thirteen families headed by the Dalavayi (the chief of the female branch) to pay respect to an illegitimate son of His Highness. The other eighteen families consented to the Rajah's wishes, and treat the illegitimate branch, called Komarapatta, as equals. The two divisions intermarry and eat together, and the family quarrel, though serious at the time, is not likely to be permanent. They are employed chiefly under Government and in agriculture, most of the former being engaged in the palace at Mysore. Rajpindes are both Vishnavites and Sivites, and their priests are both Brahmans and Lingayat Waders."

In the Madras Census Report, 1891, Arasu (= Raja or king) is given as a sub-division of the Tamil Pallis and Paraiyans. Urs appears as a contracted form of Arasu in the names of the Mysore royal family, e.g., Kantaraj Urs.

Arathi.--The name, indicating a wave offering to avert the evil eye, of an exogamous sept of Kuruba.

Arati (plantain tree).--An exogamous sept of Chenchu.

Arava.--Arava, signifying Tamil, has been recorded as a sub-division of some Telugu classes, e.g., Golla and Velama. The name, however, refers to Tamil Idaiyans and Vellalas, who have settled in the Telugu country, and are known respectively as Arava Golla and Arava Velama. In some places in the Telugu country, Tamil Paraiyans, employed as servants under Europeans, horse-keepers, etc., are known as Arava Malalu (Malas). The Irulas of the North Arcot district are, in like manner, sometimes called Arava Yanadis. Arava also occurs as a division of Tigalas, said to be a section of the Tamil Pallis, who have settled in Mysore. An ingenious suggestion has been made that Arava is derived from ara, half, vayi, mouthed, in reference to the defective Tamil alphabet, or to the termination of the words being mostly in consonants.

Aravan.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a sub-division of Nayar.

Arayan.--See Valan.

Archaka.--Archaka, or Umai Archaka, is a title of Occhans, who are priests at temples of Grama Devatas (village deities).

Are.--A synonym for Marathi. The name occurs as a sub-division of Kunchigar and Kudubi. In South Canara Arya Kshatri occurs as the equivalent of Are, and, in the Telugu country, Are Kapu refers to Marathi cultivators. Arya Kuttadi is a Tamil synonym of Marathi Dommaras. Concerning the Ares, Mr. H. G. Stuart writes as follows. [68] "Of the total number of 6,809 Ares, 4,373 are found in South Canara, Bellary and Anantapur, and these are true Ares. Of the rest I am not able to speak with certainty, as the term Arya, which is a synonym of Are, is also used as an equivalent of Marathi, and sometimes in a still wider sense. The true Ares are husbandmen of Maratha origin. They wear the sacred thread, have Brahmans as their priests, and give allegiance to the head of the Sringeri Mutt. Marriage of girls takes place either before or after puberty, and the remarriage of widows is not allowed. A husband may divorce his wife for adultery, but a wife cannot divorce her husband. When the guilt of a woman is proved, and the sanction of the Guru obtained, the husband performs the act of divorce by cutting a pumpkin in two at a place where three ways meet. The use of animal food is allowed, but intoxicating liquors are forbidden." The Ares of South Canara, Mr. Stuart writes further, [69] "usually speak Marathi or Konkani, but in the Kasaragod taluk, and possibly in other parts too, they speak Canarese. Their exogamous septs are called manathanas. They use the dhare form of marriage (see Bant), but the pot contains a mixture of water, milk, ghee (clarified butter), honey and curds instead of the usual plain water."

The Marathi-speaking Areyavaru or Aryavaru of the South Canara district follow the makkala santana law of inheritance (from father to son). For ceremonial purposes, they engage Shivalli Brahmans. An interesting feature of the marriage rites is that the bridegroom makes a pretence of going to a battle-field to fight, presumably to show that he is of Kshatriya descent. The ceremony is called dandal jatai. The bridegroom ties a bead on the neck of the bride if of the Powar sept, and a disc if of the Edar sept. The Areyavaru eat fowls and fish. The former are killed after certain mantrams (prayers) have been uttered, and, if a priest is available, it is his duty to despatch the bird. The caste deity is Ammanoru (Durga), in the worship of whom the Areyavaru, like other Maratha castes, employ Gondala mendicants.

