Chapter X: The Extension of Voluntary Association (2)

*88. Coöperation in Credit.*--In England building societies are not usually recognized as a form of coöperation, but they are in reality coöperative in the field of credit in the same way as the associations already discussed are in distribution, in production, or in agriculture. Building societies are defined in one of the statutes as bodies formed "for the purpose of raising by the subscription of the members a stock or fund for making advances to members out of the funds of the society." The general plan of one of these societies is as follows: A number of persons become members, each taking one or more shares. Each shareholder is required to pay into the treasury a certain sum each month. There is thus created each month a new capital sum which can be loaned to some member who may wish to borrow it and be able and willing to give security and to pay interest. The borrower will afterward have to pay not only his monthly dues, but the interest on his loan. The proportionate amount of the interest received is credited to each member, borrower and non-borrower alike, so that after a certain number of months, by the receipts from dues and interest, the borrower will have repaid his loan, whilst the members who have not borrowed will receive a corresponding sum in cash. Borrowers and lenders are thus the same group of persons, just as sellers and consumers are in distributive, and employers and employees in productive coöperation. The members of such societies are enabled to obtain loans when otherwise they might not be able to; the periodical dues create a succession of small amounts to be loaned, when otherwise this class of persons could hardly save up a sufficient sum to be used as capital; and finally by paying the interest to their collective group, so that a proportionate part of it is returned to the borrower, and by the continuance of the payment of dues, the repayment of the loan is less of a burden than in ordinary loans obtained from a bank or a capitalist. Loans to their members have been usually restricted to money to be used for the building of a dwelling-house or store or the purchase of land; whence their name of "building societies." Their formation dates from 1815, their extension, from about 1834. The principal laws authorizing and regulating their operations were passed in 1836, 1874, and 1894. The total number of building societies in England to-day is estimated at about 3000, their membership at about 600,000 members with £52,000,000 of funds. The history of these societies has been marked by a large number of failures, and they have lacked the moral elevation of the coöperative movement in its other phases. The codifying act of 1894 established a minute oversight and control over these societies on the part of the government authorities while at the same time it extended their powers and privileges.

The one feature common to all forms of coöperation is the union of previously competing economic classes. In a coöperative store, competition between buyer and seller does not exist; and the same is true for borrower and lender in a building and loan association and for employer and employee in a coöperative factory. Coöperation is therefore in line with other recent movements in being a reaction from competition.

*89. Profit Sharing.*--There is a device which has been introduced into many establishments which stands midway between simple competitive relations and full coöperation. It diminishes, though it does not remove, the opposition between employer and employee. This is "*profit sharing.*" In the year 1865 Henry Briggs, Son and Co., operators of collieries in Yorkshire, after long and disastrous conflicts with the miners' trade unions, offered as a measure of conciliation to their employees that whenever the net profit of the business should be more than ten per cent on their investment, one-half of all such surplus profit should be divided among the workmen in proportion to the wages they had earned in the previous year. The expectation was that the increased interest and effort and devotion put into the work by the men would be such as to make the total earnings of the employers greater, notwithstanding their sacrifice to the men of the half of the profits above ten per cent. This anticipation was justified. After a short period of suspicion on the part of the men, and doubt on the part of the employers, both parties seemed to be converted to the advantages of profit sharing, a sanguine report of their experience was made by a member of the firm to the Social Science Association in 1868, sums between one and six thousand pounds were divided yearly among the employees, while the percentage of profits to the owners rose to as much as eighteen per cent. This experiment split on the rock of dissension in 1875, but in the meantime others, either in imitation of their plan or independently, had introduced the same or other forms of profit sharing. Another colliery, two iron works, a textile factory, a millinery firm, a printing shop, and some others admitted their employees to a share in the profits within the years 1865 and 1866. The same plan was then introduced into certain retail stores, and into a considerable variety of occupations, including several large farms where a share of all profits was offered to the laborers as a "bonus" in addition to their wages. The results were very various, ranging all the way from the most extraordinary success to complete and discouraging failure. Up to 1897 about 170 establishments had introduced some form of profit sharing, 75 of which had subsequently given it up, or had gone out of business. In that year, however, the plan was still in practice in almost a hundred concerns, in some being almost twenty years old.

