Chapter II: Preface: To Third Edition (1)

In the present edition I have put this book into what must be (for some time at least) its permanent form, making such additions and alterations as seemed necessary.

If I had any opportunity of teaching the language, I should no doubt have been able to introduce many other improvements; as it is, I have had to rely mainly on the suggestions and corrections kindly sent to me by various teachers and students who have used this book, among whom my especial thanks are due to the Rev. W. F. Moulton, of Cambridge, and Mr. C. Stoffel, of Amsterdam.

HENRY SWEET.

LONDON,
_October 15, 1884_.

{x}

CONTENTS.

Page

GRAMMAR 1

TEXTS 55

NOTES 91

GLOSSARY 97

{1}

GRAMMAR.

The oldest stage of English before the Norman Conquest is called 'Old English,' which name will be used throughout in this Book, although the name 'Anglo-Saxon' is still often used.

There were several dialects of Old English. This book deals only with the _West-Saxon_ dialect in its earliest form.

SOUNDS.

VOWELS.

The vowel-letters in Old English had nearly the same values as in Latin. Long vowels were occasionally marked by ('), short vowels being left unmarked. In this book long vowels are marked by (-). The following are the elementary vowels and diphthongs, with examples, and key-words from English, French (F.), and German (G.):--

a _as in_ mann (G.) nama (_name_).
[=a] " father st[=a]n (_stone_).
ae " man glaed (_glad_).
[=ae] " d[=ae]d (_deed_)[1].
e " ete (F.) ic ete[2] (_I eat_).
[=e] " see (G.) h[=e] (_he_).
[e,] " men m[e,]nn (_men_).
{2}
i " fini (F.) cwic (_alive_).
[=i] " sieh (G.) w[=i]n (_wine_).
ie " fin ieldran (_ancestors_).
[=i]e " h[=i]eran (_hear_).
o " beau (F.) god (_god_).
[=o] " so (G.) g[=o]d (_good_).
u " sou (F.) sunu (_son_).
[=u] " gut (G.) n[=u] (_now_).
y " vec_u_ (F.) synn (_sin_).
[=y] " gruen (G.) br[=y]d (_bride_).
ea = ae + a eall (_all_).
[=e]a = [=ae] + a [=e]ast (_east_).
eo = e + o weorc (_work_).
[=e]o = [=e] + o d[=e]op (_deep_).
_e_ and _[e,]_ are both written e in the MSS.

The diphthongs are pronounced with the stress on the first element.

Those who find a difficulty in learning strange vowel-sounds may adopt
the following approximate pronunciation:--

a as in ask (short) nama (n[)a]hm[)a]h).
[=a] " father st[=a]n (stahn).
ae " man glaed (glad).
[=ae] " there [=ae]r (air).
e, [e,] " men ete (etty), m[e,]nn (men).
[=e] " they h[=e] (hay).
i, ie " fin cwic (quick), ieldran (ildr[)a]hn).
[=i], [=i]e " see w[=i]n (ween), h[=i]eran
(heer[)a]hn).
o " not god (god).
[=o] " note g[=o]d (goad).
u " full full (full).
[=u] " fool n[=u] (noo).
y " fin synn (zin).
[=y] " see br[=y]d (breed).
ea = [)e]-[)a]h eall ([)e]-[)a]hl).
[=e]a = ai-[)a]h [=e]ast (ai-[)a]hst).
{3}
eo = [)e]-o weorc (w[)e]-ork).
[=e]o = ai-o d[=e]op (dai-op).

The pronunciation given in parentheses is the nearest that can be
expressed in English letters as pronounced in Southern English.

CONSONANTS.

Double consonants must be pronounced double, or long, as in Italian. Thus _sunu_ (son) must be distinguished from _sunne_ (sun) in the same way as _penny_ is distinguished from _penknife_. So also _in_ (in) must be distinguished from _inn_ (house); noting that in modern English final consonants in accented monosyllables after a short vowel are long, our _in_ and _inn_ both having the pronunciation of Old English _inn_, not of O.E. _in_.

_c_ and _g_ had each a _back_ (guttural) and a _front_ (palatal) pron., which latter is in this book written _[.c]_, _[.g]_.

c = _k_, as in _c[=e]ne_ (bold), _cn[=a]wan_ (know).

[.c] = _kj_, a _k_ formed in the _j_ (English _y_) position, nearly as in the old-fashioned pron. of _sky_: _[.c]iri[.c]e_ (church), _sty[.c][.c]e_ (piece), _th[e,]n[.c]an_ (think).

g initially and in the combination _ng_ was pron. as in 'get': _g[=o]d_ (good), _lang_ (long); otherwise (that is, medially and finally after vowels and _l, r_) as in German _sagen: dagas_ (days), _burg_ (city), _h[=a]lga_ (saint).

[.g] initially and in the combination _n[.g]_ was pronounced _gj_ (corresponding to _kj_): _[.g][=e]_ (ye), _[.g]eorn_ (willing), _spr[e,]n[.g]an_ (scatter); otherwise = _j_ (as in 'you'): _dae[.g]_ (day), _wr[=e][.g]an_ (accuse), _h[e,]r[.g]ian_ (ravage). It is possible that _[.g]_ in _[.g]e-boren_ (born) and other unaccented syllables was already pronounced _j. [.c][.g] = [.g][.g]: s[e,][.c][.g]an_ (say), _hry[.c][.g]_ (back).

f had the sound of _v_ everywhere where it was possible:--_faran_ (go), _of_ (of), _ofer_ (over); not, of course, in _oft_ (often), or when doubled, as in _offrian_ (offer). {4}

h initially, as in _h[=e]_ (he), had the same sound as now. Everywhere else it had that of Scotch and German _ch_ in _loch_:--_h[=e]ah_ (high), _Wealh_ (Welshman), _riht_ (right). _hw_, as in _hwaet_ (what), _hw[=i]l_ (while), had the sound of our _wh_; and _hl, hn, hr_ differed from _l, n, r_ respectively precisely as _wh_ differs from _w_, that is, they were these consonants devocalized, _hl_ being nearly the same as Welsh _ll:--hl[=a]ford_ (lord), _hl[=u]d_ (loud); _hnappian_ (doze), _hnutu_ (nut); _hrathe_ (quickly), _hr[=e]od_ (reed).

r was always a strong trill, as in Scotch:--_r[=ae]ran_ (to raise), _h[=e]r_ (here), _word_ (word).

s had the sound of _z_:--_s[=e][.c]an_ (seek), _sw[=a]_ (so), _w[=i]s_ (wise), _[=a].r[=i]san_ (rise); not, of course, in combination with hard consonants, as in _st[=a]n_ (stone), _faest_ (firm), _r[=i][.c]sian_ (rule), or when double, as in _cyssan_ (kiss).

th had the sound of our _th_ (= dh) in _then_:_--th[=u]_ (thou), _thing_ (thing), _s[=o]th_ (true), _h[=ae]then_ (heathen); except when in combination with hard consonants, where it had that of our _th_ in _thin_, as in _s[=e][.c]th_ (seeks). Note _haefth_ (has) = _haevdh_.

w was fully pronounced wherever written:--_wr[=i]tan_ (write), _n[=i]we_ (new), _s[=e]ow_ (sowed _pret._).

STRESS.

The stress or accent is marked throughout in this book, whenever it is not on the first syllable of a word, by (.) preceding the letter on which the stress begins. Thus _for.[.g]iefan_ is pronounced with the same stress as that of _forgive_, _andswaru_ with that of _answer_.

* * * * *

PHONOLOGY.

VOWELS.

Different vowels are related to one another in various ways in O.E., the most important of which are _mutation_ (German _umlaut_) and _gradation_ (G. _ablaut_). {5}

The following changes are _mutations_:--

a .. [e,]:--mann, _pl._ m[e,]nn; wand (wound _prt._), w[e,]ndan (to turn).

ea (= a) .. ie (= [e,]):--eald (old), ieldra (older); feallan (fall), fielth (falls).

[=a] .. [=ae]:--bl[=a]wan (to blow), bl[=ae]wth (bloweth); h[=a]l (sound), h[=ae]lan (heal).

u .. y:--burg (city), _pl._ byri[.g]; trum (strong), trymman (to strengthen).

o .. y:--gold, gylden (golden); coss (a kiss), cyssan (to kiss).

e .. i:--beran (to bear), bireth (beareth); cwethan (speak), cwide (speech).

eo (= e) .. ie (= i):--heord (herd), hierde (shepherd); [.c]eorfan (cut), [.c]ierfth (cuts).

u .. o:--curon (they chose), [.g]e.coren (chosen).

[=u] .. [=y]:--c[=u]th (known), c[=y]than (to make known); f[=u]l (foul), [=a].f[=y]lan (defile).

[=o] .. [=e]:--s[=o]hte (sought _prt._), s[=e][.c]an (to seek); f[=o]da (food), f[=e]dan (to feed).

[=e]a .. [=i]e:--h[=e]awan (to hew), h[=i]ewth (hews); t[=e]am (progeny), t[=i]eman (teem).

[=e]o .. [=i]e:--st[=e]or (rudder), st[=i]eran (steer); [.g]e.str[=e]on (possession), [.g]es.tr[=i]enan (gain).

Before proceeding to gradation, it will be desirable to describe the other most important vowel-relations.

a, ae, ea. In O.E. original _a_ is preserved before nasals, as in _mann_, _lang_, _nama_ (name), and before a single consonant followed by _a_, _u_, or _o_, as in _dagas_ (days), _dagum_ (to days), _faran_ (go), _gafol_ (profit), and in some words when _e_ follows, as in _ic fare_ (I go), _faren_ (gone). Before _r_, _l_, _h_ followed by another consonant, and before _x_ it becomes _ea_, as in _heard_ (hard), _eall_ (all), _eald_ (old), _eahta_ (eight), _weaxan_ (to grow). Not in _baerst_ (p. 7). In most other cases it becomes _ae_:--_dae[.g]_, (day), _dae[.g]es_ (of a day), _faest_ (firm), _waer_ (wary). {6}

e before nasals always becomes _i_: compare _bindan_ (to bind), pret. _band_, with _beran_ (to bear), pret. _baer_.

_e_ before _r_ (generally followed by a consonant) becomes _eo:--eorthe_ (earth), _heorte_ (heart). Not in _berstan_ (p. 7). Also in other cases:--_seolfor_ (silver), _heofon_ (heaven).

i before _r_ + cons. becomes _ie:--bierth_ (beareth) contr. from _bireth, hierde_ (shepherd) from _heord_ (herd), _wiersa_ (worse).

[e,] before _r_, or _l_ + cons. often becomes _ie:--fierd_ (army) from _faran_, _bieldo_ (boldness) from _beald_, _ieldra_ (elder) from _eald_.