Are (Bauhinia racemosa).--A gotra of Kurni.

Ari.--The Aris or Dutans are described, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a "small but interesting community confined to a village in the Tovala taluk. By traditional occupation they are the Ambalavasis of the Saivaite temple of Darsanamkoppa. They are strict vegetarians, wear the Brahminical thread, perform all the Brahminical ceremonies under the guidance of Brahman priests, and claim a position equal to that of the Aryappattars. But they are not allowed to dine with the Brahmans, or to enter the mandapa in front of the garbhagriha, the inner sanctuary of a Hindu shrine. Their dress and ornaments are like those of the Tamil Brahmans, and their language is Tamil. Their period of pollution, however, is as long as fifteen days."

Ari (ebony).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba.

Arigala.--Arigala, denoting a dish carried in procession, occurs as an exogamous sept of Mutracha. Arigala and Arika, both meaning the millet Paspalum scrobiculatum, are septs of Jatapu and Panta Reddi. The latter may not use the grain as food.

Arikuravan.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a sub-division of Nayar.

Arisi.--A sub-division of Savara.

Ariyar.--Ariyar or Ariyanattu Chetti is given as a caste title by Pattanavans.

Ariyur.--Ariyur or Ariviyur is the name of a sub-division of Nattukottai Chettis.

Arli (Ficus religiosa).--An exogamous sept of Stanika.

Arudra (lady-bird).--An exogamous sept of Kalingi.

Arupathukatchi (sixty house section).--A sub-division of Valluvan.

Arupattanalu Taleikattu (sixty-four, who covered their heads).--A sub-division of Chetti.

Aruththukattatha.--The name, meaning those who do not tie the tali a second time, of a section of Paraiyans who do not allow the remarriage of widows.

Aruva.--The Aruvas are an interesting caste of cultivators along the sea-coast in the Berhampur taluk of Ganjam. They say that they are descended from the offspring of alliances between Patanis (Muhammadans) and Oriya women. Like other Oriya castes, they have a number of titles, e.g., Nayako, Patro, Podhano, Ponda, Mondolo, and Mollana, some of which seem to be exogamous, and there are also numerous exogamous septs or bamsams. The headman is styled Nayako, and he is assisted by a Bhollobhaya. Both these offices are hereditary. The Aruvas say that they belong to two Vedas, viz., the males to Atharva Veda, and the females to Yajur Veda. Muhammadans are believed by them to be Atharvavedis.

A member of the caste, called Mollana, officiates on ceremonial occasions. A pure Oriya casteman will not allow his son to marry his sister's daughter, but this is permitted in most places by the Aruvas. The marriage ceremonial, except in a few points of detail, conforms to the general Oriya type. On the day before the wedding, a milk-post of bamboo is erected, and in front of it a new cloth, and various articles for worship are placed. When the fingers of the contracting couple are linked together, and at other stages of the marriage rites, the Mollana recites certain formulæ, in which the words Bismillahi and Allah occur.

The dead are always buried. In former days, stone slabs, with Arabic or Hindustani legends in Oriya characters inscribed on them, used to be set up over the grave. For these, two sticks are now substituted. The corpse of a dead person is sewn up in a kind of sack. As it is being lowered into the grave, the Mollana recites formulæ, and those present throw earth over it before the grave is filled in. They then take their departure, and the Mollana, standing on one leg, recites further formulæ. On the following day, bitter food, consisting of rice and margosa (Melia Azadirachta) leaves, is prepared, and given to the agnates. On the third day after death, the burial-ground is visited, and, after water has been poured over the grave, a cloth is spread thereon. On this relations of the deceased throw earth and food. A purificatory ceremony, in which ghi (clarified butter) is touched, is performed on the fifteenth day. On the fortieth day, the Mollana officiates at a ceremony in which food is offered to the dead person.