A great many other employers, corporate or individual, provide laborers' dwellings at favorable rents, furnish meals at cost price, subsidize insurance funds, offer easy means of becoming shareholders in their firms, support reading rooms, music halls, and gymnasiums, or take other means of admitting their employees to advantages other than the simple receipt of competitive wages. But, after all, the entire control of capital and management in the case of firms which share profits with their employees remains in the hands of the employers, so that there is in these cases an enlightened fulfilment of the obligations of the employing class rather than a combination of two classes in one.

With the exception of profit sharing, however, all the economic and social movements described in this chapter are as truly collective and as distinctly opposed to individualism, voluntary though they may be, as are the various forms of control exercised by government, described in the preceding chapter. In as far as men have combined in trade unions, in business trusts, in coöperative organizations, they have chosen to seek their prosperity and advantage in united, collective action, rather than in unrestricted individual freedom. And in as far as such organizations have been legalized, regulated by government, and encouraged by public opinion, the confidence of the community at large has been shown to rest rather in associative than in competitive action. Therefore, whether we look at the rapidly extending sphere of government control and service, or at the spread of voluntary combinations which restrict individual liberty, it is evident that the tendencies of social development at the close of the nineteenth century are as strongly toward association and regulation as they were at its beginning toward individualism and freedom from all control.

*90. Socialism.*--All of these changes are departures from the purely competitive ideal of society. Together they constitute a distinct movement toward a quite different ideal of society--that which is described as socialistic. Socialism in this sense means the adoption of measures directed to the general advantage, even though they diminish individual freedom and restrict enterprise. It is the tendency to consider the general good first, and to limit individual rights or introduce collective action wherever this will subserve the general good.

Socialism thus understood, the process of limiting private action and introducing public control, has gone very far, as has been seen in this and the preceding chapter. How far it is destined to extend, to what fields of industry collective action is to be applied, and which fields are to be left to individual action can only be seen as time goes on. Many further changes in the same direction have been advocated in Parliament and other public bodies in recent years and failed of being agreed to by very small majorities only. It seems almost certain from the progress of opinion that further socialistic measures will be adopted within the near future. The views of those who approve this socialistic tendency and would extend it still further are well indicated in the following expressions used in the minority report of the Royal Commission on Labor of 1895. "The whole force of democratic statesmanship must, in our opinion, henceforth be directed to the substitution as fast as possible of public for capitalist enterprise, and where the substitution is not yet practicable, to the strict and detailed regulation of all industrial operations so as to secure to every worker the conditions of efficient citizenship."

There is a somewhat different use of the word socialism, according to which it means the deliberate adoption of such an organization of society as will rid it of competition altogether. This is a complete social and philosophic ideal, involving the consistent reorganization of all society, and is very different from the mere socialistic tendency described above. In the early part of the century, Robert Owen developed a philosophy which led him to labor for the introduction of communities in which competition should be entirely superseded by joint action. He had many adherents then, and others since have held similar views. There has, indeed, been a series of more or less short-lived attempts to found societies or communities on this socialistic basis. Apart from these efforts, however, socialism in this sense belongs to the history of thought or philosophic speculation, not of actual economic and social development. Professed socialists, represented by the Fabyan Society, the Socialist League, the Social Democratic Federation, and other bodies, are engaged in the spread of socialistic doctrines and the encouragement of all movements of associative, anti-individualistic character rather than in efforts to introduce immediate practical socialism.

*91. BIBLIOGRAPHY*

Webb, Sidney and Beatrice: _The History of Trade Unionism_. This excellent history contains, as an Appendix, an extremely detailed bibliography on its own subject and others closely allied to it.

Howell, George: _Conflicts of Labor and Capital_.