By _gradation_ the vowels are related as follows:--

e (i, eo) .. a (ae, ea) .. u (o):--

_bindan_ (inf.), _band_ (pret.), _bundon_ (they bound). _beran_ (inf.), _baer_ (pret.), _boren_ (past partic.). _[.c]eorfan_ (cut), _[.c]earf_ (pret.), _curfon_ (they cut), _corfen_ (past partic.). _b[e,]nd_ (bond) = mutation of band, _byr-then_ (burden) of _bor-en_.

a (ae, ea) .. [=ae]:--_spraec_ (spoke), _spr[=ae]con_ (they spoke), _spr[=ae][.c]_ (speech).

a .. [=o]:--_faran_ (to go), _f[=o]r_ (pret.), _f[=o]r_ (journey). _[.g]e.f[=e]ra_ (companion) mutation of _f[=o]r_.

[=i] .. [=a] .. i:--_wr[=i]tan, wr[=a]t, writon, [.g]e.writ_ (writing, _subst._). _(be).l[=i]fan_ (remain), _l[=a]f_ (remains), whence by mutation _l[=ae]fan_ (leave).

[=e]o ([=u]) .. [=e]a .. u (o):--_[.c][=e]osan_ (choose), _[.c][=e]as, curon, coren_. _cys-t_ (choice). _(for).l[=e]osan_ (lose), _l[=e]as_ (loose), _[=a].l[=i]esan_ (release), _losian_ (to be lost). _b[=u]gan_ (bend), _boga_ (bow).

We see that the laws of gradation are most clearly shown in the conjugation of the strong verbs. But they run through the whole language, and a knowledge of the laws of gradation and mutation is the main key to O.E. etymology.

It is often necessary to supply intermediate stages in connecting two
words. Thus _l[e,][.c][.g]an_ (lay) cannot be directly referred to
_li[.c][.g]an_ (lie), but only to a form *_lag_-, preserved in the
preterite _lae[.g]_. So also _bl[e,]ndan_ (to blind) can be referred
only indirectly to the adjective _blind_ through an intermediate
*_bland_-. Again, the root-vowel of _byrthen_ {7} (burden) cannot be
explained by the infinitive _beran_ (bear), but only by the past
participle _[.g]e.boren_. In the same way _hryre_ (fall _sb._) must be
referred, not to the infinitive _hr[=e]osan_, but to the preterite
plural _hruron_.

The vowel-changes in the preterites of verbs of the 'fall'-conjugation
(1) _feallan_, _f[=e]oll_, &c., are due not to gradation, but to other
causes.

CONSONANTS.

s becomes _r_ in the preterite plurals and past participles of strong verbs, as in _curon_, _[.g]e.coren_ from _[.c][=e]osan_, _w[=ae]ron_ pl. of _waes_ (was), and in other formations, such as _hryre_ (fall) from _hr[=e]osan_.

th becomes _d_ under the same conditions, as in _wurdon_, _[.g]e.worden_ from _weorthan_ (become), _cwaeth_ (quoth), pl. _cw[=ae]don_, _cwide_ (speech) from _cwethan_ (infin.).

r is often transposed, as in _iernan_ (run) from original *_rinnan_ (cp. the subst. _ryne_), _berstan_ (burst) from *_brestan_, _baerst_ (burst _pret._) from _braest_, _hors_ (horse) from *_hross_.

The combinations cae-, gae- become _[.c]ea-_, _[.g]ea-_, as in _[.c]eaf_ (chaff) from *_caef_, _s[.c]eal_ (shall) from *_scael_, _[.g]eaf_ (gave) = *_gaef_ from _[.g]iefan_ (cp. _cwaeth_ from _cwethan_), _[.g]eat_ (gate)--cp. _faet_ (vessel).

g[=ae]- often becomes _[.g][=e]a-_, as in _[.g][=e]afon_ (they gave), with which compare _cw[=ae]don_ (they said).

ge- becomes _[.g]ie_, as in _[.g]iefan_, _[.g]ieldan_ (pay) from *_gefan_, *_geldan_--cp. _cwethan_, _delfan_. Not in the prefix _[.g]e-_ and _[.g][=e]_ (ye).

When g comes before a consonant in inflection, it often becomes _h_, as in _h[=e] l[=i]ehth_ (he lies) from _l[=e]ogan_ (mentiri).

h after a consonant is dropt when a vowel follows, the preceding vowel being lengthened, thus _Wealh_ (Welshman) has plural _W[=e]alas_.

* * * * *

INFLECTIONS.

NOUNS.

Gender. There are three genders in O.E.--masculine, neuter, and feminine. The gender is partly natural, partly {8} grammatical. By the natural gender names of male beings, such as _se mann_ (the man), are masculine; of female beings, such as _s[=e]o dohtor_ (the daughter), are feminine; and of young creatures, such as _thaet [.c]ild_ (the child), neuter. Note, however, that _thaet w[=i]f_ (woman) is neuter.

Grammatical gender is known only by the gender of the article and other words connected with the noun, and, to some extent, by its form. Thus all nouns ending in _-a_, such as _se m[=o]na_ (moon), are masculine, _s[=e]o sunne_ (sun) being feminine. Those ending in _-d[=o]m_, _-h[=a]d_, and _-s[.c]ipe_ are also masculine:--_se w[=i]sd[=o]m_ (wisdom), _se [.c]ildh[=a]d_ (childhood), _se fr[=e]onds[.c]ipe_ (friendship). Those in _-nes_, _-o_ (from adjectives) _-r[=ae]den_, and _-ung_ are feminine:--_s[=e]o rihtw[=i]snes_ (righteousness), _s[=e]o bieldo_ (boldness) from _beald_, _s[=e]o mann-r[=ae]den_ (allegiance), _s[=e]o scotung_ (shooting).

Compounds follow the gender of their last element, as in _thaet burg-[.g]eat_ (city-gate), from _s[=e]o burg_ and _thaet [.g]eat_. Hence also _se w[=i]f-mann_ (woman) is masculine.

The gender of most words can be learnt only by practice, and the student should learn each noun with its proper definite article.

Strong and Weak. Weak nouns are those which form their inflections with _n_, such as _se m[=o]na_, plural _m[=o]nan_; _s[=e]o sunne_, genitive sing. _th[=ae]re sunnan_. All the others, such as _se dae[.g]_, pl. _dagas_, _thaet h[=u]s_ (house), gen. sing. _thaes h[=u]ses_, are strong.

Cases. There are four cases, nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive. The acc. is the same as the nom. in all plurals, in the sing. of all neuter nouns, and of all strong masculines. Masculine and neuter nouns never differ in the plural except in the nom. and acc., and in the singular they differ only in the acc. of weak nouns, which in neuters is the same as the nom. The dative plural of nearly all nouns ends in _-um_. {9}

STRONG MASCULINES.

(1) as-plurals.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Nom[3]._ st[=a]n (_stone_). _Nom._ st[=a]n-as.
_Dat._ st[=a]n-e. _Dat._ st[=a]n-um.
_Gen._ st[=a]n-es. _Gen._ st[=a]n-a.

So also _d[=ae]l_ (part), _cyning_ (king), _[.c]ildh[=a]d_ (childhood).

_dae[.g]_ (day) changes its vowel in the pl. (p. 5):--_dae[.g]_, _dae[.g]e_, _dae[.g]es_; _dagas_, _dagum_, _daga_.

Nouns in _-e_ have nom. and dat. sing. the same:--_[e,]nde_, (end), _[e,]nde_, _[e,]ndes_; _[e,]ndas_, _[e,]ndum_, _[e,]nda_.

Nouns in _-el_, _-ol_, _-um_, _-en_, _-on_, _-er_, _-or_ often contract:--_[e,]n[.g]el_ (angel), _[e,]n[.g]le_, _[e,]n[.g]les_; _[e,]n[.g]las_, _[e,]n[.g]lum_, _[e,]n[.g]la_. So also _nae[.g]el_ (nail), _the[.g]en_ (thane), _ealdor_ (prince). Others, such as _aecer_ (field), do not contract.

_h_ after a consonant is dropped in inflection (p. 7), as in _feorh_ (life), _f[=e]ore_, _f[=e]ores_. So also in _Wealh_ (Welshman), plur. _W[=e]alas_.

There are other classes which are represented only by a few nouns each.

(2) e-plurals.

A few nouns which occur only in the plur.:--_l[=e]ode_ (people),
_l[=e]odum_, _l[=e]oda_. So also several names of
nations:--_[E,]n[.g]le_ (English), _D[e,]ne_ (Danes); _Seaxe_ (Saxons),
_Mier[.c]e_ (Mercians), have gen. plur. _Seaxna_, _Mier[.c]na_.

(3) Mutation-plurals.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Nom._ f[=o]t (_foot_). _Nom._ f[=e]t.
_Dat._ f[=e]t. _Dat._ f[=o]t-um.
_Gen._ f[=o]t-es. _Gen._ f[=o]t-a.

So also _t[=o]th_ (tooth). _Mann_ (man), _m[e,]nn_, _mannes_; _m[e,]nn_, _mannum_, _manna_.

{10}

(4) u-nouns.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Nom._ sun-u (_son_). _Nom._ sun-a.
_Dat._ sun-a. _Dat._ sun-um.
_Gen._ sun-a. _Gen._ sun-a.

So also _wudu_ (wood).

(5) r-nouns (including feminines).

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Nom._ m[=o]dor (_mother_). _Nom._ m[=o]dor.
_Dat._ m[=e]der. _Dat._ m[=o]dr-um.
_Gen._ m[=o]dor. _Gen._ m[=o]dr-a.

So also _br[=o]thor_ (brother); _faeder_ (father), _dohtor_ (daughter), have dat. sing. _faeder_, _dehter_.

(6) nd-nouns.

Formed from the present participle of verbs.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Nom._ fr[=e]ond (_friend_). _Nom._ fr[=i]end.
_Dat._ fr[=i]end. _Dat._ fr[=e]ond-um.
_Gen._ fr[=e]ond-es. _Gen._ fr[=e]ond-a.

So also _f[=e]ond_ (enemy).

Those in _-end_ inflect thus:--_b[=u]end_ (dweller), _b[=u]end_, _b[=u]endes_; _b[=u]end_, _b[=u]endum_, _b[=u]endra_. So also _H[=ae]lend_ (saviour). The _-ra_ is an adjectival inflection.

STRONG NEUTERS.

(1) u-plurals.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Nom._ s[.c]ip (_ship_). _Nom._ s[.c]ip-u.
_Dat._ s[.c]ip-e. _Dat._ s[.c]ip-um.
_Gen._ s[.c]ip-es. _Gen._ s[.c]ip-a.

So all neuters with short final syllable, such as _[.g]e.bed_ (prayer), _[.g]e.writ_ (writing), _[.g]eat_ (gate). {11}

_Faet_ (vessel), _faete_, _faetes_; _fatu_, _fatum_, _fata_ (p. 5).