The Aruvas do not take part in any Muhammadan ceremonial, and do not worship in mosques. Most of them are Paramarthos, and all worship various Hindu deities and Takuranis (village gods). At their houses, the god is represented by a mass of mud of conical shape, with an areca nut on the top of it. In recent times, a number of Aruva families, owing to a dispute with the Mollana, do not employ him for their ceremonials, in which they follow the standard Oriya type. They neither interdine nor intermarry with other sections of the community, and have become an independent section thereof.

Arya.--Arya or Ariya (noble) occurs as a class of Pattar Brahmans, a division of Samagaras, and an exogamous sept of Kurubas. Some Pattanavans call themselves Ariya Nattu Chetti (Chettis of the country of chiefs), Ariyar, or Ayyayirath Thalaivar (the five thousand chiefs).

Asadi.--The Asadis of the Bellary district are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "a sub-caste of Mala or Holeya, which, in Bellary, are almost interchangeable terms. They are prostitutes and dancers." Among the Madigas, men called Asadi, who have undergone an initiation ceremony, go about, in company with the Matangis (dedicated prostitutes), playing on an instrument called the chaudike, and singing the praises and reciting the story of Ellamma. (See Madiga.)

Asan (teacher).--The title of Variyans, who have held the hereditary position of tutors in noblemen's families. Also a title of Pisharati and Kanisan.

Asari.--In most parts of the Madras Presidency, Mr. H. A. Sturat writes, "Asari (or Achari) is synonymous with Kammalan, and may denote any of the five artizan castes, but in Malabar it is practically confined to the carpenter caste. The Asari of Malabar is the Brahman of the Kammala castes. The Kammala castes generally pollute Nayars by approaching within twelve feet, and Brahmans by coming within thirty-six feet; but an Asari with his measuring rod in his hand has the privilege of approaching very near, and even entering the houses of higher castes without polluting them. This exception may have arisen out of necessity." At the census, 1901, some Sayakkarans (Tamil dyers) returned Asari as a title.

In a Government office, a short time ago, the head clerk, a Brahman named Rangachari, altered the spelling of the name of a Kammalan from Velayudachari to Velayudasari in the office books, on the ground that the former looked Brahmanical.

Ashtakshari (eight syllables).--A sub-division of Satanis, who believe in the efficacy of the eight syllables om-na-mo-na-ra-ya-na-ya in ensuring eternal bliss. The name ashtabhukkulu, or those who eat the eight greedily, also occurs as a sub-division of the same people.

Ashtalohi.--The name, meaning workers in eight metals, of a small class of Oriya artizans. According to one version the eight metals are gold, silver, bell-metal, copper, lead, tin, iron, and brass; according to another, gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, load-stone, iron, and steel.

Ashtikurissi.--Ashtikurissi (ashti, a bone) or Attikurissi is an occupational sub-division of Nayars and Marans, who officiate at the funerals of Nambutiri Brahmans and Nayars, and help in collecting the remains of the bones after cremation.

Asili.--The name for Telugu toddy-drawers in the Cuddapah district. (See Idiga.)

Asupani.--An occupational name for Marans who play on the temple musical instruments asu and pani.

Asvo (horse).--An exogamous sept of Ghasi.

Atagara or Hatagara.--A sub-division of Devanga.

Aththi (Ficus glomerata).--An exogamous sept of Stanika.

Atikunnan.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a sub-division of Nayar.

Atreya.--A Brahmanical gotra of Bhatrazus. Atreyas are descendants of Atri, a rishi who is regarded by some as one of the ten Prajapatis of Manu.

Atta (mother).--A sub-division of Pallan.

Attangarai (river-bank).--A sub-division of Konga Vellala.

Attikankana (cotton marriage thread).--A sub-division of Kurubas, who tie a cotton thread round the wrist at weddings.

Atumpatram.--A name, meaning an object which dances, for Deva-dasis in Travancore.

Aunvallur (possessors of cattle).--A fanciful name for Idaiyans.

Avaru.--A synonym of Agaru.