Rousiers, P. de: _The Labour Question in Britain_.

Holyoake, G. I.: _History of Coöperation_, two volumes. This is the classical work on the subject, but its plan is so confused, its style so turgid, and its information so scattered, that, however amusing it may be, it is more interesting and valuable as a history of the period than as a clear account of the movement for which it is named. Mr. Holyoake has written two other books on the same subject: _A History of the Rochdale Pioneers_ and _The Coöperative Movement of To-day_.

Pizzamiglio, L.: _Distributing Coöperative Societies_.

Jones, Benjamin: _Coöperative Production_.

Gilman, N. P.: _Profit Sharing between Employer and Employee_; and _A Dividend to Labor_.

Webb, Sidney and Beatrice: _Problems of Modern Industry_.

Verhaegen, P.: _Socialistes Anglais_.

A series of small modern volumes known as the Social Science Series, most of which deal with various phases of the subject of this chapter, is published by Swan, Sonnenschein and Co., London, and the list of its eighty or more numbers gives a characteristic view of recent writing on the subject, as well as further references.

INDEX

Acres, 33.
Adventurers, 164.
Agincourt, 97.
Agricultural Children's Act, 262.
Agricultural Gangs Act, 262.
Agricultural Holdings Acts, 268.
Alderman, 63.
Ale-taster, 49.
Alfred, 13.
Alien immigrants, 90.
Allotments and Small Holdings Association, 269.
Amalgamated Society of Engineers, 290.
Angevin period, 22.
Anti-Corn Law League, 231.
Apprentice, 65.
Apprentice houses, 246.
Apprentices, Statute of, 156, 228.
Arkwright, Sir Richard, 209.
Armada, 141.
Army and navy stores, 299.
Arras, 81, 87.
Ashley, Lord, 254.
Assize of Bread and Beer, 68, 228.
Assize, rents of, 41, 49.

Bailiff, 40, 141.
Balk, 35.
Ball, John, 112.
Bank of England, 194.
Barbary Company, 166.
Bardi, 91.
Berkhamstead Common, 264.
Beverly, 71.
Birmingham, 189.
Black Death, 99.
Blackheath, 115.
Bolton, 189.
Boon-works, 41.
Boston, 76.
Bridgewater Canal, 216.
Bristol, 80, 148, 162.
Britons, 4.
Bryan, Chief-Justice, 143.
Building Societies, 306.
Burgage Tenure, 59.
Burgesses, 59.

Calais, 89, 97.
Cambridge, 117.
Canterbury, 11, 115.
Canynges, William, 162.
Carding, 205, 210.
_Carta Mercatoria_, 81.
Cartwright, Edmund, 210.
Cavendish, John, 117.
Chaucer, 98.
Chester, 70.
Chevage, 44.
Children's Half-time Act, 255.
Children's labor, 237, 246.
Church, organization of the, 11.
Civil Service Supply Association, 299.
Climate, 2.
Clothiers, 153.
Coal, 3, 214.
Coal mines, labor in, 257.
Cobden, Richard, 231.
Cologne, 80.
Colonies, 178, 190.
Combination Acts, 279.
Combinations, legalization of, 282.
Commerce, 81, 134, 161, 189.
Common employment, doctrine of, 261.
Commons, 37, 263.
Commons Preservation Society, 264.
Commutation of services, 125.
Competition, 226, 233, 311.
Coöperation in credit, 306.
Coöperation in distribution, 295.
Coöperation in farming, 302.
Coöperation in production, 300.
Coöperative congresses, 305.
Coöperative legislation, 303.
Copyholders, 143.
Corn Laws, 185, 223, 230.
Corpus Christi day, 70.
Cotters, 40.
Cotton gin, 211.
Cotton manufacture, 188, 203.
County councils, 243.
Court of Assistants, 150.
Court rolls, 46.
Coventry, 70, 148.
Craft gilds, 64, 147.
Crafts, 64, 147.
Crafts, combination of, 160.
Crécy, 97.
Crompton, Samuel, 210.
Cromwell, 179.
_Cry of the Children_, 251.
Currency, 169.
Customary tenants, 41, 143.