_R[=i][.c]e_ (kingdom), _r[=i][.c]e_, _r[=i][.c]es_; _r[=i][.c]u_, _r[=i][.c]um_, _r[=i][.c]a_. So also all neuters in _e_, except _[=e]age_ and _[=e]are_ (p. 13): _[.g]e.th[=e]ode_ (language), _sty[.c][.c]e_ (piece).

Those in _-ol_, _-en_, _-or_, &c. are generally contracted:--_d[=e]ofol_ (devil), _d[=e]ofles_, _d[=e]oflu_. So also _w[=ae]pen_ (weapon), _mynster_ (monastery), _wundor_ (wonder).

(2) Unchanged plurals.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Nom._ h[=u]s (_house_). _Nom._ h[=u]s.
_Dat._ h[=u]s-e. _Dat._ h[=u]s-um.
_Gen._ h[=u]s-es. _Gen._ h[=u]s-a.

So all others with long final syllables (that is, containing a long vowel, or a short vowel followed by more than one consonant), such as _bearn_ (child), _folc_ (nation), _w[=i]f_ (woman).

_Feoh_ (money) drops its _h_ in inflection and lengthens the _eo_:--_feoh_, _f[=e]o_, _f[=e]os_. So also _bleoh_ (colour).

STRONG FEMININES.

(1) a-plurals.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
(a) _Nom._ [.g]ief-u (_gift_). _Nom._ [.g]ief-a.
_Acc._ [.g]ief-e. _Acc._ [.g]ief-a.
_Dat._ [.g]ief-e. _Dat._ [.g]ief-um.
_Gen._ [.g]ief-e. _Gen._ [.g]ief-ena.

So also _lufu_ (love), _scamu_ (shame). _Duru_ (door) is an _u_-noun: it has acc. _duru_, d., g. _dura_, g. pl. _dura_. Observe that all these nouns have a short syllable before the final vowel. When it is long, the _u_ is dropped, and the noun falls under (_b_). {12}

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
(_b_) _Nom._ spr[=ae][.c] (_speech_). _Nom._ spr[=ae][.c]-a.
_Acc._ spr[=ae][.c]-e. _Acc._ spr[=ae][.c]-a.
_Dat._ spr[=ae][.c]-e. _Dat._ spr[=ae][.c]-um.
_Gen._ spr[=ae][.c]-e. _Gen._ spr[=ae][.c]-a.

So also _str[=ae]t_ (street), _sorg_ (sorrow). Some have the acc. sing. the same as the nom., such as _d[=ae]d_, _hand_, _miht_.

Those in _-ol_, _-er_, _-or_, &c. contract:--_s[=a]wol_ (soul), _s[=a]wle_, _s[=a]wla_, _s[=a]wlum_. So also _[.c]easter_ (city), _hl[=ae]dder_ (ladder).

Some in _-en_ double the _n_ in inflection:--_byrthen_ (burden), _byrthenne_. So also those in _-r[=ae]den_, such as _hierdr[=ae]den_ (guardianship). Those in _-nes_ also double the _s_ in inflection: _g[=o]dnes_ (goodness), _g[=o]dnesse_.

(2) Mutation-plurals.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Nom._ b[=o]c (_book_). _Nom._ b[=e][.c].
_Dat._ b[=e][.c]. _Dat._ b[=o]c-um.
_Gen._ b[=e][.c]. _Gen._ b[=o]c-a.

_Burg_ (city), _byri[.g]_, _burge_; _byri[.g]_, _burgum_, _burga_.

(3) Indeclinable.

SINGULAR.
_Nom._ bieldo (_boldness_).
_Dat._ bieldo.
_Gen._ bieldo.

So also _ieldo_ (age).

For _r_-nouns, see under Masculines.

WEAK MASCULINES.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Nom._ nam-a (_name_). _Nom._ nam-an.
_Acc._ nam-an. _Acc._ nam-an.
_Dat._ nam-an. _Dat._ nam-um.
_Gen._ nam-an. _Gen._ nam-ena.

{13}

So also all nouns in _-a_:--_[.g]e.f[=e]ra_ (companion), _guma_ (man), _[.g]e.l[=e]afa_ (belief). _Ieldran_ (elders) occurs only in the plural.

_[.G]e.f[=e]a_ (joy) is contracted throughout:--_[.g]ef[=e]a_, _[.g]ef[=e]an_.

WEAK NEUTERS.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Nom._ [=e]ag-e (_eye_). _Nom._ [=e]ag-an.
_Acc._ [=e]ag-e. _Acc._ [=e]ag-an.
_Dat._ [=e]ag-an. _Dat._ [=e]ag-um.
_Gen._ [=e]ag-an. _Gen._ [=e]ag-ena.

So also _[=e]are_ 'ear.'

WEAK FEMININES.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
_Nom._ sunn-e (_sun_). _Nom._ sunn-an.
_Acc._ sunn-an. _Acc._ sunn-an.
_Dat._ sunn-an. _Dat._ sunn-um.
_Gen._ sunn-an. _Gen._ sunn-ena.

So also _[.c]iri[.c]e_ (church), _f[=ae]mne_ (virgin), _heorte_ (heart).

_L[=e]o_ (lion) has acc., &c. _l[=e]on_.

PROPER NAMES.

Native names of persons are declined like other nouns:--_Aelfred_, gen. _Aelfredes_, dat. _Aelfrede_; _[=E]ad-burg_ (fem.), gen. _[=E]adburge_, &c.

Foreign names of persons sometimes follow the analogy of native names, thus _Cr[=i]st_, _Salomon_ have gen. _Cr[=i]stes_, _Salomones_, dat. _Cr[=i]ste_, _Salomone_. Sometimes they are declined as in Latin, especially those in _-us_, but often with a mixture of English endings, and the Latin endings are used {14} somewhat loosely, the accus. ending being often extended to the other oblique cases; thus we find nom. _C[=y]rus_, gen. _C[=y]res_, acc. _C[=y]rum_, dat. _C[=y]rum_ (th[=ae]m cyninge C[=y]rum).

Almost the only names of countries and districts in Old English are those taken from Latin, such as _Breten_ (Britain), _C[e,]nt_ (Kent), _[.G]erm[=a]nia_ (Germany), and those formed by composition, generally with _land_, such as _[E,]n[.g]la-land_ (land of the English, England), _Isr.ah[=e]la-th[=e]od_ (Israel). In both of these cases the first element is in the gen. pl., but ordinary compounds, such as _Scot-land_, also occur. In other cases the name of the inhabitants of a country is used for the country itself:--_on [=E]ast-[e,]n[.g]lum_ = in East-anglia, lit. 'among the East-anglians.' So also _on Angel-cynne_ = in England, lit. 'among the English race,' more accurately expressed by _Angelcynnes land_.

Uncompounded names of countries are sometimes undeclined. Thus we find _on C[e,]nt_, _t[=o] Hierusal[=e]m_.

_[.G]erm[=a]nia_, _Asia_, and other foreign names in _-a_ take _-e_ in the oblique cases, thus gen. _[.G]erm[=a]nie_.

* * * * *

ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives have three genders, and the same cases as nouns, though with partly different endings, together with strong and weak inflection. In the masc. and neut. sing. they have an _instrumental_ case, for which in the fem. and plur., and in the weak inflection the dative is used.

STRONG ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives with a short syllable before the endings take _-u_ in the fem. sing. nom. and neut. pl. nom., those with a long one drop it. {15}

SINGULAR.
Masc. Neut. Fem.
(_a_) _Nom._ cwic (_alive_), cwic, cwic-u.
_Acc._ cwic-ne, cwic, cwic-e.
_Dat._ cwic-um, cwic-um, cwic-re.
_Gen._ cwic-es, cwic-es, cwic-re.
_Instr._ cwic-e, cwic-e. (cwicre).

PLURAL.
_Nom._ cwic-e, cwic-u, cwic-e.
\____________________ ______________/
\/
_Dat._ cwic-um.
_Gen._ cwic-ra.

So also _sum_ (some), _f[=ae]rlic_ (dangerous).

Those with _ae_, such as _glaed_ (glad), change it to _a_ in dat. _gladum_, &c.

Those in _-e_, such as _bl[=i]the_ (glad), drop it in all inflections:--_bl[=i]thne_, _bl[=i]thu_, _bl[=i]thre_.

Those in _-ig_, _-el_, _-ol_, _-en_, _-er_, _-or_ often contract before inflections beginning with a vowel, as in _h[=a]li[.g]_ (holy), _h[=a]lges_, _h[=a]lgum_; _mi[.c]el_ (great), _mi[.c]lu_, _mi[.c]le_. Not, of course, before consonants:--_h[=a]li[.g]ne_, _mi[.c]elne_, _mi[.c]elra_.

Those in _-u_, such as _[.g]earu_ (ready), change the _u_ into a _w_ before vowels:--_[.g]earwes_, _[.g]earwe_.

Adjectives with long syllable before the endings drop the _u_ of the fem. and neuter:--

Masc. Neut. Fem.
(_b_) _Nom. Sing._ g[=o]d (_good_), g[=o]d, g[=o]d.
_Plur._ g[=o]de, g[=o]d, g[=o]de.

_F[=e]a_ (few) has only the plural inflections, dat. _f[=e]am_, gen. _f[=e]ara_.

_H[=e]ah_ (high) drops its second _h_ in inflection and contracts:--_h[=e]are_, nom. pl. _h[=e]a_, dat. _h[=e]am_, acc. sing. masc. _h[=e]anne_.

_Fela_ (many) is indeclinable. {16}

WEAK ADJECTIVES.

The weak inflections of adjectives agree exactly with the noun ones:-

SINGULAR.
Masc. Neut. Fem.
_Nom._ g[=o]d-a, g[=o]d-e, g[=o]d-e.
_Acc._ g[=o]d-an, g[=o]d-e, g[=o]d-an.
_Dat._ g[=o]d-an, g[=o]d-an, g[=o]d-an.
_Gen._ g[=o]d-an, g[=o]d-an, g[=o]d-an.
\________________ __________________/
\/
PLURAL.
_Nom._ g[=o]d-an.
_Dat._ g[=o]d-um.
_Gen._ g[=o]d-ra.

The vowel- and consonant-changes are as in the strong declension.

COMPARISON.

The comparative is formed by adding _-ra_, and is declined like a weak adjective:--_l[=e]of_ (dear), _l[=e]ofra_ masc., _l[=e]ofre_ fem., _l[=e]ofran_ plur., etc.; _m[=ae]re_ (famous), _m[=ae]rra_. The superlative is formed by adding _-ost_, and may be either weak or strong:--_l[=e]ofost_ (dearest).