Aviri (Indigofera tinctoria).--An exogamous sept of Padma Sales, who use indigo in the manufacture of coloured cloth fabrics.

Avisa (Sesbania grandiflora).--A gotra of Medara.

Avu (snake).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba.

Avula (cow).--An exogamous sept of Balija, Boya, Golla, Kapu, Korava, Mutracha, and Yerukala.

Ayar (cow-herd).--A synonym or sub-division of Idaiyan and Kolayan.

Ayodhya (Oudh).--A sub-division of Kapus, who say that they originally lived in Oudh.

Azhati.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a synonym of Pisharati.

Badaga.--As the Todas are the pastoral, and the Kotas the artisan tribe of the Nilgiris, so the agricultural element on these hills is represented by the Badagas (or, as they are sometimes called, Burghers). Their number was returned, at the census, 1901, as 34,178 against 1,267 Kotas, and 807 Todas. Though the primary occupation of the Badagas is agriculture, there are among their community schoolmasters, clerks, public works contractors, bricklayers, painters, carpenters, sawyers, tailors, gardeners, forest guards, barbers, washermen, and scavengers. Many work on tea and coffee estates, and gangs of Badagas can always be seen breaking stones on, and repairing the hill roads. Others are, at the present day, earning good wages in the Cordite Factory near Wellington. Some of the more prosperous possess tea and coffee estates of their own. The rising generation are, to some extent, learning Tamil and English, in addition to their own language, which is said to resemble old Canarese. And I have heard a youthful Badaga, tending a flock of sheep, address an errant member thereof in very fluent Billingsgate. There were, in 1904-1905, thirty-nine Badaga schools, which were attended by 1,222 pupils. In 1907, one Badaga had passed the Matriculation of the Madras University, and was a clerk in the Sub-judge's Court at Ootacamund.

A newspaper discussion was carried on a few years ago as to the condition of the Badagas, and whether they are a down-trodden tribe, bankrupt and impoverished to such a degree that it is only a short time before something must be done to ameliorate their condition, and save them from extermination by inducing them to emigrate to the Wynad and Vizagapatam. A few have, in recent years, migrated to the Anaimalai hills, to work on the planters' estates, which have been opened up there. One writer stated that "the tiled houses, costing from Rs. 250 to Rs. 500, certainly point to their prosperity. They may frequently borrow from the Labbai to enable them to build, but, as I do not know of a single case in which the Labbai has ever seized the house and sold it, I believe this debt is soon discharged. The walled-in, terraced fields immediately around their villages, on which they grow their barley and other grains requiring rich cultivation, are well worked, and regularly manured. The coats, good thick blankets, and gold ear-rings, which most Badagas now possess, can only, I think, point to their prosperity, while their constant feasts, and disinclination to work on Sundays, show that the loss of a few days' pay does not affect them. On the other hand, a former Native official on the Nilgiris writes to me that "though the average Badaga is thrifty and hard-working, there is a tendency for him to be lazy when he is sure of his meal. When a person is sick in another village, his relatives make it an excuse to go and see him, and they have to be fed. When the first crop is raised, the idler pretends that 'worms' have crept into the crop, and the gods have to be propitiated, and there is a feast. Marriage or death, of course, draws a crowd to be fed or feasted. All this means extra expenditure, and a considerable drain on the slender income of the family. The Rowthan (Muhammadan merchant) from the Tamil country is near at hand to lend money, as he has carried his bazar to the very heart of the Badaga villages. First it is a bag of ragi (food grain), a piece of cloth to throw on the coffin, or a few rupees worth of rice and curry-stuff doled out by the all-accommodating Rowthan at a price out of all proportion to the market rate, and at a rate ranging from six pies to two annas for the rupee. The ever impecunious Badaga has no means of extricating himself, with a slender income, which leaves no margin for redeeming debts. The bond is renewed every quarter or half year, and the debt grows by leaps and bounds, and consumes all his earthly goods, including lands. The advent of lawyers on the hills has made the Badagas a most litigious people, and they resort to the courts, which means expenditure of money, and neglect of agriculture." In the funeral song of the Badagas, which has been translated by Mr. Gover, [70] one of the crimes enumerated, for which atonement must be made, is that of preferring a complaint to the Sirkar (Government), and one of their numerous proverbs embodies the same idea. "If you prefer a complaint to a Magistrate, it is as if you had put poison into your adversary's food." But Mr. Grigg writes, [71] "either the terrors of the Sirkar are not what they were, or this precept is much disregarded, for the Court-house at Ootacamund is constantly thronged with Badagas, and they are now very much given to litigation."