Danes, 12.
Dartford, 115.
Davy, Sir Humphry, 215.
Dean, 63.
Decaying of towns, 144, 154.
Demesne farming, abandonment of, 128, 141.
Demesne lands, 39, 104, 131.
Dockers' strike, 287.
Domesday Book, 18, 29.
Domestic system, 153, 185, 188, 220.
Drapers, 149, 161.
Droitwich, 155.

Eastern trade, 84, 164.
East India Company, 166, 190.
Employer's Liability Acts, 260.
Enclosure commissioners, 218, 263.
Enclosures, 141, 216.
Engrossers, 68.
Epping Forest, 266.
_Essay on Population_, 232.
Essex, 114.
Evesham, 155.

Fabyan Society, 311.
Factory Acts, 244.
Factory and Workshop Consolidation Act, 258.
Factory system, 212.
Fairs, 75.
Farmers, 129, 144.
Federation of trade unions, 289.
Fens, 184.
Feudalism, 20.
Finance, 169, 193.
Flanders, 163.
Flanders fleet, 86, 167.
Flanders trade, 87, 168.
Flemish artisans in England, 94, 116.
Flemish Hanse of London, 88.
Florence, 90, 168.
Forestallers, 68.
Foreign artisans in England, 94.
Foreign trade, 81, 134, 161, 189, 203, 230.
Forty-shilling freeholders, 241.
Frank pledge, 46.
Fraternities, 62, 71.
Freeholders, 41, 124, 241.
Free-tenants, 41.
Free trade in land, 231.
French Revolution, 200.
Fugitive villains, 59, 130.
Fulling mills, 229.
Furlong, 34.

Gascony, 90, 94, 169.
Geography of England, 1.
Ghent, 87.
Gildhall, 69, 92.
Gild merchant, 59.
Gilds, craft, 64.
Gilds, non-industrial, 71.
Government policy toward gilds, 65, 154.
Greater Companies of London, 153.
Grocyn, 136.
Groningen, 166.
Guienne, 90, 169.
Guinea Company, 166.

Hales, Robert, 116.
Hamburg, 89, 166, 230.
Hamlet, 31.
Hand-loom weavers, 188, 203, 220.
Hanseatic League, 89, 163.
Hanse trade, 89, 167.
Hargreaves, James, 207.
Health and Morals Act, 247.
Heriot, 41.
Hospitallers, 91, 116.
Hostage, 81.
Houses of the Working Classes Act, 271.
Huguenots, 185.
Hull, 160.
Hundred Years' War, 96.

Iceland, 168.
Individualism, 232.
Industrial revolution, 213.
Insular situation of England, 2.
Insurance, 196.
_Intercursus Magnus_, 168.
Interest, 171.
Ireland, conquest of, 24.
Irish union, 203.
Iron, 3, 214.
Italian trade, 84, 164, 167.
Italians in England, 90.

Jack Straw, 116.
Jews, 59, 91.
John of Gaunt, 114.
Journeymen, 66, 147.
Journeymen gilds, 148.

Kay, 206.
Kempe, John, 94.
Kent, 9, 114.
Kidderminster, 155.

Laborers, Statutes of, 106.
Laissez-faire, 224, 228.
Land, reclamation of, 6.
Latimer, Hugh, 145.
Law merchant, 78.
Law of wages, 226.
Lawyers, hostility to, 124.
Lead, 3, 83, 88.
Leather, 83, 88.
Leeds, 189.
Leet, 46.
Leicester, 62, 79.
Lesser Companies of London, 151.
Levant Company, 166.
Leyr, 44.
Lister, Geoffrey, 117.
Livery Companies, 149.
Location of industries, change of, 151.
Lollards, 98, 111.
London, 149.
Lord of manor, 39, 103, 125, 143.
Lubeck, 89.
Lynn, 93.
Lyons, Richard, 117.