The following form their comparisons with mutation, with superlative in _-est_ (the forms in parentheses are adverbs):--

eald (_old_), ieldra, ieldest.
lang (_long_), l[e,]n[.g]ra, l[e,]n[.g]est.
n[=e]ah (_near_), (n[=e]ar), n[=i]ehst.
h[=e]ah (_high_), h[=i]erra, h[=i]ehst.

The following show different roots:--

g[=o]d (_good_), b[e,]tera, b[e,]tst.
yfel (_evil_), wiersa, wierrest.
mi[.c]el (_great_), m[=a]ra (m[=a]), m[=ae]st.
l[=y]tel (_little_), l[=ae]ssa (l[=ae]s), l[=ae]st.

{17}

The following are defective as well as irregular, being formed from adverbs:--

[=ae]r (_formerly_), [=ae]rra ([=ae]ror), [=ae]rest.
fore (_before_), . . . forma, fyrmest.
[=u]t (_out_), [=y]terra, [=y]temest.

NUMERALS.

CARDINAL. ORDINAL.
[=a]n, _one_. forma (_first_).
tw[=a], _two_. [=o]ther.
thr[=e]o, _three_. thridda.
f[=e]ower, _four_. f[=e]ortha.
f[=i]f, _five_. f[=i]f-ta.
siex, _six_. siex-ta.
seofon, _seven_. seofotha.
eahta, _eight_. eahtotha.
nigon, _nine_. nigotha.
t[=i]en, _ten_. t[=e]otha.
[e,]ndlufon, _eleven_. [e,]ndlyf-ta.
tw[e,]lf, _twelve_. tw[=e,]lf-ta.
thr[=e]o-t[=i]ene, _thirteen_. thr[=e]o-t[=e]otha.
f[=e]ower-t[=i]ene, _fourteen_.
f[=i]f-t[=i]ene, _fifteen_.
siex-t[=i]ene, _sixteen_.
seofon-t[=i]ene, _seventeen_.
eahta-t[=i]ene, _eighteen_.
nigon-t[=i]ene, _nineteen_.
tw[e,]n-ti[.g], _twenty_.
thri-ti[.g], _thirty_.
f[=e]ower-ti[.g], _forty_.
f[=i]f-ti[.g], _fifty_.
siex-ti[.g], _sixty_.
{18}
hund-.seofon-ti[.g], _seventy_.
hund-.eahta-ti[.g], _eighty_.
hund-.nigon-ti[.g], _ninety_.
hund } _hundred_.
hund-.t[=e]onti[.g], }
hund-.[e,]ndlufonti[.g], _hundred and ten_.
hund-.tw[e,]lfti[.g], _hundred and twenty_.
th[=u]send, _thousand_.

_[=A]n_ is declined like other adjectives.

_Tw[=a]_ is declined thus:--

Masc. Neut. Fem.
_Nom._ tw[=e][.g]en, tw[=a], tw[=a].
\__________________ ___________________/
\/
_Dat._ tw[=ae]m.
_Gen._ tw[=e][.g]ra.

So also _b[=e][.g]en_ (both), _b[=a]_, _b[=ae]m_, _b[=e][.g]ra_.

_Thr[=e]o_ is declined thus:--

Masc. Neut. Fem.
_Nom._ thr[=i]e, thr[=e]o, thr[=e]o.
\_____________ _______________/
\/
_Dat._ thrim.
_Gen._ thr[=e]ora.

The others up to _tw[e,]nti[.g]_ are generally indeclinable. Those in _-ti[.g]_ are sometimes declined like neuter nouns, sometimes like adjectives, and are often left undeclined. When not made into adjectives they govern the genitive.

_Hund_ and _th[=u]send_ are either declined as neuters or left undeclined, always taking a genitive:--_eahta hund m[=i]la_ (eight hundred miles), _f[=e]ower th[=u]send wera_ (four thousand men).

Units are always put before tens:--_[=a]n and tw[e,]nti[.g]_ (twenty-one). {19}

The ordinals are always weak, except _[=o]ther_, which is always strong.

* * * * *

PRONOUNS.

PERSONAL.

SINGULAR.
_Nom._ i[.c] (_I_), th[=u] (_thou_).
_Acc._ m[=e], th[=e].
_Dat._ m[=e], th[=e].
_Gen._ m[=i]n, th[=i]n.

DUAL.
_Nom._ wit (_we two_), [.g]it (_ye two_).
_Acc._ unc, inc.
_Dat._ unc, inc.
_Gen._ uncer, incer.

PLURAL.
_Nom._ w[=e] (_we_), [.g][=e] (_ye_).
_Acc._ [=u]s, [=e]ow.
_Dat._ [=u]s, [=e]ow.
_Gen._ [=u]re, [=e]ower.

SINGULAR.
Masc. Neut. Fem.
_Nom._ h[=e] (_he_), hit (_it_), h[=e]o (_she_).
_Acc._ hine, hit, h[=i]e.
_Dat._ him, him, hiere.
_Gen._ his, his, hiere.
\_________________ _________________/
\/
PLURAL.
_Nom._ h[=i]e (_they_).
_Dat._ him.
_Gen._ hiera.

There are no reflexive pronouns in O.E., and the ordinary {20} personal pronouns are used instead:--_h[=i]e [.g]e.samnodon h[=i]e_ (they collected themselves, assembled); _h[=i]e [=a].b[=ae]don him w[=i]f_ (they asked for wives for themselves). _Self_ is used as an emphatic reflexive adjective agreeing with its pronoun:--_sw[=a] sw[=a] h[=i]e w[=y]s[.c]ton him selfum_ (as they wished for themselves).

POSSESSIVE.

_M[=i]n_ (my), _th[=i]n_ (thy), _[=u]re_ (our), _[=e]ower_ (your), and the dual _uncer_ and _incer_ are declined like other adjectives. The genitives _his_ (his, its), _hiere_ (her), _hiera_ (their) are used as indeclinable possessives.

INTERROGATIVE.

Masc. and Fem. Neut.
_Nom._ hw[=a] (_who_), hwaet (_what_).
_Acc._ hwone, hwaet.
_Dat._ hw[=ae]m, hw[=ae]m.
_Gen._ hwaes, hwaes.
_Instr._ hw[=y], hw[=y].

_Hwelc_ (which) is declined like a strong adjective: it is used both as a noun and an adjective.

DEMONSTRATIVE.

SINGULAR.
Masc. Neut. Fem.
_Nom._ se (_that_, _the_), thaet, s[=e]o.
_Acc._ thone, thaet, th[=a].
_Dat._ th[=ae]m, th[=ae]m, th[=ae]re.
_Gen._ thaes, thaes, th[=ae]re.
_Instr._ th[=y], thon, th[=y], (th[=ae]re).
\_______________________ __________________/
\/
PLURAL.
_Nom._ th[=a].
_Dat._ th[=ae]m.
_Gen._ th[=a]ra.

{21}

_Se_ is both a demonstrative and a definite article. It is also used as a personal pronoun:--_h[=e] [.g]e.h[=i]erth m[=i]n word, and wyr[.c]th th[=a]_ (he hears my words, and does them). _S[=e]_ as a demonstrative and pers. pronoun has its vowel long.

SINGULAR.
Masc. Neut. Fem.
_Nom._ thes (_this_), this, th[=e]os.
_Acc._ thisne, this, th[=a]s.
_Dat._ thissum, thissum, thisse.
_Gen._ thisses, thisses, thisse.
_Instr._ th[=y]s, th[=y]s. (thisse).
\__________________ ______________/
\/
PLURAL.
_Nom._ th[=a]s.
_Dat._ thissum.
_Gen._ thissa.

Other demonstratives, which are used both as nouns and as adjectives, are _se ilca_ (same), which is always weak, _swelc_ (such), which is always strong.

RELATIVE.

The regular relative is the indeclinable _the_, as in _[=ae]lc th[=a]ra the th[=a]s m[=i]n word [.g]e.h[=i]erth_ (each of those who hears these my words). It is often combined with _s[=e]_, which is declined:--_s[=e] the_ = who, masc., _s[=e]o the_, fem., &c. _S[=e]_ alone is also used as a relative:--_h[=e]r is m[=i]n cnapa, thone ic [.g]e.[.c][=e]as_ (here is my servant, whom I have chosen); sometimes in the sense of 'he who':--_h[=e]r th[=u] haefst thaet th[=i]n is_ (here thou hast that which is thine).

INDEFINITE.

Indefinites are formed with _sw[=a]_ and the interrogative pronouns, thus:--_sw[=a] hw[=a] sw[=a]_, _sw[=a] hwel[.c] sw[=a]_ (whoever), _sw[=a] hwaet sw[=a]_ (whatever). {22}

_[=A]n_ and _sum_ (some) are used in an indefinite sense:--_[=a]n mann_, _sum mann_ = 'a certain man,' hence 'a man.' But the indefinite article is generally not expressed.

_[=Ae]l[.c]_ (each), _[=ae]ni[.g]_ (any), _n[=ae]ni[.g]_ (no, none), are declined like other adjectives.

_[=O]ther_ (other) is always strong:--_th[=a] [=o]thre m[e,]nn_.

_Man_, another form of _mann_, is often used in the indefinite sense of 'one,' French _on_:--_his br[=o]thor Horsan man of.sl[=o]g_ (they killed his brother Horsa).

* * * * *

VERBS.

There are two classes of verbs in O.E., _strong_ and _weak_. The conjugation of strong verbs is effected mainly by means of vowel-gradation, that of weak verbs by the addition of _d_ (-ode, -ede, -de) to the root-syllable.

The following is the conjugation of the strong verb _bindan_ (bind), which will serve to show the endings which are common to all verbs:--

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
_Pres. sing._ 1. bind-e, bind-e.
2. bind-est, bintst, bind-e.
3. bind-eth, bint, bind-e.
_plur._ bind-ath, bind-en.

_Pret. sing._ 1. band, bund-e.
2. bund-e, bund-e.
3. band, bund-e.
_plur._ bund-on, bund-en.

_Imper. sing._ bind; _plur._ bind-ath. _Infin._ bind-an.
_Partic. pres._ bind-ende; _pret._ [.g]e-.bund-en.
_Gerund._ t[=o] bind-enne.

For the plural _bindath_, both indicative and imperative, _binde_ is used when the personal pronoun follows immediately after {23} the verb:--_w[=e] bindath_ (we bind), but _binde w[=e]_ (let us bind); so also _g[=a]th!_ (go plur.), but _g[=a] [.g][=e]!_ (go ye).

The present participle may be declined like an adjective. Its declension when used as a noun is given above, p. 10.

The past participle generally prefixes _[.g]e-_, as in _[.g]e.bunden_, _[.g]e.numen_ from _niman_ (take), unless the other parts of the verbs have it already, as in _[.g]e.h[=i]eran_ (hear), _[.g]e.h[=i]ered_. It is sometimes prefixed to other parts of the verb as well. No _[.g]e_ is added if the verb has another prefix, such as _[=a]-_, _be-_, _for-_; thus _for.[.g]iefan_ (forgive) has the past participle _for.[.g]iefen_. The past participle may be declined like an adjective.