I gather from the notes, which Bishop Whitehead has kindly placed at my disposal, that "when the Badagas wish to take a very solemn oath, they go to the temple of Mariamma at Sigur, and, after bathing in the stream and putting on only one cloth, offer fruits, cocoanuts, etc., and kill a sheep or fowl. They put the head of the animal on the step of the shrine, and make a line on the ground just in front of it. The person who is taking the oath then walks from seven feet off in seven steps, putting one foot immediately in front of the other, up to the line, crosses it, goes inside the shrine, and puts out a lamp that is burning in front of the image. If the oath is true, the man will walk without any difficulty straight to the shrine. But, if the oath is not true, his eyes will be blinded, and he will not be able to walk straight to the shrine, or see the lamp. It is a common saying among Badagas, when a man tells lies, 'Will you go to Sigur, and take an oath?' Oaths are taken in much the same way at the temple of Mariamma at Ootacamund. When a Hindu gives evidence in the Court at Ootacamund, he is often asked by the Judge whether he will take an oath at the Mariamma temple. If he agrees, he is sent off to the temple with a Court official. The party for whom he gives evidence supplies a goat or sheep, which is killed at the temple, the head and carcase being placed in front of the image. The witness steps over the carcase, and this forms the oath. If the evidence is false, it is believed that some evil will happen to him."

The name Badaga or Vadugan means northerner, and the Badagas are believed to be descended from Canarese colonists from the Mysore country, who migrated to the Nilgiris three centuries ago owing to famine, political turmoil, or local oppression in their own country. It is worthy of notice, in this connection, that the head of the Badagas, like that of the Todas and Kotas, is dolichocephalic, and not of the mesaticephalic or sub-brachycephalic type, which prevails throughout Mysore, as in other Canarese areas.

Average.

Cephalic Cephalic Cephalic
length. breadth. index.
cm. cm.

Badaga 18.9 13.6 71.7
Toda 19.4 14.2 73.3
Kota 19.2 14.2 74.1

Of the Mysorean heads, the following are a few typical examples:--

Average.

Cephalic Cephalic Cephalic
length. breadth. index.
cm. cm.

Ganiga 18.5 14.3 77.6
Bedar 18.3 14.3 77.7
Holeya 17.9 14.1 79.1
Mandya Brahman 18.5 14.8 80.2
Vakkaliga 17.7 14.5 81.7

Concerning the origin of the Badagas, the following legend is current. Seven brothers and their sisters were living on the Talamalai hills. A Muhammadan ruler attempted to ravish the girl, whom the brother saved from him by flight. They settled down near the present village of Bethalhada. After a short stay there, the brothers separated, and settled in different parts of the Nilgiris, which they peopled. Concerning the second brother, Hethappa, who had two daughters, the story goes that, during his absence on one occasion, two Todas forced their way into his house, ravished his wife, and possessed themselves of his worldly effects. Hearing of what had occurred, Hethappa sought the assistance of two Balayaru in revenging himself on the Todas. They readily consented to help him, in return for a promise that they should marry his daughters. The Todas were killed, and the present inhabitants of the village Hulikallu are supposed to be the descendants of the Balayaru and Badaga girls. The seven brothers are now worshipped under the name Hethappa or Hetha.