Macadam, 215.
_Magna Carta_, 26.
Malthus, 232.
Manchester, 189, 247, 284.
Manor, 31.
Manor-courts, 123, 141.
Manor-house, 31, 123.
Manufacturing towns, 189, 238.
Manumissions, 120, 129.
Markets, 75.
Market towns, 75.
Masters, 65.
Mechanical inventions, 203.
Mercers, 147, 150, 166.
Merchant gilds, 59.
Merchants adventurers, 164.
Merchet, 44.
Methuen Treaty, 190.
Mile End, 120.
Mill-hands, 213, 221.
Misteries, 64.
Monopolies, 187.
More, Sir Thomas, 145.
Morocco Company, 166.
Morrowspeche, 63.
Mule spinning, 210.
Muscovy Company, 166.
Mushold Heath, 117.
Mutiny Act, 182.
Mystery plays, 70.

Napoleon, 200.
National debt, 196.
Native commerce, 161.
_Nativus_, 43.
Navigation laws, 169, 189, 192, 229.
Newcastle-on-Tyne, 164.
Non-industrial gilds, 71.
Norman Conquest, 15.
Norway, 163.
Norwich, 117.
Novgorod, 163.

Open-fields, 33, 142, 217.
Origin of the manor, 55.
Owen, Robert, 248, 311.
Oxford, 102, 147.

Pageants, 159.
Parcels post, 275.
Parish councils, 243, 269.
Parliament, foundation of, 26.
Paternal government, 173.
Peasant proprietorship, 270.
Peasants' rebellion, 111.
Peel, Sir Robert (the elder), 247.
Peel, Sir Robert (the younger), 230.
Peruzzi, 91.
Pie Powder Courts, 78.
Pilgrimage of Grace, 146.
Plymouth Company, 190.
Poitiers, 97.
Poll tax, 113.
Poor Priests, 112.
Portugal, 83, 190.
Post-office Savings Bank, 274.
Power-loom, 210.
Prehistoric Britain, 4.
Private Enclosure Acts, 217.
Privy Council, 138.
Profit-sharing, 307.
Puritans, 140, 178.

Railway Regulation Act, 260.
Reaper, 49.
Reeve, 40.
Reformation, 138.
Reform of Parliament, 241.
Regrators, 68.
Regulated Companies, 174.
Relief, 21, 41.
Religious gilds, 71, 158.
Rents of Assize, 41.
Reorganized Companies, 187.
Restoration, 180.
Revolution, Industrial, 213.
Revolution of 1688, 181.
Ricardo, David, 226.
Rochdale Pioneers, 296.
Rochdale plan, 296.
Romans in Britain, 5.
Roses, Wars of the, 99.
Russia Company, 166.
_Rusticus_, 43.

St. Albans, 118.
St. Edmund's Abbey, 117.
St. Helen of Beverly, 71.
St. Ives' Fair, 76, 79.
Sale of Food and Drugs Act, 273.
Savoy Palace, 116.
Saxon invasion, 8.
Scattered strips, 38.
Scotland, contest with, 24.
Serfdom, 43, 120, 124.
Serfdom, decay of, 129.
_Servus_, 43.
Sheep-raising, 142.
Sheffield, 189, 284.
Shop Hours Act, 260.
Shrewsbury, 147.
Skevin, 63.
Sliding scale, 231.
Small Dwellings Acquisition Act, 272.
Small holdings, 269.
Smith, Adam, 224.
Smithfield, 121.
Social Democratic Federation, 311.
Social gilds, 71, 158.
Socialism, 310.
Socialist League, 311.
Sources, 54.
Southampton, 61.
South Sea Bubble, 195.
Spain, 82, 168.
Spencer, Henry de, 122.
Spices, 84.
Spinning, 205.
Spinning-jenny, 207.
Stade, 166.
Staple, 87.
Statute of Apprentices, 156, 228.
Statutes of Laborers, 106.
Steelyard, 92, 167.
Sterling, 89.
Steward, 40, 46.
Stourbridge Fair, 76.
Sturmys, 162.
Sudbury, 116.
Sweating, 260.