Traces of an older passive voice are preserved in the form _h[=a]t-te_ from _h[=a]tan_ (call, name), which is both present 'is called,' and preterite 'was called':--_se munuc h[=a]tte Abbo_ (the monk's name was Abbo).

STRONG VERBS.

In the strong verbs the plural of the pret. indic. generally has a different vowel from that of the sing. (_ic band_, _w[=e] bundon_). The 2nd sing. pret. indic. and the whole pret. subj. always have the vowel of the preterite plural indicative (_th[=u] bunde, ic bunde, w[=e] bunden_.)

The 2nd and 3rd persons sing. of the pres. indic. often mutate the root-vowel, thus:--

a _becomes_ [e,] _as in_ (h[=e]) st[e,]nt _from_ standan (_stand_).
ea " ie " fielth " feallan (_fall_).
e " i " cwithth " cwethan (_say_).
eo " ie " wierth " weorthan (_happen_).
[=a] " [=ae] " h[=ae]tt " h[=a]tan (_command_).
[=o] " [=e] " gr[=e]wth " gr[=o]wan (_grow_).
[=e]a " [=i]e " h[=i]ewth " h[=e]awan (_hew_).
[=e]o " [=i]e " [.c][=i]est " [.c][=e]osan (_choose_).
[=u] " [=y] " l[=y]cth " l[=u]can (_close_).

{24}

The full ending of the 3rd pers. sing. pres. indic. is _-eth_, which is generally contracted, with the following consonant-changes:--

-teth _becomes_ -tt _as in_ l[=ae]tt _from_ l[=ae]tan (_let_).
-deth " -tt " b[=i]tt " b[=i]dan (_wait_).
-ddeth " -tt " bitt " biddan (_pray_).
-theth " -thth " cwithth " cwethan (_say_).
-seth " -st " [.c][=i]est " [.c][=e]osan (_choose_).
-ndeth " -nt " bint " bindan (_bind_).

Double consonants become single, as in _h[=e] fielth_ from _feallan_.

Before the _-st_ of the 2nd pers. consonants are often dropt, as in _th[=u] cwist_ from _cwethan_, _th[=u] [.c][=i]est_ from _[.c][=e]osan_; and _d_ becomes _t_, as in _th[=u] bintst_ from _bindan_.

For the changes between _s_ and _r_, _th_ and _d_, _g_ and _h_, see p. 7.

Some verbs, such as _s[=e]on_ (see), drop the _h_ and contract before most inflections beginning with a vowel:--_ic s[=e]o_, _w[=e] s[=e]oth_, _t[=o] s[=e]onne_; but _h[=e] sihth_.

There are seven conjugations of strong verbs, distinguished mainly by the different formation of their preterites. The following lists comprise all the strong verbs that occur in the texts given in this book, together with several others of the commoner ones.

I. 'Fall'-conjugation.

The pret. sing. and pl. has _[=e]o_ or _[=e]_, and the past partic. retains the original vowel of the infinitive. {25}

(_a_) [=e]o-_preterites_.

ea:--
INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. SING. PRET. PL. PTC. PRET.
feallan (_fall_) fielth f[=e]oll f[=e]ollon feallen
healdan (_hold_) hielt h[=e]old h[=e]oldon healden
wealdan (_wield_) wielt w[=e]old w[=e]oldon wealden
weaxan (_grow_) wiext w[=e]ox w[=e]oxon weaxen

[=a]:--
bl[=a]wan (_blow_) bl[=ae]wth bl[=e]ow bl[=e]owon bl[=a]wen
cn[=a]wan (_know_) cn[=ae]wth cn[=e]ow cn[=e]owon cn[=a]wen
s[=a]wan (_sow_) s[=ae]wth s[=e]ow s[=e]owon s[=a]wen

[=e]:--
w[=e]pan (_weep_) w[=e]pth w[=e]op w[=e]opon w[=o]pen

_W[=e]pan_ has really a weak present (p. 30) with mutation (the original _[=o]_ re-appearing in the past partic.), but it makes no difference in the inflection.

[=o]:--
fl[=o]wan (_flow_) fl[=e]wth fl[=e]ow fl[=e]owon fl[=o]wen
gr[=o]wan (_grow_) gr[=e]wth gr[=e]ow gr[=e]owon gr[=o]wen
r[=o]wan (_row_) r[=e]wth r[=e]ow r[=e]owon r[=o]wen

[=e]a:--
b[=e]atan (_beat_) b[=i]ett b[=e]ot b[=e]oton b[=e]aten
h[=e]awan (_hew_) h[=i]ewth h[=e]ow h[=e]owon h[=e]awen
hl[=e]apan (_leap_) hl[=i]epth hl[=e]op hl[=e]opon hl[=e]apen

(_b_) [=e]-_preterites_.

[=a]:--
h[=a]tan (_command_) h[=ae]tt h[=e]t h[=e]ton h[=a]ten

[=ae]:--
l[=ae]tan (_let_) l[=ae]tt l[=e]t l[=e]ton l[=ae]ten

[=o]:--
f[=o]n (_seize_) f[=e]hth f[=e]ng f[=e]ngon fangen
h[=o]n (_hang_) h[=e]hth h[=e]ng h[=e]ngon hangen

{26}

II. 'Shake'-conjugation.

Verbs in _a_ (_ea_) and _[e,]_ (_ie_). _[=O]_ in pret. sing, and pl., _a_ (_ae_) in partic. pret. _Standan_ drops its _n_ in the pret. The partic. pret. of _sw[e,]rian_ is irregular.

a:--

INFINITIVE. THIRD. PRES. PRET. SING. PRET. PL. PTC. PRET.
faran (_go_) faerth f[=o]r f[=o]ron faren
sacan (_quarrel_) saecth s[=o]c s[=o]con sacen
scacan (_shake_) scaecth sc[=o]c sc[=o]con scacen
standan (_stand_) st[e,]nt st[=o]d st[=o]don standen

The following shows contraction of original _ea_:--

sl[=e]an (_strike_) sliehth sl[=o]g sl[=o]gon slae[.g]en

[e,]:--

h[e,]bban (_lift_) h[e,]fth h[=o]f h[=o]fon hafen
s[.c]ieppan (_create_) s[.c]iepth sc[=o]p sc[=o]pon scapen
sw[e,]rian (_swear_) sw[e,]reth sw[=o]r sw[=o]ron sworen

The presents of these verbs are inflected weak, so that their imperative sing. is _h[e,]fe_ and _sw[e,]re_, like that of _w[e,]nian_ (p. 32). _Sw[e,]rian_ has indic. _sw[e,]rige_, _sw[e,]rest_, like _w[e,]nian_; _h[e,]bban_ has _h[e,]bbe_, _h[e,]fst_, &c. like _h[=i]eran_ (p. 30).

III. 'Bind'-conjugation.

_I_ (_ie_, _e_, _eo_) followed by two consonants, one or both of which is nearly always a liquid (_l_, _r_) or nasal (_m_, _n_) in the infin., _a_ (_ae_, _ea_) in pret. sing., _u_ in pret. pl., _u_ (_o_) in ptc. pret. _Findan_ has a weak preterite.

i:--

INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET.SING. PRET. PL. PTC. PRET.
bindan (_bind_) bint band bundon bunden
drincan (_drink_) drincth dranc druncon druncen
findan (_find_) fint funde fundon funden
[.g]ieldan (_pay_) [.g]ielt [.g]eald guldon golden
(on)[.g]innan (_begin_) -[.g]inth -gann -gunnon -gunnen
{27}
grindan (_grind_) grint grand grundon grunden
iernan (_run_) [p. 7] iernth arn urnon urnen
[.g]e-.limpan (_happen_) -limpth -lamp -lumpon -lumpen
scrincan (_shrink_) scrincth scranc scruncon scruncen
springan (_spring_) springth sprang sprungon sprungen
swincan (_toil_) swincth swanc swuncon swuncen
windan (_wind_) wint wand wundon wunden
winnan (_fight_) winth wann wunnon wunnen

e:--

berstan (_burst_) bierst baerst burston borsten
bre[.g]dan (_pull_) ... brae[.g]d brugdon brogden
delfan (_dig_) dilfth dealf dulfon dolfen
sweltan (_die_) swilt swealt swulton swolten

eo:--

beorgan (_protect_) bierhth bearg burgon borgen
beornan (_burn_)[p. 7] biernth barn burnon burnen
[.c]eorfan (_cut_) [.c]ierfth [.c]earf curfon corfen
feohtan (_fight_) fieht feaht fuhton fohten
weorpan (_throw_) wierpth wearp wurpon worpen
weorthan (_become_) wierth wearth wurdon worden

IV. 'Bear'-conjugation.

Verbs in _e_ (_i_), followed by a single consonant, generally a liquid or nasal; in _brecan_ the liquid precedes the vowel. _A_ (_ae_) in pret. sing., _[=ae]_ (_[=a]_) in pret. pl., _o_ (_u_) in ptc. pret. _Cuman_ is irregular.

i:--

INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. SG. PRET. PL. PTC. PRET.
niman (_take_) nimth nam n[=a]mon numen

e:--

beran (_bear_) bierth baer b[=ae]ron boren
brecan (_break_) bricth braec br[=ae]con brocen
s[.c]eran (_shear_) s[.c]ierth s[.c]ear s[.c][=e]aron scoren
stelan (_steal_) stilth stael st[=ae]lon stolen
teran (_tear_) .. taer t[=ae]ron toren

{28}

u:--

cuman (_come_) cymth c[=o]m c[=o]mon cumen

V. 'Give'-conjugation.

Verbs in _e_ (_i_, _eo_, _ie_) followed by single consonants, which are not liquids or nasals. This class differs from the last only in the ptc. pret. which keeps the vowel of the infinitive.

e:--

INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. SG. PRET. PL. PTC. PRET.
cwethan (_say_) cwithth cwaeth cw[=ae]don cweden
etan (_eat_) itt [=ae]t [=ae]ton eten
sprecan (_speak_) spricth spraec spr[=ae]con sprecen
wrecan (_avenge_) wricth wraec wr[=ae]con wrecen

i:--

biddan (_pray_) bitt baed b[=ae]don beden
li[.c][.g]an (_lie_) l[=i]th lae[.g] l[=ae]gon le[.g]en
sittan (_sit_) sitt saet s[=ae]ton seten
thi[.c][.g]an (_receive_) thi[.g]eth theah th[=ae]gon the[.g]en

All these have weak presents:--imper. _bide_, _li[.g]e_, _site_, _thi[.g]e_. Their _i_s are mutations of the _e_ which appears in their past partic.

ie:--

[.g]iefan (_give_) [.g]iefth [.g]eaf [.g][=e]afon [.g]iefen
(on)[.g]ietan (_understand_) -[.g]iett -[.g]eat -[.g][=e]aton
-[.g]ieten

The following is contracted in most forms:--

s[=e]on (_see_) sihth seah s[=a]won sewen

VI. 'Shine'-conjugation.

Verbs in _[=i]_, with pret. sing, in _[=a]_, pl. _i_, ptc. pret. _i_.

INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. SING. PRET. PL. PTC. PRET.
b[=i]dan (_wait_) b[=i]tt b[=a]d bidon biden
b[=i]tan (_bite_) b[=i]tt b[=a]t biton biten
dr[=i]fan (_drive_) dr[=i]fth dr[=a]f drifon drifen
{29}
(be)l[=i]fan (_remain_) -l[=i]fth -l[=a]f -lifon -lifen
r[=i]dan (_ride_) r[=i]tt r[=a]d ridon riden
r[=i]pan (_reap_) r[=i]pth r[=a]p ripon ripen
([=a])r[=i]san (_rise_) -r[=i]st -r[=a]s -rison -risen
s[.c][=i]nan (_shine_) s[.c][=i]nth sc[=a]n s[.c]inon s[.c]inen
sn[=i]than (_cut_) sn[=i]thth sn[=a]th snidon sniden
st[=i]gan (_ascend_) st[=i][.g]th st[=a]g stigon sti[.g]en
(be)sw[=i]can (_deceive_) -sw[=i]cth -sw[=a]c -swicon -swicen
[.g]e.w[=i]tan (_depart_) -w[=i]tt w[=a]t -witon -witen
wr[=i]tan (_write_) wr[=i]tt wr[=a]t writon writen

VII. 'Choose'-conjugation.

Verbs in _[=e]o_ and _[=u]_, with pret. sing. _[=e]a_, pl. _u_, ptc. pret. _o_. _Fl[=e]on_ and _t[=e]on_ contract.

INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. SING. PRET. PL. PTC. PRET.
b[=e]odan (_offer_) b[=i]ett b[=e]ad budon boden
br[=e]otan (_break_) br[=i]ett br[=e]at bruton broten
[.c][=e]osan (_choose_) [.c][=i]est [.c][=e]as curon coren
fl[=e]ogan (_fly_) fl[=i]ehth fl[=e]ag flugon flogen
fl[=e]on (_flee_) fl[=i]ehth fl[=e]ah flugon flogen
fl[=e]otan (_float_) fl[=i]ett fl[=e]at fluton floten
hr[=e]osan (_fall_) hr[=i]est hr[=e]as hruron hroren
hr[=e]owan (_rue_) hr[=i]ewth hr[=e]aw hruwon hrowen
for.l[=e]osan (_lose_) -l[=i]est -l[=e]as -luron -loren
s[.c][=e]otan (_shoot_) s[.c][=i]ett s[.c][=e]at scuton scoten
sm[=e]ocan (_smoke_) sm[=i]ecth sm[=e]ac smucon smocen
t[=e]on (_pull_) t[=i]ehth t[=e]ah tugon togen
[=a]-thr[=e]otan (_fail_) -thr[=i]ett -thr[=e]at -thruton -throten

[=u]:--

br[=u]can (_enjoy_) br[=y]cth br[=e]ac brucon brocen
b[=u]gan (_bow_) b[=y]hth b[=e]ag bugon bogen
l[=u]can (_lock_) l[=y]cth l[=e]ac lucon locen
l[=u]tan (_bow_) l[=y]tt l[=e]at luton loten
sc[=u]fan (_push_) sc[=y]fth s[.c][=e]af scufon scofen

{30}

WEAK VERBS.

There are three conjugations of weak verbs--(1) in _-an_, pret. _-de_ (_h[=i]eran_, _h[=i]erde_, 'hear'); (2) in _-ian_, pret. _-ede_ (_w[e,]nian_, _w[e,]nede_, 'wean'); (3) in _-ian_, pret. _-ode_ (_lufian_, _lufode_, 'love'). The verbs of the first two conjugations nearly all have a mutated vowel in the present and infinitive, which those of the third conjugation very seldom have.

I. _an-_verbs.

This class of weak verbs has the same endings as the strong verbs, except in the pret. and past partic., which are formed by adding _-de_ and _-ed_ respectively, with the following consonant changes.

-ndde _becomes_ -nde _as in_ s[e,]nde _from_ s[e,]ndan (_send_).
-llde " -lde " fylde " fyllan (_fill_).
-tde " -tte " m[=e]tte " m[=e]tan (_find_).
-pde " -pte " dypte " dyppan (_dip_).
-cde " -hte " t[=ae]hte " t[=ae][.c]an (_show_).

The past partic. is generally contracted in the same way:--_s[e,]nd_, _m[=e]tt_, _t[=ae]ht_, but some of them often retain the uncontracted forms:--_fylled_, _dypped_. When declined like adjectives they drop their _e_ where practicable:--_fylled_, plur. _fylde_; _h[=i]ered_, _h[=i]erde_.

The 2nd and 3rd pres. sing. ind. are contracted as in the strong verbs.

(_a_) 'Hear'_-class_.

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
_Pres. sing._ 1. h[=i]er-e (_hear_), h[=i]er-e.
2. h[=i]er-st, h[=i]er-e.
3. h[=i]er-th, h[=i]er-e.
_plur._ h[=i]er-ath, h[=i]er-en.
{31}

_Pret. sing._ 1. h[=i]er-de, h[=i]er-de.
2. h[=i]er-dest, h[=i]er-de.
3. h[=i]er-de, h[=i]er-de.
_plur._ h[=i]er-don, h[=i]er-den.

Imper. sing. h[=i]er; plur. h[=i]er-ath. Infin. h[=i]er-an.
Ptc. pres. h[=i]er-ende; pret. h[=i]er-ed.
Gerund. t[=o] h[=i]er-enne.

Further examples of this class are:--

INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. PARTIC. PRET.
aet.[=i]ewan (_show_) -[=i]ewth -[=i]ewde -[=i]ewed.
c[=y]than (_make known_) c[=y]thth c[=y]thde c[=y]thed,
c[=y]dd
fyllan (_fill_) fylth fylde fylled
(n[=e]a)l[=ae][.c]an (_approach_) -l[=ae][.c]th -l[=ae]hte -l[=ae]ht
l[=ae]dan (_lead_) l[ae]tt l[=ae]dde l[=ae]dd
l[e,][.c][.g]an (_lay_) l[e,][.g]th l[e,][.g]de l[e,][.g]d
[.g]e.l[=i]efan (_believe_) -l[=i]efth -l[=i]efde -l[=i]efed
n[e,]mnan (_name_) n[e,]mneth n[e,]mnde n[e,]mned
s[e,]ndan (_send_) s[e,]nt s[e,]nde s[e,]nd
s[e,]ttan (_set_) s[e,]tt s[e,]tte s[e,]tt
sm[=e]an (_consider_) sm[=e]ath sm[=e]ade sm[=e]ad
t[=ae][.c]an (_show_) t[=ae][.c]th t[=ae]hte t[=ae]ht
w[e,]ndan (_turn_) w[e,]nt w[e,]nde w[e,]nd

(_b_) 'Seek'-_class_.

In this class the mutated vowels lose their mutation in the preterite and past partic., besides undergoing other changes in some verbs.

Those in double consonants (and _[.c][.g]_) simplify them in the contracted 2nd and 3rd sing. pres. indic.:--_s[e,]lle_, _s[e,]lst_, _s[e,]lth_; _s[e,][.c][,g]e_, _s[e,][.g]st_, _s[e,][.g]th_; also in the imperative, which is formed as in Conj. II:--_s[e,]le_, _s[e,][.g]e_, _by[.g]e_, &c. {32}

[e,]:--

INFINITIVE. THIRD PRES. PRET. PARTIC. PRET.

cw[e,]llan (_kill_) cw[e,]lth cwealde cweald
r[e,][.c][.c]an (_tell_) r[e,][.c]th reahte reaht
s[e,][.c][.g]an (_say_) s[e,][.g]th sae[.g]de sae[.g]d
s[e,]llan (_give_) s[e,]lth sealde seald
w[e,][.c][.c]an (_wake_) w[e,][.c]th weahte weaht
th[e,]n[.c]an (_think_) th[e,]n[.c]th th[=o]hte th[=o]ht

i:--

bringan (_bring_) bringth br[=o]hte br[=o]ht

y:--

by[.c][.g]an (_buy_) by[.g]th bohte boht
thyn[.c]an (_appear_) thyn[.c]th th[=u]hte th-uht
wyr[.c]an (_work_) wyr[.c]th worhte worht

[=e]:--

r[=e][.c]an (_care_) r[=e][.c]th r[=o]hte r[=o]ht
s[=e][.c]an (_seek_) s[=e][.c]th s[=o]hte s[=o]ht

II. 'Wean'-_conjugation_.

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
_Pres. sing._ 1. w[e,]n-i[.g]e (_wean_), w[e,]n-i[.g]e.
2. w[e,]n-est, w[e,]n-i[.g]e.
3. w[e,]n-eth, w[e,]n-i[.g]e.
_plur._ w[e,]n-iath, w[e,]n-ien.

_Pret. sing._ 1. w[e,]n-ede, w[e,]n-ede.
2. w[e,]n-edest, w[e,]n-ede.
3. w[e,]n-ede, w[e,]n-ede.
_plur._ w[e,]n-edon, w[e,]n-eden.

_Imper._ w[e,]n-e, w[e,]n-iath. _Infin._ w[e,]n-ian.
_Partic. pres._ w[e,]n-iende; _pret._ w[e,]n-ed.
_Gerund._ t[=o] w[e,]n-ienne.

{33}

So are conjugated all weak verbs with a short mutated root syllable, such as _f[e,]rian_ (carry), _w[e,]rian_ (defend), _[.g]e.byrian_ (befit). There are not many of them.

III. 'Love'-_conjugation_.

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
_Pres. sing._ 1. luf-i[.g]e (_love_), luf-i[.g]e.
2. luf-ast, luf-i[.g]e.
3. luf-ath, luf-i[.g]e.
_plur._ luf-iath, luf-ien.

_Pret. sing._ 1. luf-ode, luf-ode.
2. luf-odest, luf-ode.
3. luf-ode, luf-ode.
_plur._ luf-odon, luf-oden.

_Imper._ luf-a, luf-iath. _Infin._ luf-ian.
_Partic. pres._ luf-iende: _pret._ luf-od. _Gerund._ t[=o] luf-ienne.

So also _[=a]scian_ (ask), _macian_ (make), _weorthian_ (honour), and many others.