In connection with the migration of the Badagas to the Nilgiris, the following note is given in the Gazetteer of the Nilgiris. "When this flitting took place there is little to show. It must have occurred after the foundation of the Lingayat creed in the latter half of the twelfth century, as many of the Badagas are Lingayats by faith, and sometime before the end of the sixteenth century, since in 1602 the Catholic priests from the west coast found them settled on the south of the plateau, and observing much the same relations with the Todas as subsist to this day. The present state of our knowledge does not enable us to fix more nearly the date of the migration. That the language of the Badagas, which is a form of Canarese, should by now have so widely altered from its original as to be classed as a separate dialect argues that the movement took place nearer the twelfth than the sixteenth century. On the other hand, the fact (pointed out by Dr. Rivers [72]) that the Badagas are not mentioned in a single one of the Todas' legends about their gods, whereas the Kotas, Kurumbas, and Irulas, each play a part in one or more of these stories, raises the inference that the relations between the Badagas and the Todas are recent as compared with those between the other tribes. A critical study of the Badaga dialect might perhaps serve to fix within closer limits the date of the migration. As now spoken, this tongue contains letters (two forms of r for instance) and numerous words, which are otherwise met with only in ancient books, and which strike most strangely upon the ear of the present generation of Canarese. The date when some of these letters and words became obsolete might possibly be traced, and thus aid in fixing the period when the Badagas left the low country. It is known that the two forms of r, for example, had dropped out of use prior to the time of the grammarian Kesiraja, who lived in the thirteenth century, and that the word betta (a hill), which the Badagas use in place of the modern bettu, is found in the thirteenth century work Sabdamanidarpana."

It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Nilgiris, that "Nellialam, about eight miles north-west of Devala as the crow flies, is the residence of the Nellialam Arasu (Urs), who has been recognised as the janmi (landlord) of a considerable area in the Munanad amsam, but is in reality a Canarese-speaking Lingayat of Canarese extraction, who follows the ordinary Hindu law of inheritance, and is not a native of the Wynad or of Malabar. Family tradition, though now somewhat misty, says that in the beginning two brothers named Sadasiva Raja Urs and Bhujanga Raja Urs moved (at some date and for some reason not stated) from Ummattur (in the present Chamarajnagar taluk of Mysore), and settled at Malaikota, the old fort near Kalhatti. Their family deities were Bhujangesvara and Ummattur Urakatti, which are still worshipped as such. They brought with them a following of Bedars and Badagas, and thereafter always encouraged the immigration to the hills of more Canarese people. The village of Bannimara, a mile west of Kalhatti, is still peopled by Bedars who are said to be descendants of people of that caste who came with the two brothers; and to this day, when the Badagas of the plateau have disputes of difficulty, they are said to go down to Nellialam with presents (kanikai) in their hands, and ask the Arasu to settle their differences, while, at the time of their periodical ceremonies (manavalai) to the memory of their ancestors, they send a deputation to Nellialam to invite representatives of the Arasu to be present."

Close to the village of Bethalhada is a row of cromlechs carved with figures of the sun and moon, human beings, animals, etc., and enclosed within a stone kraal, which the Badagas claim to be the work of their ancestors, to whom periodical offerings are made. At the time of my visit, there were within one of the cromlechs a conch shell, lingam, bell, and flowers. A number of these sculptured cromlechs at Sholur, Melur, and other spots on the Nilgiris, are described and figured by Breeks, [73] who records that the cromlech at Jakata Kambe is interesting as being the place of the yearly sacrifice performed by the Badagas of the Jakaneri grama (village) by their Kani Kurumba. And he adds that the Badagas would seem to have usually selected the neighbourhood of these cromlechs for their temples, as for example, at Melur, Kakusi, H'laiuru, Tudur, and Jakatada.