Tallage, 44.
Taverner, John, 162.
Taxation, 194.
Telegraph, government, 273.
Telephone, government, 273.
Telford, 215.
Temple Bar, 116.
Ten-hour Act, 256.
Three-field system, 36.
Tin, 3, 83, 88, 91, 93.
Tolls, 57, 78, 82.
Town government, 57.
Towns, 57, 79, 154.
Trade combinations, 294.
Trade routes, 84.
Trade unions, 279.
Trades councils, 289.
Transportation, 214.
Trusts, 294.
Turkey Company, 166.

Ulster, Plantation of, 190.
Usury, 171.
Utopia, 145.

Venice, 84.
Venturers, 164.
Vill, 31.
Village community, 54.
Villages, 31, 114.
Villain, 40, 111, 125.
Villainage, 130.
_Villanus_, 43.
Virgate, 38.
Virginia Company, 190.
_Vision of Piers Plowman_, 98, 111.

Wages in hand occupations, 220.
Wages, law of, 226.
Wales, conquest of, 24.
Walloons, 185.
Walworth, Sir William, 121.
Wardens, 69, 161.
Watt, James, 212.
Wat Tyler, 116, 121.
_Wealth of Nations_, 225.
Weavers, 65, 152, 188.
Weaving, 205.
Week-work, 42.
Whitney, Eli, 211.
Wholesale Coöperative Society, 299.
Wilburton, 128.
Wimbledon Common, 264.
Winchester Fair, 76.
Wolsey, Cardinal, 145.
Women's labor, 237.
Woodkirk, 70.
Wool, 83, 87, 142, 205, 210, 216.
Worcester, 155.
Wycliffe, 97.

Yeomen, 129, 221, 237.
Yeomen gilds, 148.
York, 65, 70.
Young, Arthur, 225.
Ypres, 87.

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* * * * *

A HISTORY OF GREECE

For High Schools and Academies

By *GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD*, Ph.D.

_Instructor in the History of Greece and Rome in Harvard University_

8vo. Half Leather. $1.10

"Dr. Botsford's 'History of Greece' has the conspicuous merits which only a text-book can possess which is written by a master of the original sources. Indeed, the use of the text of Homer, Herodotus, the dramatists, and the other contemporary writers is very effective, and very suggestive as to the right method of teaching and study. The style is delightful. For simple, unpretentious narrative and elegant English the book is a model. In my judgment, the work is far superior to any other text-book for high school or academic use which has yet appeared. Its value is enriched by the illustrations, as also by the reference lists and the suggestive studies. It will greatly aid in the new movement to encourage modern scientific method in the teaching of history in the secondary schools of the country. It will be adopted by Stanford as the basis of entrance requirements in Grecian history."

--Professor George Elliot Howard, _Stanford University_, Cal.

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SELECT CHARTERS AND OTHER DOCUMENTS

Illustrative of American History, 1606-1775

Edited by *WILLIAM MacDONALD*, Professor of History in Bowdoin College. Cloth. 8vo. _$2.00_

"Professor MacDonald shows good judgment in his selections, and his book should materially assist the teaching of American history ... it will be a great convenience everywhere."--_The Nation._

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Illustrative of the History of the United States, 1776-1861

Edited by *WILLIAM MacDONALD*, Editor of "Select Charters," etc. Cloth. 8vo. $2.25

"An exceptionally valuable book to students of American history, and, indeed, to all persons who care to discuss our present problems in their historical bearings.... It is an invaluable book for every reference library."--_The Outlook._

A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FOR BEGINNERS

For use in Elementary Schools. By *W. B. POWELL, A.M.*, Superintendent of Public Schools, Washington, D.C. Cloth. 12mo. 65 cents

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