_Irregularities._

Some verbs are conjugated partly after I, partly after III. Such are _habban_ (have) and _libban_ (live).

_Habban_ has pres. indic. _haebbe_, _haefst_, _haefth_; _habbath_, subj. _haebbe_, _haebben_, pret. _haefde_, imper. _hafa_, _habbath_, particc. _habbende_, _haefd_.

_Libban_ has pres. _libbe_, _leofast_, _leofath_; _libbath_, subj. _libbe_, pret. _leofode_, imper. _leofa_, _libbath_, particc. _libbende_, _lifiende_; _leofod_.

_F[e,]tian_ (fetch) has pret. _f[e,]tte_.

STRONG-WEAK VERBS.

The strong-weak verbs have for their presents old strong preterites, from which new weak preterites are formed. Note the occasional second person sing. in _t_. {34}

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
_Pres. sing._ 1. w[=a]t (_know_), wite.
2. w[=a]st, wite.
3. w[=a]t, wite.
_plur._ witon, witen.

_Pret._ wiste.

_Imper._ wite, witath. _Infin._ witan.
_Partic. pres._ witende; _pret._ witen.

The other most important weak-strong verbs are given below in the 1st and 2nd sing. pres. indic., in the plur. indic., in the pret., in the infin. and partic. pret. Of several the last two forms are doubtful, or do not exist.

[=A]h (_possess_), [=a]ge, [=a]gon; [=a]hte; [=a]gen (_only as adjective_)[4].

Cann (_know_) canst, cunnon; c[=u]the; cunnan; c[=u]th (_only as adjective_.)

Dearr (_dare_), durre, durron; dorste.

[.G]e.man (_remember_), -manst; -munde; -munan.

Mae[.g] (_can_), miht, magon, mae[.g]e (_subj._); mihte.

M[=o]t (_may_), m[=o]st, m[=o]ton; m[=o]ste.

S[.c]eal (_shall_), s[.c]ealt, sculon, scyle (_subj._); scolde.

Thearf (_need_), thurfon, thyrfe (_subj._); thorfte; thurfan.

ANOMALOUS VERBS.

(1) Willan (_will_) shows a mixture of subj. forms in the pres. indic. sing.:--

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
_Pres. sing._ 1. wile, wile.
2. wilt, wile.
3. wile, wile.
_plur._ willath, willen.

_Pret._ wolde, etc.

{35}

Similarly _nyllan_ (will not):--

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
_Pres. sing._ 1. nyle, nyle.
2. nylt, nyle.
3. nyle, nyle.
_plur._ nyllath, nyllen.

_Pret._ nolde, etc.

(2) Wesan (_be_).

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
_Pres. sing._ 1. eom; b[=e]o, s[=i]e; b[=e]o.
2. eart; bist, s[=i]e; b[=e]o.
3. is; bith, s[=i]e; b[=e]o.
_plur._ sind; b[=e]oth, s[=i]en; b[=e]on.

_Pret. sing._ 1. waes, w[=ae]re.
2. w[=ae]re, w[=ae]re.
3. waes, w[=ae]re.
_plur._ w[=ae]ron, w[=ae]ren.

_Imper._ wes, wesath; b[=e]o, b[=e]oth. _Infin._ wesan; b[=e]on.
_Partic. pres._ wesende.

The contracted negative forms are:--_neom_, _neart_, _nis_; _naes_, _n[=ae]re_, _n[=ae]ron_; _n[=ae]re_, _n[=ae]ren_.

(3) D[=o]n (_do_).

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
_Pres. sing._ 1. d[=o], d[=o].
2. d[=e]st, d[=o].
3. d[=e]th, d[=o].
_plur._ d[=o]th, d[=o]n.

_Pret._ dyde, etc.

_Imper._ d[=o], d[=o]th. _Infin._ d[=o]n.
_Partic. pres._ d[=o]nde; _pret._ [.g]e.d[=o]n.

{36}

(4) G[=a]n (_go_).

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
_Pres. sing._ 1. g[=a], g[=a].
2. g[=ae]st, g[=a].
3. g[=ae]th, g[=a].
_plur._ g[=a]th, g[=a]n.

_Pret._ [=e]ode, [=e]ode.

_Imper._ g[=a], g[=a]th. _Infin._ g[=a]n.
_Partic. pres._ gangende; _pret._ [.g]e.g[=a]n.

* * * * *

DERIVATION.

PREFIXES.

The following are the most important prefixes, some of which are _verbal_, being confined to verbs and words formed directly from them; some _nominal_, being confined to nouns and adjectives.

[=a]- (1) originally 'forth,' 'away,' as in _[=a].r[=i]san_, 'rise forth,' 'arise'; _[=a].faran_, 'go away,''depart'; but generally only intensive, as in _[=a].cw[e,]llan_ (kill), _[=a].hr[=e]osan_ (fall).

(2) = 'ever' in pronouns and particles, where it gives an indefinite sense, as in _[=a]-hw[=ae]r_ (anywhere), _[=a]-wiht_ (anything).

[=ae][.g]- from _[=a]-[.g]e_-, the _[=a]_ being mutated and the _e_ dropped, has a similar meaning, as in _[=ae][.g]-hwelc_ (each), _[=ae][.g]ther_ = _[=ae][.g]-hwaether_ (either).

be-, originally 'by,' 'around' (cp. the preposition _be_), (1) specializes the meaning of a transitive verb, as in _be.s[e,]ttan_ (beset, surround), _be.s[.c]ieran_ (shear); (2) makes an intransitive verb transitive, as in _be.th[e,]n[.c]an_ (consider) from _th[e,]n[.c]an_ (think); (3) gives a privative meaning, as in _be.h[=e]afdian_ (behead). In some words, such as _be.cuman_ (come), it is practically unmeaning. {37}

for- (which is distinct from the preposition _for_) generally has the sense of 'loss' or 'destruction,' as in _for.d[=o]n_ (destroy), _for.weorthan_ (perish). Of course, if the verb with which it is compounded already has this meaning, it acts merely as an intensitive, as in _for.br[=e]otan_ (break up, break), _for.scrincan_ (shrink up). It also modifies in a bad sense generally, as in _for.s[=e]on_ (despise), or negatives, as in _for.b[=e]odan_ (forbid).

[.g]e- originally meant 'together,' as in _[.g]e.f[=e]ra_ (fellow-traveller, companion) from _f[=e]ran_ (travel). With verbs it often signifies 'completion,' 'attainment,' and hence 'success,' as in _[.g]e.g[=a]n_ (conquer), originally 'go over,' or 'reach,' _[.g]e.winnan_ (win) from _winnan_ (fight). Hence generally prefixed to _h[=i]eran_ and _s[=e]on_, _[.g]e.h[=i]eran_ and _[.g]e.s[=e]on_ strictly meaning 'succeed in hearing, seeing.' It is generally prefixed to past participles (p. 23), where it originally gave the meaning of completion--_[.g]e.lufod_ = 'completely loved.'

mis- = 'mis,' as in _mis-d[=ae]d_ (misdeed).

n- = _ne_ (not), as in _n[=a]_ (not), literally 'never,' _n[=ae]fre_ (never), _naes_ (was not) = _ne waes_.

on- as a verbal prefix has nothing to do with the preposition _on_. It properly signifies 'separation,' as in _on.l[=u]can_ (open) from _l[=u]can_ (lock, close), but is often practically unmeaning, as in _on.[.g]innan_ (begin).

or-, literally 'out of,' is privative, as in _orsorg_ (unconcerned) from _sorg_ (sorrow).

t[=o]- as a verbal prefix has nothing to do with the preposition _t[=o]_ (which occurs in _t[=o].gaedre_, 'together,' &c.), but signifies 'separation,' as in _t[=o].berstan_ (burst asunder), _t[=o].bre[.g]dan_ (shake off), and hence 'destruction,' as in _t[=o].cw[=i]esan_ (crush to pieces, bruise).

un- negatives, as in _un-[.g]es[=ae]li[.g]_ (unhappy). {38}

ENDINGS.

(_a_) NOUNS.

_Personal._

-end, from the present participle _-ende_, = '-er':--_H[=ae]lend_ (healer, Saviour), _b[=u]end_ (dweller).

-ere = '-er':--_s[=a]were_ (sower), _mynetere_ (money-changer, minter) from _mynet_ (coin).

-ing, patronymic, _aetheling_ (son of a noble, prince) from _aethele_ (noble).

_Abstract._

-nes, fem. from adjectives:--_g[=o]d-nes_ (goodness), _rihtw[=i]snes_ (righteousness).

-uth, -tho, fem., generally from adjectives:--_[.g][=e]oguth_ (youth), _str[e,]n[.g]tho_ (strength) from _strang_.

-ung, fem. from verbs:--_scotung_ (shooting, shot), _h[e,]rgung_ (ravaging), from _scotian_, _h[e,]rgian_.

The following are also independent words:--

-d[=o]m, masc.:--_w[=i]s-d[=o]m_ (wisdom), _th[=e]ow-d[=o]m_ (servitude).

-h[=a]d, masc.:--_[.c]ild-h[=a]d_ (childhood).

-r[=ae]den, fem.:--_[.g]e.cwid-r[=ae]den_ (agreement) from _cwide_ (speech); _mann-r[=ae]den_ (allegiance).

-s[.c]ipe, masc.:--_fr[=e]ond-s[.c]ipe_ (friendship). Concrete in _waeter-s[.c]ipe_ (piece of water, water).

(_b_) ADJECTIVES.

-en, with mutation, denotes 'material,' 'belonging to':--_gylden_ (golden), _st[=ae]nen_ (of stone), _h[=ae]then_ (heathen) from _h[=ae]th_ (heath). In _seolcen_ (silken) there is no mutation.

-feald = '-fold':--_hund-feald_ (hundred-fold).

-i[.g]:--_miht-i[.g]_ (mighty); _h[=a]l-i[.g]_ (holy) from _h[=a]l_ (whole). {39}

-isc, with mutation:--_[E,]n[.g]lisc_ (English) from _Angel_; _m[e,]nn-isc_ (human) from _mann_.

-ol:--_swic-ol_ (deceitful).

-iht, with mutation, denotes 'material,' 'nature':--_st[=ae]n-iht_ (stony).

-sum = 'some':--_h[=i]er-sum_ (obedient).

The following exist (sometimes in a different form) as independent words:--

-faest:--_s[=o]th-faest_ (truthful).

-full:--_sorg-full_ (sorrowful), _[.g]e.l[=e]af-full_ (believing, pious).

-l[=e]as = '-less':--_[=a]r-l[=e]as_ (dishonoured, wicked).

-lic (cp. _[.g]e.l[=i]c_) = '-ly':--_folc-lic_ (popular), _heofon-lic_ (heavenly).

-weard = '-ward':--_s[=u]than-weard_ (southward).

VERBS.