It is recorded [74], in connection with the legends of the Badagas, that "in the heart of the Banagudi shola, not far from the Dodduru group of cromlechs, is an odd little shrine to Karairaya, consisting of a ruined stone hut surrounded by a low wall, within which are a tiny cromlech, some sacred water-worn stones, and sundry little pottery images representing a tiger, a mounted man, and some dogs. These keep in memory, it is said, a Badaga who was slain in combat with a tiger; and annually a festival is held, at which new images are placed there, and vows are paid. A Kurumba makes fire by friction and burns incense, throws sanctified water over the numerous goats brought to be sacrificed, to see if they will shiver in the manner always held necessary in sacrificial victims, and then slays, one after the other, those which have shown themselves duly qualified. Hulikal Drug, usually known as the Drug, is a precipitous bluff at the very end of the range which borders on the south the great ravine which runs up to Coonoor. It is named from the neighbouring village of Hulikal, or tiger's stone, and the story goes that this latter is so called because in it a Badaga killed a notorious man-eater which had long been the terror of the country side. The spot where the beast was buried is shown near the Pillaiyar temple to the south of Hulikal village, and is marked by three stones. Burton says there used formerly to be a stone image of the slain tiger thereabouts. Some two miles south-east of Konakarai in a place known as Kottai-hada, or the fort flat, lie the remains of the old fort Udaiya Raya Kota. Badaga tradition gives a fairly detailed account of Udaiya Raya. It says he was a chief who collected the taxes for the Ummattur Rajas, and that he had also a fort at Kullanthorai, near Sirumugai, the remains of which are still to be seen. He married a woman of Netlingi hamlet of Nedugula, named Muddu Gavari, but she died by the wrath of the gods because she persuaded him to celebrate the annual fire-walking festival in front of the fort, instead of at the customary spot by the Mahalingasvami temple about half a mile off. Anaikatti is a hamlet situated in the jungle of the Moyar valley. The stream which flows past it tumbles over a pretty fall on the slopes of Birmukku (Bimaka) hill. The Badagas call the spot Kuduraihallo, or the ravine of the horse, and say the name was given it because a Badaga, covered with shame at finding that his wife gave him first sort rice but his brother who lived with them only second sort, committed suicide by jumping his horse down the fall."

According to Mr. Grigg, the Badagas recognise eighteen different "castes or sects." These are, however, simplified by Mr. S. M. Natesa Sastri [75] into six, "five high castes and one low caste." They are--

1. Udaya. |
2. Haruva. |
3. Adhikari. | High caste.
4. Kanaka. |
5. Badaga. |
6. Toreya Low caste.

"Udayas are Lingayats in religion, and carry the Sivalinga--the Siva image--tied round their necks. They claim to be superior to all the other Badagas, and are regarded as such. They are priests to all the Badagas of the Lingayat class, and are strict vegetarians. They do not intermarry with any of the other high caste Badaga sects. Udaya was, and is the title assumed by the Maisur Rajas, and those Badagas, by being thus designated as a caste, claim superior blood in their veins." The Lingayat Badagas are commonly called Lingakutti. "Next in rank come the Haruvas. From their name being so closely connected with the Aryas--the respectable--and from their habit of wearing the Brahmanical thread, we are warranted in believing that they must originally have been the poor Brahman priests of the Badagas that migrated to this country (the Nilgiris), though they have now got themselves closely mingled with the Badagas. These Haruvas are also strict vegetarians, and act as priests." It has been suggested that the Haruvas (jumper) derive their name from the fire-walking ceremony, which they perform periodically. A further, and more probable suggestion has been made to me that Haruva comes from a Canarese word meaning to beg or pray; hence one who begs or prays, and so a Brahman. The Canarese Basava Purana frequently uses the word in sense. "The Adhikaris are to a certain extent vegetarians. The other two high castes, and of course the low caste Toreyas also, have no objection of any kind to eating flesh. It is also said that the vegetarian Adhikari, if he marries into a flesh-eating caste of the Badagas, betakes himself to this latter very readily." The Kanakas are stated by Mr. Grigg to be the accountants, who were probably introduced when the hills were under the sway of the Tamil chiefs. This would, however, seem to be very improbable. "The Toreyas are regarded as sons and servants to the five high caste Badaga sects--to the Haruvas especially. They are the lowest in the scale, and they are prohibited from intermarrying with the other or high caste Badagas, as long as they are sons to them." The Toreya does the menial duties for the tribe. He is the village servant, carries the corpses to the burning-ground, conveys the news of a death from village to village, is the first to get shaved when a death occurs, and is sent along with a woman when she is going to visit her mother or mother-in-law at a distance from her own home. "The Udayas, Adhikaris and Kanakas are Lingayats in religion, and the other three, the Haruvas, Badagas, and Toreyas are Saivites." Of the six divisions referred to, the Udayas and Toreyas are endogamous, but intermarriage is permissible between the other four. At the census, 1891, a large number of Badagas returned as their sub-division Vakkaliga, which means cultivator, and is the name of the great cultivating caste of Mysore.

Seven miles west of Coonoor is a village named Athikarihatti, or village of the Athikari or Adhikari section of the Badagas. "The story goes that these people, under a leader named Karibetta Raya, came from Sarigur in Mysore territory, and settled first at Nelliturai (a short distance south-west of Mettupalaiyam) and afterwards at Tudur (on the plateau west of Kulakambi) and Tadasimarahatti (to the north-west of Melur), and that it was they who erected the sculptured cromlechs of Tudur and Melur. Tudur and Tadasimarahatti are now both deserted; but in the former a cattle kraal, an old shrine, and a pit for fire-walking may still be seen, and in the latter another kraal, and one of the raised stone platforms called mandaikallu by the Badagas. Tradition says that the Badagas left these places and founded Athikarihatti and its hamlets instead, because the Kurumbas round about continually troubled them with their magic arts, and indeed killed by sorcery several of their most prominent citizens." [76]

Like other Canarese people, the Badagas have exogamous septs or kulas, of which Mari, Madhave (marriage), Kasturi (musk), and Belli (silver) are examples. A very large number of families belong to the Mari and Madhave septs, which were time after time given as the sept name in reply to my enquiries. It may be noted that Belli occurs as an exogamous sept of the Canarese classes Vakkaliga, Toreya, and Kuruba, and Kasturi is recorded in my notes as a sept of the Vakkaligas and Telugu Kammas.

The Badagas dwell in extensive villages, generally situated on the summit of a low hillock, composed of rows of comfortable thatched or tiled houses, and surrounded by the fields, which yield the crops. The houses are not separate tenements, but a line of dwellings under one continuous roof, and divided by party walls. Sometimes there are two or three, or more lines, forming streets. Each house is partitioned off into an outer (edumane) and inner apartment (ozhaga or ogamane). If the family has cows or buffaloes yielding milk, a portion of the latter is converted into a milk-house (hagottu), in which the milk is stored, and which no woman may enter. Even males who are under pollution, from having touched or passed near a Kota or Paraiyan, or other cause, may not enter it until they have had a ceremonial bath. To some houses a loft, made of bamboo posts, is added, to serve as a store-house. In every Badaga village there is a raised platform composed of a single boulder or several stones with an erect stone slab set up thereon, called suththu kallu. There is, further, a platform, made of bricks and mud, called mandhe kallu, whereon the Badagas, when not working, sit at ease. In their folk-tales men seated thereon are made to give information concerning the approach of strangers to the village. Strangers, who are not Badagas, are called Holeya. The Rev. G. Richter gives [77] Badaga Holeya as a division of the lowly Holeyas, who came to Coorg from the Mysore country. In front of the houses, the operations of drying and threshing grain are carried out. The cattle are kept in stone kraals, or covered sheds close to the habitations, and the litter is kept till it is knee or waist deep, and then carried away as manure for the Badaga's land, or planters' estates.

"Nobody," it has been said, [78] "can beat the Badaga at making mother earth produce to her utmost capacity, unless it be a Chinese gardener. To-day we see a portion of the hill side covered with rocks and boulders. The Badagas become possessed of this scene of chaos, and turn out into the place in hundreds, reducing it, in a few weeks, to neat order. The unwieldy boulders, having been rolled aside, serve their purpose by being turned into a wall to keep out cattle, etc. The soil is pounded and worried until it becomes amenable to reason, and next we see a green crop running in waves over the surface. The Badagas are the most progressive of all the hill tribes, and always willing to test any new method of cultivation, or new crops brought to their notice by the Nilgiri Horticultural Society."