-l[=ae][.c]an:--_[=a]n-l[=ae][.c]an_ (unite), _[.g]e.thw[=ae]r-l[=ae][.c]an_ (agree).

ADVERBS.

-e, the regular adverb-termination:--_lange_ (long), _[.g]e.l[=i]ce_ (similarly) from _lang_, _[.g]e.l[=i]c_. Sometimes _-l[=i]ce_ (from _-lic_) is used to form adverbs, as _bl[=i]the-l[=i]ce_ (gladly) from _bl[=i]the_.

DERIVATIONS FROM PARTICIPLES.

Many abstract words are formed from present participles (often in a passive sense) and past participles (often in an active sense):--

-nes:--_for.[.g]iefen-nes_ (forgiveness), _[.g]e.r[e,][.c]ed-nes_ (narrative), _welwillend-nes_ (benevolence).

-lic:--_un[=a]r[=i]med-lic_ (innumerable).

-l[=i]ce:--_welwillend-l[=i]ce_ (benevolently).

* * * * * {40}

SYNTAX.

GENDER.

When masculine and feminine beings are referred to by the same adjective or pronoun, the adjective or pronoun is put in the neuter:--_h[=i]e [.g]e.samnodon h[=i]e_, _ealle th[=a] h[=e]afod-m[e,]nn, and [=e]ac swelce w[=i]f-menn_ ... _and th[=a] h[=i]e bl[=i]thost w[=ae]ron_ ... (they gathered themselves, all the chief men, and also women ... and when they were most merry ...). Here _bl[=i]thost_ is in the neuter plur.

CASES.

Accusative. Some verbs of asking (a question) and requesting, together with _l[=ae]ran_ (teach), take two accusatives, one of the person, and another of the thing:--_h[=i]e hine ne dorston [=ae]ni[.g] thing [=a]scian_ (they durst not ask him anything); _w[=e] magon [=e]ow r[=ae]d [.g]e.l[=ae]ran_ (we can teach you a plan).

The accusative is used adverbially to express duration of time: _hw[=y] stande [.g][=e] h[=e]r ealne dae[.g] [=i]dle?_ (why stand ye here all the day idle?)

Dative. The dative in Old E. is of two kinds, (1) the dative proper, and (2) the instrumental dative, interchanging with the regular instrumental. It is not always easy to separate the two.

(1) The dative proper usually designates personal relations, and is frequently used with verbs, together with an accusative (generally of the thing). The dative is also used with adjectives. It is used not only with verbs of _giving_, &c., as in _h[=e] sealde [=ae]lcum [=a]nne p[e,]ning_ (he gave each a penny); _addressing_, as in _ic [=e]ow s[e,][.c][.g]e_ (I say to you), _h[=e] thancode his Dryhtne_ (he thanked his Lord); but also with many verbs of _benefiting_, _influencing_, &c., as in _ne d[=o] ic th[=e] n[=a]nne t[=e]onan_ (I do thee no injury), _h[=i]e noldon him l[=i]efan_ (they would not allow {41} them to do so); _th[=ae]m r[=e]thum st[=i]erde_ (restrained the cruel ones). Also in looser constructions, to denote the person indirectly affected, benefited, &c., as in _by[.c][.g]ath [=e]ow ele_ (buy for yourselves oil). Note especially the following idiom: _h[=i]e [.g]e.s[=o]hton Bretene Brettum t[=o] fultume_ (they came to Britain as a help to the Britains--to help them); _h[=e] clipode Cr[=i]st him t[=o] fultume_ (he called Christ to his help).

The dative is also used with adjectives of _nearness_, _likeness_, &c.:--_[=E]admund cyning clipode [=a]nne biscop the him [.g]e.h[e,]ndost waes_ (King Edmund summoned a bishop who was nearest at hand to him); _heofona r[=i][.c]e is [.g]e.l[=i]c th[=ae]m mangere the s[=o]hte thaet g[=o]de m[e,]regrot_ (the kingdom of the heavens is like the merchant who sought the good pearl).

(2) The instrumental dative is used to denote the _instrument_ and _manner_ of an action: _h[=e] [.g]e.[e,]ndode yflum d[=e]athe_ (he ended with an evil death). Hence its use to form adverbs, as in _s[.c][=e]afm[=ae]lum_ (sheafwise). It also signifies time when:--_thrim [.g][=e]arum [=ae]r th[=ae]m the h[=e] forth.f[=e]rde_ (three years before he died), which is also expressed by the instrumental itself:--_s[=e]o wolde [e,]fsian [=ae]lce [.g][=e]are thone sanct_ (she used to cut the saint's hair every year); _th[=y] f[=e]orthan [.g][=e]are his r[=i][.c]es_ (in the fourth year of his reign). A past participle with a noun in the instrumental dative is used like the ablative absolute in Latin: _Hubba be.l[=a]f on Northhymbra-lande, [.g]e.wunnenum si[.g]e mid waelhr[=e]ownesse_ (H. remained in Northumbria, victory having been won with cruelty).

Genitive. The genitive is often used in a partitive sense:--_his f[=e]onda sum_ (one of his enemies); _hiera f[=i]f w[=ae]ron dysi[.g]e_ (five of them were foolish). Hence it is generally used with _fela_, as in _fela wundra_ (many miracles); also with numerals when used as substantives (p. 18).

The genitive is often used like an accusative to denote the object of various emotions and mental states, such as {42} _joy_, _desire_, _remembering_:--_h[=i]e thaes fae[.g]nodon sw[=i]the_ (they rejoiced at it greatly); _m[=e] l[=e]ofre w[=ae]re thaet ic on [.g]e.feohte f[=e]olle with th[=ae]m the m[=i]n folc m[=o]ste hiera eardes br[=u]can_ (it would be pleasanter to me to fall in fight that my people might enjoy (possess) their country); _ic thaes [.g]e.wilni[.g]e_ (I desire that); _[.g]if h[=e] his f[=e]ores r[=o]hte_ (if he cared about his life); _h[=e] waes thaes H[=ae]lendes [.g]e.myndi[.g]_ (he was mindful of--he remembered the Saviour).

Some of these verbs, such as _biddan_ (ask), take an accusative of the person and a genitive of the thing:--_h[=e] hine hl[=a]fes bitt_ (he asks him for bread).

Verbs of _depriving_, _restraining_, &c., have the same construction:--_nis Angel-cynn be.d[=ae]led Dryhtnes h[=a]lgena_ (England is not deprived of the Lord's saints).

Some verbs of _giving_, &c., take a genitive of the thing and a dative of the person:--_him waes of.togen [=ae]lces f[=o]dan_ (they were deprived of all food).

The genitive is often used to _define_ an adjective or noun:--_th[=u] eart wierthe sl[e,][.g]es_ (thou art worthy of death); _on th[=ae]m [.g][=e]are the Aelfred aetheling [=a]n and tw[e,]nti[.g] [.g][=e]ara waes_ (in the year when Prince Alfred was twenty-one).

CONCORD.

Adjectives agree with their nouns not only when used attributively (g[=o]de m[e,]nn), but also when the adjective follows the noun, either predicatively or in apposition:--_th[=a] m[e,]nn sind g[=o]de_; _h[=e] [.g]e.seah [=o]thre [=i]dle standan_ (he saw others standing idle); _h[=i]e c[=o]mon mid langum s[.c]ipum, n[=a] manigum_ (they came with long ships, not many).

APPOSITION.

In such expressions as 'the island of Britain,' the second noun is not put in the genitive, but the two are simply put in {43} apposition, both being declined separately:--_Breten [=i]e[.g]land, on Bretene (th[=ae]m) [=i]e[.g]lande_. In 'king Alfred,' &c., the proper name is put first in the same way:--_Aelfred aetheling_ (prince Alfred); _on Aethelredes cyninges dae[.g]e_ (in the days of king Aethelred).

There is a similar apposition with the adjective _sum_ followed by a noun or pronoun, as in _sume th[=a] m[e,]nn_ (some of the men); _th[=a] th[=a] h[=e] s[=e]ow, sumu h[=i]e f[=e]ollon with we[.g]_ (while he sowed, some of them [the seeds] fell by the road). Sometimes the pronoun precedes, as in _th[=a] b[=ae]don h[=i]e sume thaet Samson m[=o]ste him macian sum gamen_ (then some of them asked that Samson might make some sport for them).

Another kind of apposition occurs in instances like the following, where we have an adjective agreeing with a following noun, and denoting a part of it:--_h[=i]e [.g]e.s[=ae]ton s[=u]thanwearde Bretene [=ae]rest_ (they occupied the south of Britain first); _s[=u]thanweard hit_ (= thaet land) _haefdon Peohtas_ (the Picts had the south part of it).

ADJECTIVES.

The weak forms are used:

(1) after the definite article:--_se aethela cyning_ (the noble king); _thaes aethelan cyninges_, _thaet g[=o]de m[e,]regrot_, _th[=a] g[=o]dan m[e,]regrotu_.

(2) after _this_:--_th[=a]s earman landl[=e]ode_ (these poor people, _pl._); _thes h[=a]lga cyning_ (this holy king), _thisses h[=a]lgan cyninges_.

(3) occasionally after other demonstrative and indefinite adjectives, and often after possessive pronouns:--_th[=i]ne d[=i]eglan gold-hordas_ (thy hidden treasures).

(4) in the vocative:--_th[=u] yfla th[=e]ow and sl[=a]wa!_ (thou bad and slothful servant); _[=e]al[=a] th[=u] l[=e]ofa cyning!_ (oh, thou dear king).

Note that _[=o]ther_ always keeps the strong form: _th[=a] [=o]thru d[=e]or_ (the other wild beasts). So also do the possessive pronouns: {44} _th[=a]s m[=i]n word_ (these my words). _[=A]n_ in the sense of 'one' keeps the strong form to distinguish it from the weak _[=a]na_ = 'alone': _thaet [=a]n d[=e]orwierthe m[e,]regrot_ (the one precious pearl).

ARTICLES.

The definite article is omitted as in Modern English before names such as _God_, and also before _Dryhten_ (the Lord), _D[=e]ofol_ (the Devil), although _se D[=e]ofol_ also occurs, and names of nations:--_Bretta cyning_ (king of the Britons).

It is omitted in many prepositional combinations, not only in those where it is omitted in Modern English also, as in _si[.g]efaest on s[=ae] and on lande_ (victorious on sea and on land), but also in many others: _[.g]ew[e,]nde t[=o] wuda on.[.g][=e]an_ (went back to the wood); _se floth[e,]re f[=e]rde eft t[=o] s[.c]ipe_ (the army of pirates went back to their ships); _h[=e] f[=e]ng t[=o] r[=i][.c]e_ (he took the government--came to the throne).

The definite article is, on the other hand, sometimes used where it would not be in Modern E., as in _se mann_ = 'man' (men in general).